A DISSERTATION ON

Development of Eco leather and its Utilization in Secondary

Food Packaging : A Sustainable Approach

SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF BIOENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY

BY
SOUMYA DWIVEDI
M. Tech Food Technology (IV Semester)
Roll No: 2101207008

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

Dr. Rahul Singh

Assistant Professor
Department of Bioengineering

INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY, DASAULI, KURSI ROAD

LUCKNOW- 226026
 DECLARATION FORM

I, Soumya Dwivedi, a student of M.Tech Food Technology ( II Year/ IV Semester),

Integral University have completed my six months dissertation work entitled “Development
of Eco Leather and Its Utilization in Secondary Food Packaging : A Sustainable
Approach” successfully from Department of Bioengineering, Integral University under
the able guidance of Dr. Rahul Singh, Assistant Professor, Integral University, Lucknow.

I, hereby, affirm that the work has been done by me in all aspects. I have sincerely prepared
this project report and the results reported in this study are genuine and authentic.

Soumya Dwivedi

Dr. Rahul Singh

Assistant Professor
Department of Bioengineering
Faculty of Engineering
 CERTIFICATE BY SUPERVISOR

Certificate that Ms. Soumya Dwivedi (2100101772) has carried out the research work presented in this

thesis entitled “Development of Eco Leather and Its Utilization in Secondary Food Packaging : A

Sustainable Approach” for the award of M.Tech Food Technology from Integral University,

Lucknow under my supervision. The thesis embodies results of original work and studies carried out by

the student herself and the contents of the thesis do not form the basis for the award of any other degree

to the candidate or to anybody else from this or any other University/Institution. The dissertation was a

compulsory part of her M.Tech Food Technology degree.

I wish her good luck and bright future.

Dr. Rahul Singh

Assistant Professor
Department of Bioengineering
Faculty of Engineering
 CERTIFICATE BY INTERNAL ADVISOR

This is to certify that Soumya Dwivedi, a student of M.Tech Food Technology ( II Year/ IV

Semester), Integral University has completed her six months dissertation work entitled “Development

of Eco Leather and Its Utilization in Secondary Food Packaging : A Sustainable Approach”

successfully. She has completed this work from Department of Bioengineering, Integral University

under the guidance of Dr. Rahul Singh, Assistant Professor, Integral University, Lucknow. The

dissertation was a compulsory part of her M.Tech Food Technology degree.

I wish her good luck and bright future.

Dr. Rahul Singh

Assistant Professor

Department of Bioengineering
Faculty of Engineering
 TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Soumya Dwivedi, a student of M.Tech Food Technology (II year / IV semester ),

Integral University has completed her six months dissertation work entitled “Development of Eco

Leather and Its utilization in Secondary Food Packaging : A Sustainable Approach ” successfully.

She has completed this work from Integral University, Lucknow under the guidance of Dr. Rahul

Singh, Assistant Professor, Integral University, Lucknow. The dissertation was a compulsory part of

her M.Tech Food Technology degree.

I wish her good luck and bright future.

Dr. Alvina Farooqui

Professor and Head
Department of Bioengineering
Faculty of Engineering & Information Technology
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank almighty god for blessing me with his wisdom, understanding and
knowledge. God’s guidance and strength helped me to achieve success in every area of
my life. This thesis appears in its current form due to assistance and guidance of several
people. It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude to all those who supported me
and have contributed in making this thesis possible.

My special thanks to Prof. S Waseem Akhtar (Hon’able Chancellor), Dr. Syed Nadeem
Akhtar (Hon’able Pro-Chancellor), Prof Javed Musarrat (Hon’able Vice Chancellor),
Prof Aquil Ahmad (Hon’able Pro Vice-Chancellor), Prof T. Usami (Dean , Faculty of
Engineering) for providing a wonderful platform for education. I would like to express
my gratitude to Dr. Alvina Farooqui, (Professor & Head, Department of Bio-
engineering) for her support, suggestions and encouragement. I would also like to thank
my postgraduate coordinator Dr. Rooh i and all my teachers Dr. Rahul Singh, Er.
Poonam Sharma, Er. Gazia Nasir , Assistant Professors, Department of Bio-engineering
for their constant guidance, cooperation, and support during my work.

I am thankful to my guide Dr. Rahul Singh, Assistant professor, Integral University,

Lucknow who had shown his keen interest in guiding me to carry out my work and above
all his overwhelming attitude to help his students. He is solely and mainly responsible for
completing my work. I am also thankful to Ms Sufia Aziz , Lab Assistant , Food
technology Lab and my class mates , Ms. Alweera Asfaq , Ms.Zayeema Anjum , Ms.
Alisha Ahmed , for their continuous support, motivation and untiring help during this
project.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my teachers Dr. Kaiser Younis, Dr. Owais
Yousuf, Er. Poonam Sharma, Assistant Professors, Department of Bio-engineering for
their constant guidance, cooperation and support during my work. I thank all my friends
for their valuable support which helped me to finish my work within the stipulated period
and also thank all the people who are directly or indirectly associated with the successful
completion of my work.

Last but the most important, I would like to express my sincere gratitude from the bottom
of my heart to my father Mr Manoj Dwivedi , my mother Mrs Anjali Dwivedi and my
I
sister Ms Selina Dwivedi for their love, support, encouragement, guidance, motivation
and support to my decision that helped me to get success in every area of my life.

Place: Lucknow Soumya Dwivedi

Dated:

II
 LIST OF CONTENTS

S. NO. PARTICULARS PAGE NO.

01 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I

02 LIST OF CONTENTS II

03 LIST OF TABLES III-IV

04 LIST OF FIGURES V-VI

05 ACRONYMS VII

06 INTRODUCTION 2-4

07 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-17

08 MATERIALS AND METHODS 18-30

09 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 31-42

10 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 43-46

11 REFERENCES 47-50

III
 LIST OF TABLES

S.NO. PARTICULARS PAGE NO.

1. 2.1) Difference between vegan 7

and animal leather

2. 3.1) List of equipments/ 20

Instruments

3. 3.2) Various parameters 21

considered for preliminary
experiments

4. 3.3) Composition ratio of agro 23

Waste and sodium alginate

5. 4.1) Weight and thickness of all 31

7 samples

6. 4.2) Folding endurance test result 35

7. 4.3) Elongation at break test 36

8. 4.4) Tensile strength result 37

9. 4.5) Moisture content result 39

IV
 LIST OF FIGURES

S. NO. PARTICULARS PAGE NO.

1. Fig 2.1) Animal leather 6

2. Fig 2.2) Other utilization of floral 19

Waste

3. Fig 3.1) Floral Waste collected 23

4. Fig 3.2) Mixture poured on the 25

petridish for drying

5. Fig 3.3) Samples of eco leather 25

dipped into acid solution

6. Fig 3.4) Samples of eco leather 27

dipped into alkali solution

7. Fig 3.5) Samples of eco leather 29

dipped into salt solution

8. Fig 3.6) Samples kept in oven for 32

moisture measurement

9. Fig 3.7) Tensile tester machine 33

V
10. Graph 4.1) a) biodegradation by 34
bench-scale simulated
composting
b) biodegradation by composting 35

11. Graph 4.2) Elongation at break 38

12. Graph 4.3) Moisture Content 40

Percentage

13. Graph 4.4) Effect of Acid 46

14. Graph 4.5) Effect of Alkali 47

15. Graph 4.6) Effect of Salt 48

VI
 ACRONYMS

SN.NO. ACRONYM FULLFORMS

1. BOD Biological oxygen demand
2. COD Chemical oxygen demand
3. FWP Floral waste powder
4. SA Sodium Alginate
5. EMC Equilibrium moisture content

VII
 ABSTRACT

Eco – leather ( also known as faux leather , artificial leather , vegan leather , pleather ) is
a kind of environment friendly leather . In the production process of eco – leather ,the use
of chemical products is lowered and limited for all the tanning and disposal process. Eco
– leather is a man made material that mimics the look and feel of real leather .It is made
from natural resources such as cork, fruit peels , plant leaves and other renewable
materials .It is a sustainable alternative to traditional leather that does not use animal
products or harsh chemicals in its production process. Usually cow leather , an animal
product , is a common material which is used for making leather products. Despite being
robust , it raises moral , social , and environmental concerns. Another biomaterial
manufactured without fleshing any animal is environmental friendly and animal free
leather , often known as vegan leather or eco –leather or artificial leather .As an
alternative to cow leather or any other type of animal leather , is the creation of vegan
leather using agricultural waste which includes waste flowers and shedded leaves can be
investigated .further this vegan leather can be used as a secondary packaging material in
food packaging industry . Secondary packaging designates the packaging used to group
various pre packed products together. Secondary packaging does not come in direct
contact with the actual product . It plays a vital role in branding and marketing the
product it serves to group several products together for ease of handling , transport and
storage. It must also be durable enough to protect the primary packaging during transport
and storage. In this present project work , “Development of Eco Leather and Its
Utilization in Food Packaging : A Sustainable Approach ” eco – leather or vegan
leather was made using the agricultural waste such as flower waste collected from various
sites such as temples , flower shops and shedded leaves .and then this leather is examined
for its use as a secondary packaging material. Various analysis was done such as
,biodegradability , effect of acid , effect of alkali , effect of salt , moisture content ,
folding endurance .

