INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Biology is a science of life. The word science comes from a Latin word scientia,
meaning "knowledge".

Zoology (also known as animal science) is the branch of biology devoted to the
study of animal life. It covers areas ranging from the structure of organisms to
the subcellular unit of life. Some zoologists are interested in the biology of
particular groups of animals. Others are concerned with the structure and
function of animal bodies. Still others study how new animals are formed and
how their characteristics are passed on from one generation to another.
Zoologists study the interactions of animals with one another and their
environments, as well as the significance of the behavior of animals.

Zoology is both descriptive and analytical. It can be approached either as a basic

science or as an applied science. Zoology today is as diverse as the animal
kingdom it studies, broadening its range to include such fields as genetics and
biochemistry. It now is considered an interdisciplinary field that applies a great
variety of techniques to obtain knowledge of the animal kingdom. For instance,
the genetic study of DNA from various animals can provide insights into their
evolutionary history.

SUBDISCIPLINES OF ZOOLOGY
Subdisciplines that concentrate on specific divisions of animal life:
Entomology: the study of insects and their relationship to humans, the
environment, and other organisms. Human health, local and global economies.
Herpetology: Concerned with the study of Amphibians and Reptiles
Ichthyology: The study of fish, including bony fish, cartilaginous fish, and
jawless fish.
Invertebrate Zoology: Animals without backbone
Malacology: Concerned with the study of Mollusca (soft-bodied animals)
Mammalogy: Mammals
Ornithology: The scientific study of birds. It includes all types of birds. This
field encompasses bird ecology, evolution, physiology, and bird's preferred
habitats.

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INTRODUCTION

Primatology: The study of the behavior, biology, evolution, and taxonomy of

non-human primates.

OTHER SUBDISCIPLINES

Ecology: The study of abundance, biomass, and distribution of organisms in

their environment. It encompasses life processes, interactions, and adaptations;
of materials and energy through living communities. It also deals with
cooperation, competition, and predation within and between species; and
patterns of biodiversity and its effect on ecosystem processes.
Embryology: The study of development of an embryo from the stage of ovum
fertilization through to the fetal stage.
Ethology: The study of animal behavior to give explanations for why animals
behave the way they do in natural environments.
Cytology: concerned with the structure and function of plant and animal cells.
Physiology: The study of mechanisms of living things, from the basis of cell
function at the ionic and molecular level to the integrated behavior of the whole
body and the influence of the external environment. It deals with the functions
of living organisms and their parts.
Sociobiology: Behavior, ecology and evolution of social animals such as bees,
ants, schooling fish, flocking birds and humans.

The Scientific Method

Science is a way of thinking and a method of investigating the natural world in
a systematic manner. By testing ideas, and based on findings, the ideas may be
modified or rejected.
The observations made, the range of questions asked, and the design of
experiments depend on the creativity of the individual scientist.
Scientists make careful observations, ask critical questions, and develop
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for observations or
phenomena. A good hypothesis exhibits the following characteristics: (1) It is
reasonably consistent with well-established facts. (2) It is capable of being
tested; that is, it should generate definite predictions, whether the results are
positive or negative. Test results should also be repeatable by independent
observers. (3) It is falsifiable, which means it can be proven false. That is to
say, if no evidence is found to support it, the hypothesis is rejected.
Briefly, the scientific method involves the following steps:

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INTRODUCTION

1. Make an observation.
2. Ask a question: The question be measurable and answerable through
experimentation.
3. Conduct research: To prepare yourself for the experiment.
4. Form a hypothesis: A educated guess that seeks an answer. It should
include predictions.
5. Conduct experiment: Test your hypothesis by conducting experiment.
6. Analyze obtained data: To determine if/or not they support your
hypothesis.
7. Report a conclusion: Draw a conclusion, If the results do not support your
hypothesis, you can develop a new hypothesis and repeat steps 1 through 5.
If the results do support your hypothesis, it’s time to put the information
and insights together to present your findings to others.

A theory is supported by tested hypotheses

A theory is actually an integrated explanation of some aspects of the natural
world that is based on a number of hypotheses, each is supported by consistent
results from many observations or experiments.
A good theory grows, building on additional facts as they become known.
It predicts new facts and suggests new relationships among phenomena.
A theory that, over a long period, has withstood repeated testing and is almost
universally accepted by scientists is referred to as a scientific principle or law
as the law of gravity.