Keywords : Eco leather , secondary packaging , biodegradability

1
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Environment friendly and animal free leather also known as “ vegan leather ” or “
artificial leather ” , is an alternative biomaterial produced without the use of any animal
component. This bio based material compared to traditional leather shows similar physic
– chemical and mechanical properties. Moreover, recent studies show that this class of
materials are gradually gaining market in the fashion industry as leather substitutes. In the
present study, efforts towards the preparation of such bio based materials using novel
formulations agro – waste components is accomplished. This material may be
considered as a prospective leather alternative for application in leather accessories, such
as hand bags and upper shoe sole(nabanita saha et.al. 2020).

Vegan alternatives are being actively sought to replace animal leather with bio-based
alternatives such as plant fibers or fungal mycelium fibers in the face of global climate
change ]. Several different vegan leather alternatives to real leather are available on the
market today, including Muskin®, Desserto®, Appleskin®, Vegea®, SnapPap®,
Kombucha,Teak Leaf®, Pinatex®, and Noani® (cornelia wjunow et.al.2023) Vegan
alternatives to leather were sought , as many wanted to stop using animal leather together
Being vegan or wearing vegan products and clothing has become something of a fashion
trend (selina sultanova et.al.2023).

Flowers are considered as holy things and hence are presented by pilgrims to their idols.
Every day these flowers offered in temples are left unexploited and consequently become
solid-waste. This flower waste dump and gets collected at religious sites like Temples,
Mosques and Gurudwaras (Mishra, 2013). In India, West Bengal stands 4th to promote
flowers after Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nādu. Indian is a city with many
temples, being visited by a large number of devotees. India is a country with diverse
religions where, worshiping or praying is the means of living and people offer several
offerings to the deities, out of which floral aids are found in enormous quantity.
Consequently, temple waste has an extraordinary share of flower waste in the total waste.
After satisfying their purpose, flowers laterally with other waste, discovery their way into

2
the garbage or are cast-off into river, sea or oceans, which instigating many
environmental problems.( Qiyang Wang et.al 2013) In the list of offered flowers in
temples are marigold, rose, jasmine, chrysanthemum, hyacinth, hibiscus, etc. This floral
waste can be suitably accomplished and utilized in various value-added form.

Waste dumping is a principal concern in the world. Inoffensive disposal of floral

waste has been a cause of concern for the temple management. Deterioration of
environmental quality, climate change and management of disposed waste are the chief
topics to human society(MS Waghmode et.al 2018). One of the chief reasons of
environmental contamination is mis-management of organic waste including temple
waste. The floral waste is straight inclined into the rivers, oceans, etc. which has awful
influence on the water quality as well the living organisms existing in the water bodies
and its vicinity. Flower or floral waste come from hotels, wedding gardens, worship
places and a spread of civilizing and sacred ceremonies , which make them a usual source
of waste (S Dutta et.al 2021).

India in terms of flower promotion. Banaras (UP), one of India's holiest cities, lacks
enough coverage for the disposal of large amount of flower problems associated with
improper floral waste disposal Incineration, which manages the combustion of waste
substances to a non-flammable residue or ash and exhaust gases, is one of the most used
disposal and remediation strategies for floral waste. In the United States and Europe
,incineration is the method of choice for a variety of hazardous and poisonous waste
streamsris. Flowers that have dried and rotted are discarded as garbage in landfills and
water bodies. Sri Lanka and India are two instances of countries where around 40% of
total flower production is unsold and wasted on a daily basis . This flower debris is
thrown into bodies of water or dumped on undeveloped ground, polluting both the
environment and the water (AL Srivastava et.al 2021).

The flower waste gives the streets and highways a filthy appearance, as well as distorting
the image of ghats along various water bodies. However, a modern methodology exists to
convert floral wastes into value-added products such as compost, biofuels, bioethanol,
organic acids, pigments, dyes, polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate production, food

3
products, bio surfactants production, sugar syrup, incense sticks, handmade paper
production, and so on (P Singh et.al 2017).

The Ganges is believed by Hindus to be the most sacred of all rivers but nowadays it is
extremely polluted due to disposal of various kinds of toxic chemicals and waste into the
rivers. Among the muck were tonnes of flowers – marigolds , roses , jasmine , hibiscus ,
hyacinth and chrysanthemums – discarded by temples and worshippers. These flowers
are used in Hindu rituals and are considered sacred , meaning they can’t be disposed of
along with other waste. But depositing them in a river is sometimes part of the ritual and
as a result flowers are dumped in water bodies daily where they leach out harmful
chemicals from pesticides , and eventually decay into mulch that contaminates the water.
This floral waste can be utilized for making leather , which can be further used in
secondary food packaging ( K D Yadav et.al 2022)

Advances in food packaging play a primary role in keeping the U.S. food supply among
the safest in the world. Simply stated, packaging maintains the benefits of food
processing after the process is complete, enabling foods to travel safely for long distances
from their point of origin and still be wholesome at the time of consumption . The
principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from outside influences and
damage, to contain the food,and to provide consumers with ingredient and nutritional
information (Coles 2003). Traceability, convenience, and tamper indication are secondary
functions of increasing importance. The goal of food packaging is to contain food in a
cost-effective way that satisfies industry requirements and consumer desires, maintains
food safety, and minimizes environmental impact.

The study has following objectives :

1. To develop biodegradable eco leather using floral waste(agro waste ).

2. To study the physic – chemical and biodegradability of eco – leather.
3. To utilize eco- leather as secondary food packaging.

4
 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter , a review of the work related to the topic “ Development of Eco
Leather and its Utilization in secondary food packaging : A Sustainable Approach”
has been discussed in detail. The topic of research was made in order to know the present
status of research in the area . The knowledge of these studies would help the researchers
to proceed in an appropriate direction in the present study and draw meaningful
conclusions. .

2.1 Leather

Leather is a strong , flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning , or
chemical , of animal skins and hides to prevent decay . The most common leathers come
from cattle , sheep , goats , buffalo , pigs , and hogs and aquatic animals such as seals
and alligators . Leather is a natural fabric made using tanned animal skin . It is believed to
be the first fabric crafted with human hands. The first conclusive use of leather appears to
have been by the Egyptians around 1300 BC . Yet it wasn’t just the Egyptians that had
discovered the technique of creating leather , as use of the material has been found in
primitive colonies across Asia , Europe and North America around the same time . At this
time leather was used in a simple manner to create clothing , especially foot wraps to
protect the body and keep warm. By 1200 BC the Greeks had already started using their
leather more decoratively for clothing and armour ( AD Covington et.al 2020).

Leather industry has an important role in generating revenue , particularly in india . The
leather purification process consumes enormous quantity of water leading to generation
of wastewater effluents reaching to 150 tons per day . leather industry wastewater is
characterized to have increased COD , BOD , reduced form of chromium , NaCl , calcium
, magnesium , sulphide compounds , and other hazardous contaminants including oils ,
tannins and biocides , posing detrimental effects on environment and humans . Leather is
also no friend of the environment , as it shares responsibility for all the environmental
destruction caused by the meat industry as well as the pollution caused by the toxins used

5
in tanning (S Harris 2014). Leather manufacturing involves the use of hazardous
chemicals, which pose significant health and safety risks to workers. Exposure to these
chemicals can cause skin and respiratory problems, and long – term exposure can lead to
cancer. Leather industry is one of the most polluting industries . The leather processing is
responsible for unfavourable impact on environment. Solid waste produced in leather
industry include animal skin trims, animal hairs, flesh wastes, buffing dust and keratin
wastes. All of these wastes contain protein as its main component. If this protein is not
utilized properly, it will responsible for dangerous pollution problems to environment( P
Maina et.al.2019 ).

Leather manufacturing has significant environmental impacts and sustainability

challenges. Some of the main environmental concerns associated with leather production
include the use of hazardous chemicals, high water usage, air and water pollution, and
deforestation. Leather has one of the greatest impacts on eutrophication of all materials
used for fashion, a serious ecological problem in which runoff waste creates an
overgrowth of plant life in water systems, which suffocates animals by depleting oxygen
levels in the water and is the leading cause of hypoxic zones, also known as “dead zones”.
The production methods of vegan or eco-leather are way more eco-friendly and cost-
effective than that of synthetic leather where hazardous chemicals are used. The plant
based leather is softer, durable and displays good tensile strength, stability and
temperature resistance ( K Joseph , N Nithya 2009). Vegan leather donot contribute to
pollution because it does not need any kind of chemical during its processing . Tanning
process is used for converting animal’s skin to leather, here during processing of vegan
leather tanning is not done. Vegan leather is the greatest option to replace synthetic
leather as it does not involve animals.

Fig.2.1. Animal leather

6
2.2 The rise of Vegan Leather / Eco Leather

Eco leather is any leather alternative that does not come from animal . Most eco –
leather is made from plant – based material . The word ‘leather’ according to the Oxford
dictionary is the material made by tanning or otherwise dressing hides. Hides are the
skins of animals. Anything made from synthetics or natural cork cannot be called leather.
“Vegan Leather ” is a term created by marketing experts to convince vegans they are
getting a product as good as the real thing .

Vegan leather , also known faux leather , or a leather alternative – is a leather like
fabric that isn’t made from the skin of animals . Instead , vegan leather is made from a
variety of plastic and plant materials. (Disha Goyal et.al. 2011). Eco leather , also know
as plant based leather or vegan leather , is a type of material made from plant based
sources as an alternative to traditional leather , which is typically made from animal hides
. Plant based leather can be made from a variety of sources such as pineapple leaves ,
mushrooms , apple leaves , cactus leaves and recycled plastic . some additional plant
based leathers include coffee leather , grape leather , and olive leather .Vegan leather or
Eco friendly leather are referred to as plant based leathers , they are environment friendly.
One of the primary benefits of using vegan leather instead of traditional animal-based
leather is that it is environmentally friendly ( NT Minh et.al.2021). Animal agriculture is
considered one of the leading causes of global warming, and producing traditional leather
involves chemical processes such as tanning and dyeing. In contrast, plant-based vegan
leatherette can be manufactured using more sustainable methods that do not produce
harmful emissions .

VEGAN LEATHER ANIMAL LEATHER

1.Free from animal source 1.Made from animal skins.
2.Cost effective 2.Expensive as compared to vegan
leather

3.no use of chemicals 3.use chemical

4. breathable 4. unbreathable

7
 5. uniform finishing 5. visual imperfections
6. can be cleaned easily 6. needs specialized cleaning care
7. structurally damaged with 7.stretches and shrinks naturally
too much manipulation

Table 2.1. Difference between vegan leather and animal leather

2.3 Types of Eco leather

There are various types of eco leather or vegan leather made from different types of
plant based material available in the market such as apple leather , cactus leather , cork
leather , mushroom leather , pineapple leather etc.

2.3.1 Apple Leather

It is also known as Apple Skin , is a plant – based leather invented by Alberto

Volcan from Bolzano , Italy .The first products made with apple leather were
manufactured in 2019 , and is most commonly used for small accessories like wallets.
One of the leading production companies in Apple leather is OLIVER CO , based in
Bermondsey , South London . Here the apple waste was turn into leather by two
processes , firstly apple waste is turned into puree , which is then spread flat on a sheet
and dehydrated , next the sheet is combined with polyurethane to add durability .In the
second process apple waste is turned into a powder , which is then combined with
polyurethane and coaterd onto a cotton and polyester backing. AppleSkin apple leather is
PETA approved Vegan , USDA approved . Despite the name , apple leather is not
entirely biodegradable . After being combined with polyurethane , the leather is only 50
% plant based. However apple leather production emits less carbon dioxide (CO2 )
than PU leather ( C Valenzuela et.al. 2015).

8
2.3.2 Cactus leather

It is a plant based leather produced from the mature leaves of the nopal ( prickly –
pear ) cactus native to Mexico. Founded by entrepreneurs Adrian Lopez Velarde and
Marte Cazarez , Desserto was the first company to manufacture cactus leather .

The process of cultivating cactus leather has several steps . First , the mature pads of the
cactus are harvested , cleaned , and ground down . Next , the pads are dried under the sun
for three to five days . Next , fibres are separated from the dried pads and then mixed
with chemicals to form a bioresin , which is then poured over a carrier such as cotton or
polyster . Desserto cactus leather is mostly biodegradable , consisting of 92% organic
carbon content . Most steps in the cactus leather production process are also sustainable
in practice ( S Williams 2022).

2.3.3 Cork Leather

It is a plant based leather made from bark harvested from cork oak trees native to
many parts of Europe . Mahi Leather in Kanpur , Northern India , and HZcork located in
Dongguan , China which produces both cork leather and cork fabrics . The process for
harvesting and manufacturing cork leather is much simpler than apple and cactus leather.
The process of turning bark into leather does not involve toxic chemicals nor does it
emit pollution , cork trees also do not release harmful chemicals when burned (V
Geraldes et.al. 2009 )

The downside to the use of cork leather are that it is not as durable as animal leather , and
despite being one of the most environmentally friendly plant based leathers , it is
underutilized by fashion companies due to its unique texture.

2.3.4 Mushroom Leather

It is a plant based leather made from mycelium , the vegetative filaments that make
up the branches of fungi . Mushroom leather was first developed in 2013 by Philip Ross
and Jonas Edvard and called MYX , which was made from the waste of the oyster
mushroom industry . Mushroom leather is primarily produced in Indonesia .This leather
has one of the most complicated production processes of the plant – based leathers.

9
In most cases , mushroom leathers are completely biodegradable , however , similar to
cork leathers , when extra durability is needed , the mushroom leather is reinforced with
polyurethane , which decreases its biodegradability( J Bustillos et.al. 2020).

2.3.5 Pineapple Leather

It is a plant based leather made from the cellulose fibres of pineapple leaves. The
pineapple leather , Pinatex , was developed by Carmen Hijosa and is produced by
textile company Ananas Anam.

To create pineapple leather , the fibres are extracted from the leaves and felted together to
produce a non –woven mat , the mat is then washed , pressed , and dyed , this is
considered the raw Pinafelt . The felt is then combined with non – biodegradable
polyurethane resin for durability. Despite the Pinafelt consisting of 100 % plant –based
materials , the combination with polyurethane in the final stage means that Pinatex will
not naturally biodegrade ( P Sharma et.al. 2016 ).

2.4 Floral Waste

Floral waste refers to dried and decayed flowers and thus , dumped in landfills , various
water bodies , etc. Floral waste is one of the biggest pollutants , on land and water ,
accounting for nearly a third of all solid waste in the country , according to statistics.
Because they have been offered in prayers , the dead flowers are considered holy , and
not to be disposed of with the other rubbish( MB Kulkarni et.al. 2019).

Every year 80,00,000 metric tonnes of waste flowers are dumped into the river
Ganga. Floral waste , reportedly , accounts for 16 % of the total river pollutant .While
rotting flowers affect the water quality , the pesticides used on them leach into the waters
and harm marine life . Floral waste is a huge part of agro waste, when not properly
disposed of this waste can end up in landfills or water bodies, where it can cause
environmental problems. In india many places of worship generate 20 tonnes of flower
waste daily. Floral waste constitutes a major part of agricultural waste in India.
Agricultural waste includes plant residues, weeds, leaf litter, sawdust, forest waste, flower
waste and livestock waste. As flower waste contains enough nutrients and lignocellulosic
material, it can be used for various purposes such as bioenergy and biofuel production,
compost preparation, lawn conditioner, eco-friendly fragrance sticks, soaps, rose water
and other food products, etc. (Vinod kumar et .al. 2020 ). The composition of flower

10
waste produced varies from place to place like in Darghas the flower waste mostly
consists of jasmine flowers, in Gurudwaras mainly marigold flowers are used and in case
of temples marigold, lotus, rose etc. (Elango and Govindasamy, 2018). Flower waste is
composed of highly lignocelluloses, cellulose, crude proteins, crude fibres, essential oils,
nitrogen bearing compounds, etc. Different types of flower have different properties in
them which make them useful for different purposes.

2.5 Floral Waste Management

Waste management is one of the biggest challenges that the world faces everyday.
It is well known that the municipal solid waste includes household waste , commercial
and market area waste , slaughter house waste , institutional waste , horticulture waste ,
waste from road sweeping , silt from drainage , and treated biomedical waste ( Isher
Ahluwalia and Utakarsh Patel ,2018 ). India is a country with diverse religions where ,
worshiping or praying is means of living and people offer several offerings to the deities,
out of which floral aids are found in large quantity. Temple waste has an extraordinary
share of flower waste in the total waste. Inoffensive disposal of floral waste has been a
cause of concern for the temple management . One of the major reasons of environmental
contamination is mis – management of organic waste including temple waste . The floral
waste is directly inclined into the rivers , oceans , etc. which has major influence on the
water quality as well as the living organisms present in water bodies . flower or floral
waste comes from hotels , wedding gardens , worship places and a spread of civilizing
and sacred ceremonies , which make them a usual source of waste ( kunal adhikary 2021
).