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INTRODUCTION

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

What is life?
Life is a wonderful natural process that occurs in highly organized dynamic
structures that we call living beings. Today, thanks to the enormous
advance of Biology, we know and understand much better the vital
phenomenon, the molecular biology of the cells, the enormous biodiversity
on our planet, the evolutionary process, and the complexity of ecosystems.
However, despite these enormous advances, biology still lacks a solid
theoretical framework necessary to understand the vital phenomenon and
to answer questions such as what is life.
We can define life in very different ways depending on the context
and the focus we want to give to the definition. For example, we can define
life as the period from birth to death or as the condition that occurs only in
living organisms. We can also say that life is a wonderful and ever-changing
process that occurs in highly organized receptacles that we identify as
living entities. However, with these expressions we are not defining
precisely what life is and therefore we need to create a definition that
concisely but informatively reflects our scientific knowledge of the vital
phenomenon. So, biologists generally agree on the overall characteristics and
common processes that unify all living organisms. All living organisms share
some key characteristics or signs of life which are:

1. Organisms grow and develop

Biological growth involves an increase in the size of cells of an organism,
increasing the number of existing cells (by cell division), increasing the amount
of non-cellular material (such as mineral deposits in bone). Sometimes may
include the increase in both the number and size of cells. Some organisms such
as most trees, for example, continue to grow throughout their lives. Many
animals have a defined growth period that terminates when a characteristic
adult size is reached.
Development refers to all the changes the body goes through in life starting
from the fertilized egg to the adult. It includes the process of differentiation
(unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function).

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

2. Energy processing and metabolism

Within all organisms, chemical reactions and energy transformations occur that
are essential to nutrition, the growth and repair of cells, and the conversion of
energy into usable forms.
All living organisms use energy for their activities. Some capture energy from
the sun; others use energy from molecules they take.
- Metabolism (metabolic pathway) refer to a series of chemical reactions
and energy transformations that takes a starting molecule and modifies it
to yield a final product usually using a catalyst (enzyme). Thousands of
metabolic reactions happen at the same time- all regulated by the body -
to keep our cells healthy and working. A metabolic pathway may be:
Anabolism (anabolic pathway): Building polymers from smaller molecules
(require energy). It supports the growth of new cells, the maintenance of body
tissues, and the storage of energy for future use.
Catabolism (Catabolic pathway): Breaking down polymers into their
monomers (produce energy). Cells break down large molecules (mostly carbs
and fats) to release energy. This provides fuel for anabolism, heats the body,
and enables the muscles to contract and the body to move.

Several hormones of the endocrine system help control the rate and direction of
metabolism. For example, thyroxine, a hormone made and released by the
thyroid gland, plays a key role in determining how fast or slow the chemical
reactions of metabolism go in a person's body.

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

3. Irritability (Sensitivity)

All forms of life respond to stimuli, physical or chemical changes in their

internal or external environment. The simplest type of response is a direct
stimulus-response reaction. A change in the environment is the stimulus; the
reaction of the organism to it is the response. In simple organisms, such
as algae, protozoans, and fungi, a response in which the organism moves
toward or away from the stimulus is called taxis. In larger and more
complicated organisms- those in which response involves the synchronization
and integration of events in different parts of the body- a control mechanism,
or controller, is located between the stimulus and the response (chemical by
hormones and nervous control).
Responding to stimuli involves movement, though not always
locomotion. In simple organisms, the entire individual may be sensitive to
stimuli. Certain unicellular organisms respond to bright light by a process of
amoeboid movement. Other organisms move by beating or flagella. Some
bacteria move by rotating their flagella.
Examples:
- Plants can bend toward a source of light or respond to touch.
- Tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (chemotaxis) or
light (phototaxis).
- Movement toward a stimulus is a positive response, while movement
away from a stimulus is a negative response.

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and
fold when touched. After a few minutes, the plant returns to its normal state.

4. Movement
Most animals move very obviously. They wiggle, crawl, swim, run, or fly by
contracting muscles. Sponges, corals, and oysters have free-swimming larval
stages, but most are sessile as adults, meaning that they do not move from place
to place.