The management of floral wastes by conversion into different value-added products viz.,
compost; biofuels; biogas; bioethanol; organic acids; pigments; dyes;
polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate production; food products; biosurfactants
production; sugar syrup. The waste also have other applications viz., making of incense
sticks; handmade paper production; etc. The value added products obtained from floral
wastes viz; compost can be used for various plant growth; biogas for electricity
generation; food products as nutrients and additives. The dyes and pigments from floral
wastes will have applications in various textile industries; while biofuels and bioethanol
can solve the problem of energy crisis. The waste can thus be converted into wealth. The

11
floral wastes can have important application in biosorption which will help in the
treatment of waste waters and other industrial effluents ( D Sharma et.al. 2021 ) Flower
waste management from temples can serve as a sustainable source of raw material for
handmade paper production . This method not only reduces the generally discarded waste
produced by city temples, but also recycles and reuses it as an environment friendly
paper.

There are some standard disposal and treatment options, land filling; incineration which
is controlled combustion of waste materials to a non-combustible residue or ash and
exhaust gases. In USA and Europe, incineration is preferred for many organic hazardous
and toxic waste streams. In land treatment final state of the waste is disposed by making
intimate contact with the soil. The land treatment exploits the natural capacity of the soil
to return substances to a condition forthcoming the unique state from which they were
won by a process of extraction and purification( U Racha et.al. 2022).
Volatilization method is also used for the treatment and disposal of wastes. It is effective
for the removal of volatile compounds from soil by using commercial units that heat up
the soil to between 100 and 500 A _C. Dried and decayed flowers are considered waste
material and thus, dumped in landfills, various water bodies, etc. The example is of a
country like Srilanka and India, where about 40% of the total production of flowers are
unsold and wasted daily . These flowers are thrown into water or dumped into landside
causing water pollution as well as environmental pollution . Many of us avoid throwing
flowers and other items which are used for prayers in the garbage and instead put them in
the plastic bags and throw them directly in the water bodies. Such disposal of waste
creates problems like eel and worm development, water and land pollution and foul odor.
Solid waste and littering can degrade the physical appearance of water bodies and cause
deterioration of water quality ( P Tiwari 2018). The floral waste generated gives a filthy
look to the streets and roads and also distorts the image of ghats along the rivers.
However, now there is a modern approach to convert the floral wastes into value-added
products viz., compost; biofuels; bioethanol; organic acids; pigments dyes;
polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate production; food products; biosurfactants
production; sugar syrup; incense sticks; handmade paper production; etc.
Management and handling of flower waste become difficult as compared to the kitchen
and other municipal waste because religious sentiments of people are attached with the

12
flowers that are offered to god which afterward becomes part of temple waste (
Samadhiya et al.,2017 ).

Fig.2.2. Other utilization of floral waste

2.6 Food Packaging

The principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from outside influences
and damage, to contain the food, and to provide consumers with ingredient and nutritional
information(Coles 2003). Traceability, convenience, and tamper indication are secondary
functions of increasing importance. The goal of food packaging is to contain food in a
cost-effective way that satisfies industry requirements and consumer desires, maintains
food safety, and minimizes environmental impact. Food packaging can retard product
deterioration, retain the beneficial effects of processing, extend shelf-life, and maintain or
increase the quality and safety of food. In doing so, packaging provides protection from 3
major classes of external influences: chemical, biological, and physical. Packaging
maintains the benefits of food processing after the process is complete, enabling foods to
travel safely for long distances from their point of origin and still be wholesome at the
time of consumption. However, packaging technology must balance food protection with
other issues, including energy and material costs, heightened social and environmental
13
consciousness, and strict regulations on pollutants and disposal of municipal solid waste.
Any assessment of food packaging’s impact on the environment must consider the
positive benefits of reduced food waste throughout the supply chain. Package design and
construction play a significant role in determining the shelf life of a food product. The
right selection of packaging materials and technologies maintains product quality and
freshness during distribution and storage. Materials that have traditionally been used in
food packaging include glass, metals (aluminium, foils and laminates, tinplate, and tin-
free steel), paper and paperboards, and plastics( K Marsh and B Bugusu 2007).
In achieving the sale of the product, the packaging must also protect the product, not only
from transit and physical damage, but also from microbial and bacterial deterioration as
well as climatic hazards, like heat, cold, moisture, frost etc. In this role, especially with
respect to food product, packaging significantly reduces the wastage of food during the
transit journey. Packaging must also identify, track and trace the product. Consumers are
now more than ever aware of product shelf lives, product traceability to the packer /
product originator, enabling effective product recall in instances where product integrity
is questionable. Packaging must also differentiate itself on the shelf where it competes
with thousands of other packaging for consumer choice( G L Robertson 2005 ).
Packaging is basically characterized into primary , secondary and tertiary packaging .

2.6.1 Primary Packaging

Primary packaging is also known as sales packaging . Primary packaging is the term
used to designate the layer of packaging in immediate contact with the product; in other
words, it is the first packaging layer in which the product is contained. As such, primary
packaging is constructed both with the product itself and any existing secondary layers of
packaging in mind. The properties of the product (form, dimensions and consistency)
evidently dictate the main priorities of primary packaging. Primary packaging can have
diverse applications and functions, depending on the product, and transit and storage
variables. The most obvious, and important, function is to protect and preserve the
product from damage, external interference or contamination, spoiling and chemical
imbalances ( AN Tanksale et.al. 2021 ). Primary packaging also serves to keep a product
in storage, often for long periods of time. In this case, it is imperative that primary
packaging keep the product absolutely sealed off from its environment. Ease of handling
and shelving is a further aspect of primary packaging to be considered, so as to ensure the

14
product can be easily handled by consumers. The examples of primary packaging are as
limitless as the range of available consumer products. Some of the most common types
include blister packs, clamshell packaging, shrink-wrapping, paperboard packaging, unit
dose packs and many more .

2.6.2 Secondary Packaging

Secondary packaging is also known as grouped packaging. Secondary packaging

designates the packaging used to group various pre-packaged products together (the first
layer of packaging, in direct contact with the product, is called primary packaging).As
secondary packaging is not in direct contact with the actual product, its use and
application usually differ distinctly from those of primary packaging, although the
purpose of both types may at times converge. Secondary packaging can be said to have
two central functions:

 Branding & Display. Secondary packaging plays a vital role in the marketing strategy
surrounding the product. This is especially relevant in the case of display packaging.

 Logistics. Secondary packaging serves to group several products together for ease of
handling, transport and storage. This means that secondary packaging must be able to:

- Contain relatively large volumes of primary packaged products.

- Transport the product safely to its retail or consumer destination.

- Keep the primary packaging in its original condition during storage.

Secondary packaging is intended to protect not only the product, but also the primary
packaging, which often is the packaging most visible to the consumer in retail displays.
The most common examples of secondary packaging include cardboard cartons,
cardboard boxes and cardboard/plastic crates( L Meherishi et.al. 2021).
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates packaging materials under
section 409 of the federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The primary method of
regulation is through the food contact notification process that requires that manufacturers
notify FDA 120 d prior to marketing a food contact substance (FCS) for a new use. An

15
FCS is “any substance intended for use as a component of materials used in
manufacturing, packing, packaging, transporting or holding of food if the use is not
intended to have a technical effect in such food” (21 USC §348(h) . The use of paper and
paperboards for food packaging dates back to the 17th century with accelerated usage in
the later part of the 19th century (Kirwan 2003). Paper and paperboard are sheet
materials made from an interlaced network of cellulose fibers derived from wood by
using sulfate and sulfite. The fibers are then pulped and/or bleached and treated with
chemicals such as slimicides and strengthening agents to produce the paper product.
FDA regulates the additives used in paper and paperboard food packaging (21 CFR Part
176). Paper and paperboards are commonly used in corrugated boxes, milk cartons,
folding cartons, bags and sacks, and wrapping paper. Tissue paper, paper plates, and cups
are other examples of paper and paperboard products.

2.6.3 Tertiary packaging

Transport packaging focuses on the packaging requirements of goods in transit, in

particular for items traveling overland by road or rail (as opposed to overseas
packaging). Transport packaging is very often a local affair (see export packaging for
international transport) and therefore needs to be designed with local conditions and
expectations in mind( SH Chung et.al.2018). Tertiary packaging is used to protect
manufactured goods for shipping or storing. Tertiary packaging facilitates the protection
handling and transportation of a series of sales unit or secondary packaging.

2.7 Sodium Alginate

Sodium Alginate is the sodium salt form of alginic acid and gum mainly extracted from
the cell walls of brown algae .Its chemical formula is NaC6H7O6 .It is a neutral salt in
which the carboxyl groups of alginate are bonded with a sodium ion. Sodium alginate is a
linear polysaccharide derivative of alginic acid comprised of 1,4-beta –d – mannuronic
and (M) and alpha-I-guluronic (G) acids. (Hay et.al .2010). Sodium alginate is a cell wall
component of marine brown algae , and contains approximately 30 to 60 % alginic acid .

Sodium Alginate is slowly soluble in cold water , forming viscous , colloidal

solution. It is insoluble in alcohol and hydroalcoholic solutions in which alcohol content
is greater than 30 % by weight.( shilpa .A. et.al .2003). Due to distribution of chain

16
lengths , alginate solutions are not clearly Newtonian and behave as pseudoplastic fluid .
When dissolved in pure water , their reduced viscosity is expected to increase very
rapidly with dilution ( Fuoss and Strauss 1948 ). Alginaters have been reported to
undergo proton catalyzed hydrolysis , which is dependent on time , pH , and temperature
.Ability of alginate to form two types of gel depend on pH , i.e. an acid gel and an
ionotropic gel , gives the polymer unique properties compared to neutral
macromolecules( Tonnesen et.al . 2002 ).

Numerous studies have tested the high level of safety of sodium alginate in foods.
Allergy tests conducted with sodium alginate have shown that the material is not allergic .
Sodium alginate has not been shown to possess any eye or skin irritation properties .The
ingestion of sodium alginate had no significant effect on haematological indices , plasma
biochemistry parameters , urinalysis parameters , blood glucose and plasma insulin
concentrations , breath hydrogen concentrations .(D M Anderson et.al. 1991 ) Alginates
have been widely used as table disintegrant , binding agent , viscosity modifying agent ,
as a stabilizer in disperse system in the production of suspension and emulsion and also as
thickening agent in pharmaceutical industries .(Nikhil k. Sachan 2009 )

In the food industry , alginate has been used to coat fruits and vegetables , as a
microbial and viral protection product , and as a gelling , thickening , stabilizing or
emulsifying agent .(Roxana G. Puscaselu et.al. 2020 ) Alginate is an effective product
used in the food industry as well as in the management of metabolic disorders such as
obesity and diabeties.

17
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Current study deals with the utilization of agricultural waste like floral waste and
shredded leaves to make leather using sodium alginate , glycerine , distilled water .
Primarily floral waste including marigold , rose , lily , chrysanthemums etc was
collected from various locations such as temples , flower shops . Floral waste is the basic
raw material used in the making of this eco leather . This raw material was collected
from different temple sites , and then it was dried using hot air oven or sun drying for 24
hours , then it was grinded using grinder . further this raw material was mixed with
distilled water , sodium alginate , glycerine . 7 samples having different composition of
the raw material and other materials was made and then further testings on all the 7
samples were done.

Experiments were conducted to verify and validate the optimal results by comparing the
experimental values with predicted values . This chapter provides the details of material
and methodology used during the entire study of the investigation . All the experiments
were performed in the Central instrumentation facility (CIF) Laboratory of department of
Bioengineering , Integral University , Lucknow (India ) .Detail of the raw material
collection and procurement , various instruments and equipment’s used for the
experimentation , selection of independent and dependent variables , experimental design
analysis has been discussed in this chapter.

3.1 Experimental Materials

3.1.1 Collection of raw materials

Flower waste was collected from different temple sites of Lucknow and Kanpur . This
floral waste was then washed under running water and then it was dried under sunlight for
24 hours or in hot air dryer. Then the dried floral waste was grinded in grinder to make it
in powder form . Then the sieving id done for constant particle size 150µm . The floral
waste powder was kept in air tight container for further processing . Most of the floral
waste which was collected from different temple sites included marigold and rose

18
flowers. Marigold was approximately 85 % among the waste collected and rose and other
flowers and small leaves constitute the other 15 %.Approximately 5 kg of waste was
collected from all the sources .The waste collected was not more than 3 days old . Then it
was washed properly with water and all the unwanted materials present in the floral waste
were removed after washing it was dried properly till the flowers become that much dried
so that they can be easily grinded into powder form . After grinding into powdered form it
was properly stored in air tight container so that moisture do not incorporate into it till
further use. Floral waste collected from different temple sites is shown in the figure
below.

Fig.3.1. Floral waste

3.1.2 Chemical Glassware’s and Equipment

All the chemicals used during the experimentation were AR grade and purchased from
the standard suppliers. The borosil grade glassware were used during the study . All
Glasswares were cleaned , washed thoroughly with water and rinsed with distilled water
and dried before use . Various equipment used during the study are in given table 3.1

19
Equipment / Instruments Specifications/ Make Purpose
Electronic balance MSW , 10A/VA Delhi Weighing the sample
Mettler AE 166 , Capacity
100g , LC : 0.0001 g

Grinder Usha rapid mix 500- Watt Size reduction

copper motor mixer 500
Watt
Hot air oven IFTD . 6.MS. Even Drying
Size 150 mmL *900mm
*600mm
Distillation unit GLSI-SCU-25AQ Distilled water
Muffle furnace GMP model Ash estimation
Model no. KI-179
Refrigerator Model RS62K6227SL Extract storage
Samsung 220V-50Hz
Vernier callipers Measuring thickness

Tensile tester Tensile strength ,

elongation at break

Table 3.1. List of equipment’s / instruments

3.2 Preliminary Experiments

Preliminary experiments were planned to adopt the suitable technique , its parameters
and their level and other factors for the final experiments. Different procedure was used
in this study for the development of leather using minimum possible chemicals. This
procedure conducted in the experiment were compared to the results of traditional
approaches as mentioned in the review literature in the results and discussion section.

20
S.No. Parameter Value
1. Solvent Distilled water
2. Particle size 150 , 300 (µm)
3. Drying time 24 , 48 , 72 (hrs)
4. Composition 1:1, 1:2, 2:1, 1:1.5 (FWP : SA)

Table 3.2 . Various parameters considered for preliminary experiments

3.3 Flowchart of Experiment

Collect agricultural waste including floral waste

Now wash the collected floral waste

Dry the floral waste under sun for 24 hours or in hot air dryer for 3 -4 hours

Grind the dried waste using grinder

Mix the floral waste powder with sodium alginate , glycerine and distilled water

After mixing properly store the mixture at a cool place for 24 hours

Now pour the mixture on the frame

Dry it for 2 to 3 days

Eco leather is finally prepared

Now give shape accordingly

21
3.4. Experimental Procedure

The present research deals with the development of eco-leather , a substitute of

animal leather using agricultural waste such as floral waste and for their
application in the secondary food packaging . The entire study was carried out in
three phases .
In the first phase the floral waste was collected from different temple
sites and then it was washed and dirt present in it was removed and then
it was dried under sun for 24 hours . followed by grinding it into powder
form . In the second phase this powdered form of floral waste is mixed
with sodium alginate and glycerine and after mixing thoroughly it was
kept in cool place for 24 hours . In the third phase this mixture was
poured on to a frame and dried for 2 – 3 days .After it completely gets
dried it is cut into desired pieces and given required shape.

3.5. Preparation of eco leather

5 g powder sample of floral waste powder and 2.5 g sample of sodium alginate
was used . Distilled water ( 100ml ) , glycerol ( 5 ml ) were mixed and the
mixture was cooled by keeping in the cool place for 24 hours . The mixture
was agitated until it becomes smooth mixture without any air bubbles present
in it ( J Shi et.al. 2021). Now this mixture is poured in a mould or on a
smooth surface and then it is dried for about 2 – 3 days under normal
temperature and environment and for about 1 day in tray dryer at 40 degree
celcius.
7 samples of eco leather were made . Each sample was having different
compositions of agro waste and sodium alginate .Sample 1 was having
composition of agro waste and sodium alginate in the ratio of 1:1, sample 2
was having composition in the ratio of 2:1, sample 3 was having composition
in the ratio of 1:2. All other composition ratios are shown in the table below.

22
 SN. No. Sample Agro waste (gm) Sodium Alginate (gm)
1. Sample 1 5 5
2. Sample 2 5 2.5
3. Sample 3 2.5 5
4. Sample 4 2.5 2.5
5. Sample 5 2 1
6. Sample 6 1 2
7. Sample 7 0.5 0.5

Table. 3.3. Composition ratio of agro waste and sodium alginate

Fig.3.2. Mixture poured on the petridish for drying

3.6. Biodegradability Tests

3.6.1. Biodegradation by Composting

Biodegradable composting method was employed to test the
biodegradability of the prepared leather ( khan A. et.al. 2006 ). 2g of prepared sample
was vacuum dried for 24 hours at 45°C and buried in to the municipal solid waste mixture
( for 15 days ) for possible biodegradation . The content was kept in an oven at 55 ° C ,

23
at which the maximum growth of thermophiles microorganisms was occurred . The
buried bioplastic sample was weight after 3 days for a period of 15 days in order to
determine the percentage of weight loss .

3.6.2. Bench – Scale Simulated Composting

In this test , the compost was consisted of 50 % (w/w) cow manure and garden
soil . Bioplastic samples each of 2g were used for this analysis and the samples were
buried in a separate vessel container consisting of inoculums ( cow manure and garden
soil ) . For characterization , the bioplastic samples were removed from the compost
daily in order to calculate the weight loss . The temperature of the compost was measured
and recorded daily . Percentage weight loss for the materials were measured according
to Khan . et al . 2006 , by the following equation :

ࢃ૚ିࢃ૛
% ࢃࢋ࢏ࢍࢎ࢚ ࢒࢕࢙࢙ = ࢞૚૙૙ (1)
ࢃ૚

Where ,

W1 and W2 were the samples weight before and after treatment .