5. Reproduction
It is the ability to produce new organism from previously existing parent
organisms.
It is known that organisms arise only from previously existing organisms.
In simple organisms, for example when amoeba sp. has grown to a certain size,
it reproduces by splitting in half to form two new amoebas (Binary fission).
Multicellular organisms reproduce by the formation of specialized
reproductive cells (called gametes) that will form new individuals (Gametic
reproduction). Offspring produced by gametic reproduction are the product of
the interaction of various genes contributed by the mother and the father. This
genetic variation is important in the vital processes of evolution and adaptation.

Binary fission in single-celled organisms

Gametic reproduction in multi-celled organisms

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

6. Adaptation
Populations evolve and become adapted to the environment. The ability of a
population to evolve over many generations and adapt to its environment equips
it to survive in a changing world. Adaptations are inherited characteristics that
enhance an organism’s ability to survive in a particular environment.
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism
which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and
reproducing. Adaptations may be structural, physiological, biochemical,
behavioral, or a combination of all four. If a population cannot move or change
sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then it will become extinct.
Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds
the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. Examples
of adaptation include:
Ex1. Heat-resistant bacteria living in hot springs.
Ex2. The long, flexible tongue of the frog is an adaptation for catching insects
Ex3. The tongue length of a nectar-feeding moth to fit the size of the flower
from which it feeds.
Ex4. The feathers and lightweight bones of birds are adaptations for flying
birds.
Ex5. The thick fur coat of the polar bear is an adaptation for surviving frigid
temperatures.

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

7. Acclimatization
Acclimatization is the process in which an individual organism adjusts to a
change in its environment (such as a change in altitude, temperature, humidity,
photoperiod, or pH), allowing it to maintain performance across a range of
environmental conditions. Acclimatization occurs in a short period of time
(hours to weeks), and within the organism's life time (compared to adaptation,
which is a development that takes place over many generations.
For example, travelling from sea-level locations to high altitudes
(mountaineers) over hours or days, the body acclimates and adapts accordingly
to the new environment by increasing the production of red blood cells and
increasing the depth of breath to enhance oxygen transport. Adaptation may
instead represent part of a periodic cycle, such as a mammal shedding heavy
winter fur in favor of a lighter summer coat. Another example is the ability of
Sheep to grow very thick wool in cold, damp climates

8. Regulation and homeostasis

Living organisms have mechanisms to ensure maintaining constant internal
variables including, temperature, pH, and chemical concentration which may
change from one moment to the next.
Homeostasis (steady state) is the ability of living organisms to maintain
constant internal conditions despite environmental changes. It needs self-
regulating process by which the body can maintain stability.
All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent
components for the variable being regulated: a receptor, a control center, and
an effector.
Example for homeostasis is the thermoregulation, the maintenance of an
optimum temperature range by an organism. Cold-blooded animals
(poikilotherms) pick up or lose heat by way of the environment, moving from
one place to another as necessary. Warm-blooded animals (homoiotherms)
have additional means by which they can heat and cool their bodies. Muscular
activity can be an important source of heat in both kinds of animals.
Another example is the osmoregulation, maintenance by an organism of an
internal balance between water and dissolved materials regardless of
environmental conditions. Some organism must actively take on, conserve, or
excrete water or salts in order to maintain their internal water-mineral content.

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

9. Levels of biological organization

- Living things are highly organized, meaning they contain specialized,
coordinated parts. This organization follows a specific hierarchy.
- All living organisms are made up of one or more cells, which are considered
the fundamental units of life. Living organisms may be organized in the form
of single-celled organisms (unicellular) are many-celled organisms
(multicellular).
- Multicellular organisms have an advantage over unicellular organisms
because their cells are specialized to perform specific functions.

Levels of organization

Organisms have several levels of organization which follows a hierarchy from

small to large which is:
Atom: the smallest and fundamental unit of matter. the smallest unit of matter
that is composed of three sub-atomic particles: the proton, the neutron, and the
electron.
Molecule: a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together
by a chemical bond. Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be
made up of many thousands of atoms.
Organelles: A subcellular structure that has one or more specific jobs to
perform in the cell, much like an organ does in the body.
Cell: the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organism.
Tissue: Group of similar cells carrying out the same function. By definition,
tissues are absent from unicellular organisms. Even among the simplest
multicellular species, such as sponges, tissues are lacking or are
poorly differentiated. But multicellular animals and plants that are more
advanced have specialized tissues that can organize and regulate an organism’s
response to its environment.
Organ: collection of tissues grouped together based on a common function.
Organ-system: a higher level of organization that consists of functionally
related organs.
Organism: Refer to an organized structure, can react to stimuli, reproduce, grow,
adapt, and maintain homeostasis.
Population: all the individuals of the same species living within a specific area.
Community: A set of populations inhabiting a particular area.