3.7. Chemical Tests

3.7.1. Effect of Acids

2g of the prepared sample was weight and , then put into Sulphuric acid with
concentration of 50 % . The dried samples were weight periodically for 6 days .The
percentage weight loss was observed after each time period ( C Liu et.al. 2022). All the 7
samples of bio-leather were dipped into the acid solution containing container for a period
of 6 – 7 days as shown in the figure below.

24
 Fig.3.3. Samples of bio-leather dipped into acid.

3.7.2. Effect of Alkalis

2g of the prepared sample was put into alkali solution (sodium hydroxide) with
concentration (50%) .The percentage weight loss was calculated daily for a period of ten
days ( RB Choudhary et.al. 2004). All the 7 samples of bio-leather were dipped into the
alkali solution containing container for a period of 9-10 days as shown in the figure
below.

Fig.3.4. Samples of bio-leather dipped into alkali solution.

3.7.3. Effect of Salts

2g of the prepared sample were mixed with different solid salts in different container,
and left for 5 days, with periodic weighing every day, and its resistance to the action of
salts (The sodium chloride , trisodium orthophosphate and lead acetate )was observed . In

25
my experiment I have used sodium chloride salt ( RB Choudhary et.al. 2004). 50%
concentration of sodium chloride solution was made and bio leather samples wee dipped
into them for a period of day Samples dipped into salt solution are shown in the figure .

Fig.3.5.samples dipped into salt solution

3.8 . Moisture Content

Equilibrium moisture content ( EMC ) is very important to determine the desirable

conditions of microorganisms growth , which causes material deterioration and
degradation . Moisture content is simply how much water is in a product . It influences
the physical properties of a substance , including weight , density , viscosity ,
conductivity , and others ( SS Nielsen 2010). It is generally determined by weight loss
upon drying.
For measuring the moisture content of leather samples :
1. First take the petridishes according to the sample and weight the petridishes .
2. Now take 2 g of each sample in the petridish .
3. Calculate the combined weight of sample and petridish before drying.
4. Now place the sample into an oven for 2 minutes at 105 ° C .
5. The final weight was obtained by weighing the plastic using an electronic balance
until constant weight was gained .
6. The test was repeated consequently .

26
 Formula for calculating moisture content :

MC ( % ) =( mf – mi) /mf x 100 % (ii)

MC = moisture content
mf = final weight ( constant weight after drying in oven )
mi = initial weight ( weight before drying in oven )

Fig.3.6. Samples kept in oven for moisture content measurment

3.9. Folding Endurance

Folding endurance is to check the durability of the plastic . It is the number of double
folds required to make a test piece break under standardized conditions. The leather was
taken and was folded equally until it breaks .Then it was unfolded and the number of
folding was counted ( D Zhang et.al. 2023). In paper testing , folding endurance is
defined as the logarithm (to the base of ten ) of the number of double folds that are
required to make a test piece break under standardized conditions :

F = log10d , (iii)

Where F is the folding endurance and d is the number of double folds.

27
3.10. Tensile strength

Tensile strength is defined as a stress , which is measured as force per unit area . It is the
maximum loadd that a material can support without fracture when being stretched ,
divided by the original cross –sectional area of the material . Tensile strength refers to the
tensile force on the unit cross section of the broken part of the sample when the sample of
the finished leather is pulled to break at a certain rate , expressed in MPa ( M Meyer
et.al. 2021). The purpose of measuring the tensile strength of leather is to understand the
deformation of the leather under the action of external force and the maximum tensile
force that the leather can withstand , so as to test the durability of the upper surface.
A tensile tester machine was used for measuring the tensile strength of the leather
samples . instruments it includes were Die knife , fixed weight thickness tester , vernier
calliper , tensile testing machine . Die knife is used to cut the sample . the knife edge must
be sharp to get a clear and neat sample. The measuring range of the tensile tester machine
must be suitsable for the measured object . The moving speed of the movable gripper of
the tensile machine must be uniform , which should be ( 100 ± 20 ) mm/min . The
clamping surface of the gripper should have a serated surface to ensure that the sample
does not move during the stretching process . The minimum length of the clamping
surface of the clamp in the direction of the force is 45mm , and the specimen is fixed
mechanically or pneumatically ( R Yadav et.al. 2022 ).
Now cut the specimens from the sample in a specific shape with a die knife . For
measuring the tensile strength of the sample first we will calculate the crossectional area
of the sample .

Cross-sectional area of the sample = the width of the sample x the thickness of the
sample

Now determine tensile strength , first adjust weight of tensile strength and then adjust the
moving speed of the movable clamp of the tensile machine to (100 ± 20) mm/min. Then
correct the pointer on the reading plate of the tensile tester to “0” . Now clamp the
specimen in the upper and lower clamps . Now start the machine until the sample breaks ,
and record the maximum force value at the break .
The tensile strength σ (MPa ) of the sample is calculated according to the following
formula :
28
 σ = F/S (iv)

where ,
σ – tensile strength , MPa
F – Maximum force value when the sample breaks ,( N )
S – the cross-sectional area of the sample break point , mm2

Fig.3.7. Tensile Tester Machine

3.11. Elongation at break test

Elongation at break is the measure of a materials ductility and toughness . This

measurement shows how much a material can be stretched , as a percentage of its original
dimensions , before it breaks . It indicates the ability of a material to undergo significant
deformation before failure .
Elongation at break is the percentage increase in length that a material will achieve before
breaking . This is usually measured using test method ASTM D412 . Elongation at break
is an important mechanical property of leather . It measures how much bending and

29
 shaping a material can withstand without breaking . It quantifies the amount of
deformation a material can withstand before breaking ( D Palomba et.al. 2014).
Elongation at break is important in assessing a material’s capacity to plastically
deform in a safe way , avoiding brittle failure . It is critical in applications for materials
like rubber and plastic where the material will be stretched repeatedly or subjected to
impacts. In some cases it is also used in leather for determining its strength and
toughness.
A high tensile elongation value is typically preferred , because it denotes a high degree
of ductility and flexibility(W Brostow and D Zhang 2020). It helps prevent failure under
difficult circumstances. Elongation at fracture is also crucial in making packaging
materials like protective plastic packaging . To guarantee that the products they contain
are safeguard during shipping and handling , these materials must be able to stretch and
flex without breaking.

Formula for Elongation at Break :

Elongation at Break =( final length – original length ) X 100

Original Length

Steps for performing elongation at break :

1. Measure the original length of the specimen which is to be tested.

2. Now perform a tensile strength test according to a standard method .
3. Now measure the final length at the end of the test , after the test specimen has fractured .
4. Subtract the original length from the final length to obtain the change in length .
5. Divide the change in length by the original length and multiply by 100 % to obtain the
total percent elongation .

30
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this research eco leather , a type of vegan leather was prepared using agro waste
especially floral waste which was collected from different temple sites of Lucknow and
Kanpur. Preliminary experiments were carried out before the final sample was made these
preliminary experiments were carried out on the basis of solvent , particle size , drying
time , composition. After the preliminary experiments 7 samples of eco- leather were
made then all the samples were tested on several parameters.

4.1 Eco leather prepared

Eco leather was prepared by using floral waste and sodium alginate . Different
samples of leather was made .All the samples made by different quantity of floral waste
and sodium alginate .Due to the use of different quantities raw material all the 5 samples
made were of different weight and thickness .out of all the 5 samples sample 4 was found
to be perfect. Weight of the samples was taken using electronic weighing balance and
thickness of the leather was measured using vernier callipers scale.

SN. No. Samples Weight (g) Thickness (mm)

1. Sample 1 8.21 0.18
2. Sample 2 5.65 0.16
3. Sample 3 4.02 0.13
4. Sample 4 3.86 0.11
5. Sample 5 2.73 0.08
6. Sample 6 2.56 0.05
7. Sample 7 1.18 0.03

Table 4.1. . weight and thickness of all the different 7 samples

31
 Fig.4.1. Eco-leather made

4.2 Composition of different samples of eco leather

All the 5 samples made of eco leather made were made of different composition of
raw materials. All the 7 samples have different ratios of the two important raw material
used for making this leather i.e. floral waste powder and sodium alginate .

In the first sample of eco leather the ratio of floral waste powder to sodium alginate was
1:1 .In the second sample of leather the ratio of floral waste powder and sodium alginate
was 2:1 . In the third sample of leather the ratio was 1:1(different weight ) . In the fourth
sample of leather the ratio of floral waste powder and sodium alginate was 2:1(different
weight ) .In the fifth sample of the leather the ratio of floral waste powder and sodium
alginate was 1:1 (different weight ).

4.3 Results of Biodegradability Tests

Biodegradation test was carried out on all the samples of eco- leather by using two
methods : by bench-scale simulated composting and by composting.

4.3.1 Biodegradibility by Bench-scale simulated composting

In this test , the samples of eco-leather were buried into the compost for a period of
approximately 20 days and eco-leather were removed from the compost daily in order to
calculate the weight loss. After every 3 days the samples were taken out and measured
.Percentage weight loss of eco-leather were measured till the time percentage loss

32
becomes zero. In the graph shown below it is showing that weight of the leather which
was buried in the compost kept on decreasing day by day and till 15 days it degraded
completely because all the raw materials which are being used in making this eco leather
were biodegradable and environment friendly whic
whichh makes this eco leather more
biodegradable as compared to other leathers present in the market.

2.5
sample 1 ( g)
2
sample 2 (g)
1.5
sample 3 (g)
1
sample 4 ( g)
0.5
sample 5 ( g)
0
sample 6 (g)
Day Day Day Day Day Day sample 7 ( g)
1 3 6 9 12 15

Graph.4.1. (a ) biodegradability by bench – scale simulated composting

4.3.2. Biodegradability by Composting

In this method the eco-leather

leather samples
sa were buried into the municipal solid waste
mixture for a period of 20 days . and after every
every 3 days its weight was measured and
percentage weight loss was calculated and it was found that sample weight loss becomes
zero till 15 days. These graphs of composting shows the rate of weight loss in the eco
leather. In other leathers it was found that rate of biodegradability was very slow, it may
take years to degrade a small sample of animal leather . But since my leather is free from
any chemical toxins itt took only 15 days to degrade it completely under soil.

33
 2.5
2 sample 1 (g)

1.5 sample 2 (g)

1 sample 3 (g)
sample 4 (g)
0.5
sample 5 (g)
0
sample 6 (g)
sample 7 (g)

Graph 4.1.(b) biodegradability by composting

Fig. 4.2 Sample after biodegradation by composting after 3 days

Fig. 4.3. Sample after biodegradation by bench-scale simulated composting after 3 days

34
4.4 Folding Endurance Result

Folding endurance test of all the samples were done manually. Number of folds of all the
samples were found to be different and it was found that the maximum number of folds
was found in the sample 4 which was found to be 950 folds.

SN. No. Samples Number of folds

1. Sample 1 600
2. Sample 2 780
3. Sample 3 917
4. Sample 4 950
5. Sample 5 850
6. Sample 6 888
7. Sample 7 500

Table.4.2. folding endurance test result of all the samples

4.5 Result of Elongation at Break

Elongation at break of all the samples were measured using test method ASTM D412.
Original length and final length of all the 7 samples of eco-leather were measured .
Elongation at break of samples were measured using formula and it was found that
elongation at break of sample 4 was found to be highest that is 60 %. Though elongation
at break of animal leather is very high as on it tanning is done and various types of
chemicals are used on it. Use of these chemicals and various other processing on animal
skin makes it gain more strength and thus elongation of such leather is also more as
compared to the eco leather made here. Since this made eco leather is to be used for
several food packaging materials thus no chemicals were used on it to make it
compleletely toxin free and environment friendly. But elongation at break of our sample
was satisfactory as compared to apple leather, cork leather.

35
 SN No. Sample Original Final Elongation at
length(cm) Length(cm) Break (%)
1. Sample 1 5 6.5 30
2. Sample 2 5 7 40
3. Sample 3 5 6 20
4. Sample 4 5 8 60
5. Sample 5 5 7 40
6. Sample 6 5 7.5 50
7. Sample 7 5 5.5 10

Table.4.3. elongation at break test results

70
60
50
40
30
20 elongation
10 percentage
0

Graph 4.2. graph of elongation at break

36
4.6 ) Tensile Strength test result

Tensile strength of the samples were measured using tensile tester machine .The
purpose of measuring the tensile strength of leather is understand the deformation of the
leather under the action of external force and the maximum tensile force that the leather
can withstand , so as to test the durability of the upper surface. For measuring the tensile
strength of the sample first cross-sectional area of the sample was calculated then using
the above mentioned formula tensile strength of the samples were calculated. Among all
the 7 samples tensile strength of sample 4 was found to be the highest i.e. 4.2 MPa .

SN No. SAMPLE F(N) S(mm) σ(MPa)

1 sample1 38 10 3.8
2 sample2 36 10 3.6
3 sample3 38 10 3.8
4 sample4 42 10 4.2
T
5 sample5 40 10 4.0
a
6 sample6 34 10 3.4
7 sample7 29 10 2.9

Table 4.4. tensile strength result

4.7 Result of Moisture Content

Moisture content of the samples was determined using hot air oven. EMC is very
important to determine the desirable conditions of microorganisms growth , which causes
material deterioration and degradation. It is generally determined by weight loss upon
drying. After measuring the initial and final moisture content of the samples moisture
content percentage was calculated using above mentioned formula.

37
 SN Sample Wt. Of Sample Petri + Final Moisture
No. petridish Weight sample weight Content (
(g) (g ) (g) (g) %)
1. Sample 1 42.785 2.080 44.865 43.71 2.12
2. Sample 2 45.001 2.166 47.167 46.63 3.49
3. Sample 3 45.108 2.071 47.179 46.69 3.38
4. Sample 4 42.286 2.236 44.504 43.94 3.77
5. Sample 5 42.086 2.036 44.122 43.32 2.86
6. Sample 6 41.066 2.038 43.104 42.21 2.72
7. Sample 7 42.288 2.016 44.304 43.29 2.33

Table .4.5. for moisture content result

Moisture content percentage values is shown below using graph and it was found that
moisture content of sample 4 was the highest i.e. 3.77% and that of sample 1 was found to
be lowest i.e. 2.12 %. Sample having more moisture content cannot be broken easily and
will have more flexibility whereas sample having less moisture content can be broken
easily and will have less flexibility. In the graph x-axis shows the samples and y-axis
shows the moisture content percentage of samples.

38
 4
3
2
moisture
1 content
0 percentage

Graph.4.3. moisture content percentage

4.8 Result of Effect of Acid

Effect of acid on the samples of bio-leather was observed as this leather is to be used in
secondary packaging of food material as well as in other packaging. All the samples of
bio-leather were dipped into 50 % concentration of acid. The samples were weight
periodically for a period of 7 days .The percentage weight loss was observed daily until
the samples completely got dissolved in the acid. Acid used in this experiment was
sulphuric acid. Graph below shows the percentage weight loss of the samples in 7 days.
It was found that all the samples got dissolved in the acid in 7 days.

39
 8
sample 1
6
sample 2
4 sample 3
2 sample 4
sample 5
0
sample 6
Day Day Day Day Day Day Day sample 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Graph.4.4. showing effect of acid

4.9 Result of Effect of Alkali

Effect of alkali on the samples of bio-leather was observed as this leather is to be used in
secondary packaging of food material as well as in other packaging. All the samples of
bio-leather were dipped into 50 % concentration of alkali. The samples were weight
periodically for a period of 10 days .The percentage weight loss was observed daily until
the samples completely got dissolved in the alkali. Alkali used in this experiment was
sodium hydroxide. Graph below shows the percentage weight loss of the samples in 10
days. It was found that all the samples got dissolved in the alkali in 10 days.

40
 7
6 sample 1
5 sample 2
4
sample 3
3
2 sample 4
1 sample 5
0 sample 6
Day Day Day Day Day Day Day sample 7
1 2 4 6 8 10 12

Graph 4.5. showing effect of alkali

4.10 Result of Effect of Salt

Sodium Chloride salt was used for testing the effect of salt on the samples of bio-
leather. Samples were dipped into salt solution for a period of 7 days , with periodic
weighing every day , and its resistance to the action of salts was observed. In the graph
below, weight loss of all the samples is shown and it was found that all the samples got
dissolved in the solution within 7 days.

41
7
6 sample 1
5 sample 2
4
sample 3
3
2 sample 4
1 sample 5
0 sample 6
Day Day Day Day Day Day Day sample 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Graph 4.6. showing effect of salt

42
 CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The chapter deals with summary and conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental
work done for the project entitled “ Development of Eco leather and its Utilization in
Food Packaging : A Sustainable Approach ”. Currently , as ethical awareness has
improved worldwide , consumers have become increasingly aware of the environmental
and social issues associated with the fashion industry. Vegan fashion that does not include
cruel slaughter and animal exploitation attracts much attention. The rise of interest in
vegan fashion has led to an increase in interest in vegan materials, and artificial fur and
leather are recognized as alternative materials to animal fur and leather. Through
reflecting upon such a social phenomenon, this study compares past and present
consumers’ awareness of both artificial fur and leather that are alternative materials to
existing animal fur and leather.

Based on the test results , following conclusions were drawn :

A lot of floral waste is generated every year in India . Though this waste can be utilised
for various purposes such as making incense sticks , for making organic manure etc. But
still a large amount of floral waste is dumped into rivers which may harm water bodies
and aquatic life. This floral waste can also be used for making leather .this floral leather
is made without any animal cruelty. And then further this leather can be used in
secondary food packaging and will replace cardboard cartons , polythene bags and this
leather is more durable and have more strength than presently used materials for
secondary food packaging.