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CHARACEREISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

Ecosystem: All living things in a particular area together with the abiotic,
nonliving parts of that environment. It is a geographic area where plants,
animals and other organisms, as well as weather and landscapes, work together
to form a bubble of life. It is the structural and functional unit of ecology where
the living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment.
Biosphere: the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life
on Earth.

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The Chemistry of Life: ORGANIC COMPOUND

Cells differ vastly in their characteristics; no cell type is exactly like any other.
However, despite such differences between cells, all cells share certain basic
features. One such features is that their living material is made-up of
compounds of carbon. Cells contain numerous different compounds of carbon.
Amongst them, four categories of macromolecules are found in all cells and
form the organic bases of living matter. These four macromolecules are
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Organic compounds (carbon-based compounds) are those in which
carbon atoms are covalently bonded to one another to form the backbone of the
molecule. They are so named because at one time it was thought that they could
be produced only by living (organic) organisms. In 1828, the German chemist
Friedrich Wühler synthesized urea.
Organic compounds are extraordinarily diverse. There are many reasons
for this diversity. Organic compounds can be produced in a wide variety of
three-dimensional (3-D) shapes. Furthermore, the carbon atom forms bonds
with a greater number of different elements than does any other type of atom.

Carbon atoms and molecules

Carbon atom constitutes the backbone of all organic compounds due to the
followings:
1- Carbon atom has 4 valence electrons (tetrahedron), so it can complete its
valence shell by forming a total of four covalent bonds.

2- Carbon to-carbon bonds are strong and not easily broken. However, they
are not so strong that it would be impossible for cells to break them.
Carbon-to-carbon bonds are not limited to single bonds but can form
double bonds: In some compounds, triple carbon-to-carbon bonds are
formed:

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Generally, there is freedom of rotation around each carbon to-carbon single
bond. Double and triple bonds do not allow rotation, so regions of a molecule
with such bonds tend to be inflexible.

3- Organic compounds consisting only of carbon and hydrogen, can exist as

unbranched or branched chains, or as rings. Rings and chains also joined
another compound.

Different structures of organic compounds

http://www.docbrown.info/page04/OilProducts08.htm

4- Carbon atoms can also partner with atoms other than hydrogen; for
example: Carbon dioxide: CO2 or Urea: CO(NH2)2

Carbon dioxides
http://www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/chemicals/urea.html

Urea
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 5- Carbon structures can form isomers. Isomers are structures have the same
molecular formula but different structures and thus different properties.
Isomers do not have identical physical or chemical properties and may
have different common names. Cells can distinguish between isomers.
Usually, one isomer is biologically active and the other is not.

There are three types of isomers: (a) structural isomers, (b) geometric isomers,
and(c) enantiomers.

A. Structural isomers are compounds that differ in the covalent arrangements

of their atoms. For example: two structural isomers with the molecular formula
C2H6O.
https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-structural-isomers

B. Geometric isomers are compounds that are identical in the arrangement of

their covalent bonds but different in the spatial arrangement of atoms or groups
of atoms. There are two types cis and trans isomers. The designation cis (Latin,
“on this side”) indicates that the two larger components are on the same side of
the double bond. If they are on opposite sides of the double bond, the compound
is designated trans (Latin, “across”) isomer.

https://www.chemguide.co.uk/basicorg/isomerism/geometric.html

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C. Enantiomers or optical isomers are isomers that are mirror images of
each other.
https://www.chemguide.co.uk/basicorg/isomerism/optical.html

Example D- and L- glucose

https://pediaa.com/difference-between-d-and-l-glucose/

Enantiomers are important in the pharmaceutical industry. Two enantiomers

of a drug may have different effects. Usually only one isomer is biologically
active. Differing effects of enantiomers demonstrate that organisms are
sensitive to even subtle variations in molecules.

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