Various analysis were carried out during the experiment these include biodegradability ,
effect of acid , effect of alkali , effect of salt , hardness , tensile strength , moisture
content , folding endurance.

43
1. Biodegradability

Biodegradability is the capacity of biological degradation or disintegration of organic

materials by living organisms by the action of microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi
while getting assimilated into the natural environment .

7 samples of eco- leather were biodegraded using two methods of biodegradation:

biodegradation by composting and biodegradation by bench-scale simulated composting.
In both the methods samples of eco-leather were dumped into the compost for a period of
15 days and daily samples were taken out and were weighted daily. Percentage weight
loss of the samples were calculated and it was observed that all the samples of leather
were degraded completely with in a period of 15 to 20 days.

2. Moisture Content

Moisture content or water content is a reference to the amount of moisture present in a

material. This value is often represented as a percentage of the materials mass (such as
X% MC). Moisture content of the samples were calculated by determining weight loss
upon drying and it was done by hot air oven instrument. Initial and final weight of sample
before and after drying was measured and moisture content percentage of the samples
were calculated using the above mentioned formula. It was found that the moisture
content of sample 4 was found to be the highest which is 60%.

3. Folding Endurance

Folding endurance test was done manually by folding the eco leather to number of times
till it breaks. Folding endurance test was done on all the 7 samples and it was found that
highest number of folds was of the sample 4 i.e. 950 folds.The result of number of folds
of all other samples is given in the table above.

44
4. Effect of Acid

Effect of acid was observed on all the 7 samples of leather made .H2SO4 acid was used
on the samples . the leather made was a biodegradable environment friendly leather so it
degraded easily by acid . the samples were dip into the leather for about 7 days .

5. Effect of Alkali

After keeping the samples dipped into 50 % concentration of H2SO4 the sample gets
completely deteriorated after 10 days . All the samples were dipped into the alkali
solution and daily taken out to measure the weight then weight loss is calculated for 10
days till the time weight loss becomes zero and it was found that all the samples get
deteriorated in the alkali solution within 9 to 10 days.

6. Effect of Salt

After keeping the samples dipped into 50 % concentration of NaCl the samples gets
completely deteriorated after 6 days. . All the samples were dipped into the salt solution
and daily taken out to measure the weight then weight loss is calculated for 7 days till the
time weight loss becomes zero and it was found that all the samples get deteriorated in the
alkali solution within 6 to 7 days.

7. Elongation at break

All the samples were tested for elongation by elongation tester .among all the samples ,
elongation percentage of sample 4 was found to be highest which is 60 %..Elongation at
break test was done to ensure that how much stretching is possible in the eco leather.
Elongation at break test ensured that this eco leather sample can be stretched upto 60
percent without any breaking. Thus it can be easily used for packaging purposes in
various industries .

45
8. Tensile Strength

Tensile strength of all the 7 samples was tested by using tensile tester machine and tensile
strength of sample 4 was found to be highest that is 4.2 MPa. Tensile Strength of the
sample was tested by using tensile tester machine. Tensile strength was the most
important parameter which is required for knowing the strength of any leather .

46
 REFERENCES

1. 2000 Jan 18–19. Livermore, Calif: Sandia National Laboratories report. p 8–10.
2468.
2. Agarwal, T., Quraishi, A., Tiwari, K., Jadhav, S.: Ethanol production from mahua
(Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel) flowers by soil bacteria. Researcher 5, 102–106
(2013) and the environment, 1992Nov 9, Chicago Ill.Herndon, Va.: Inst. of
Packaging
3. Arvanitoyannis IS, Bosnea L. 2004.Migration of substances from food packaging
materials to foods. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 44(3):63–76.
4. barriers [abstract]. In: International symposium on packaging, economic
development
5. Bhatti H, Khadim R, Hanif M. Biosorption of Pb (II) and Co(II) 583 on red rose
waste biomass. Iranian J. Chem. Chem Eng. 2011; 30: 81–88.
6. Boca Raton, FL, pp. 401–424. Chapman and Hall, London, England.
7. De Boodt, M., Verdonck, O., 1972. The physical properties of the substrates
8. Dominguez, J., 2004. State-of-the-art and new perspectives on vermicomposting
9. E. J. C. Swaysland, Boot and shoe design and manufacture, Jos. Tebbutt
publishing, 1905.
10. Edwards, C.A., 1998. The use of earthworms in processing organic wastes into
plant.
11. Edwards, C.A., 2004. Earthworm Ecology third ed. CRC press, Boca Raton, pp.
448.
12. Edwards, C.A., Bohlen, P.J., 1996. Biology and Ecology of Earthworms, third ed.
13. Edwards, C.A., Dominguez, J., Neuhauser, E.F., 1998. Growth and reproduction
of Fernandes, M., M. Gama, F. Dourado, and A.P. Souto, Development of novel
bacterial cellulose composites for the textile and shoe industry. Microbial
Biotechnology, 2019. 12(4): p. 650-661.
14. Fernández-Gómez, M.J., Nogales, R., Heribert, I., Esperanza, R., Marta, G., 2010.
Continuous-feeding vermicomposting as a recycling management method to
revalue tomato-fruit wastes from greenhouse crops. Waste Manage. 30, 2461–

47
 future. Trends Food Sci Tech 14(3):71–8.
15. G.O. Conabere, The fundamental structure of hides, skins and leather. J.Int.Soc.
Leather growth media and animal feed protein. In: Edwards, C.A. (Ed.),
Earthworm Ecology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 327–354.
16. Gurav, M., Pathade, G.: Production of vermicompost from temple waste
(Nirmalya): a case study. Univers. J. Environ. Res. Technol 1, 182–192 (2011)
17. Haimanot A., “Review of the Ethiopian leather, leather products Industry” The
Leather Core Group. Jan. 2007
18. horticulture. Acta Hortic. 26, 37–44.House, Jordan Hill, Oxford, 2006, pp. 1. Inc.
444 p.
19. ISO 3376 IULTCS/IUP 6; Leather-Physical and Mechanical Tests-Determination
of Tensile Strength and Percentage Elongation. International Organization for
Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2020.
20. J. A. Wilson, “Variation of Strength and Stretch over the Area of Calf Leather”,
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, pp:829-830, August 1925.
21. J. Lin and D.R. Hayhurst, “Constitutive equations for multi-axial straining of
leather
22. K. Seo and S. Suh, A study on the characteristics and social values of vegan
fashion in H&M and Zara, J. Fash. Bus, 23, No. 6 (2019).
23. Kautish, P.; Paul, J.; Sharma, R. The moderating influence of environmental
consciousness and recycling intentions on green purchase behavior. J. Clean.
Prod. 2019, 228, 1425–1436.
24. Khan, A., Bhattacharia, K., Kader A., and Bahari, K., (2006).Preparation and
characterization of ultra violet (UV) radiation cured bio-degradable films of sago
starch/PVA blend. Carbohydrate polymers, 63. Pp500-506.
25. Kirwan MJ. 2003. Paper and paperboard packaging. In: Coles R, McDowell D,
Kirwan
26. Lee, M.; Karpova, E.; Baytar, F. The effects of information on young consumers’
attitudes and purchase intentions of fashion products made of fur, leather, and
wool. J. Glob. Fashion Market. 2019, 10, 177–193.
27. Makhania M, Upadhyay A. Study of Flower Waste Composting to Generate
Organic Nutrients. Inter. J. Innov. Emer. Res. Engg. 2015; 2(2): 145-147.
28. Marsh KS. 1993. Packaging as a supplier of health, filler of landfills, and excuse
for trade
48
29. McDonoughW,BraungartM. 2002.Cradle tocradle:
remakingthewaywemakethings.
30. McKown C. 2000. Containers. In: Coatings on glass—technology roadmap
workshop.
31. Miles DC, Briston JH. 1965. Polymer technology. New York: Chemical
Publishing Co.
32. MJ, editors. Food packaging technology. London, U.K.: Blackwell Publishing,
CRC
33. Mohanty, S., Behera, S., Swain, M., Ray, R.: Bioethanol production from mahua
(Madhuca latifolia L.) flowers by solid state fermentation. Appl. Energy 86, 640–
644 (2009)
34. N. Sara, F. A. Ngwabebhoh, H. T. Nguyen and P. Saha, Environmentally friendly
and animal free leather: fabrication and characterization, AIP Conference
Proceedings, 2289, issue 1 (2020).
35. Nam, C. and Y.A. Lee, Multilayered Cellulosic Material as a Leather Alternative
in the Footwear Industry. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 2019. 37(1): p.
20-34.
36. New York: North Point Press. 212 p.
37. Ocak, B. Film-forming ability of collagen hydrolysate extracted from leather solid
wastes with chitosan. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 4643–4655.
38. Perionyx excavatus (Perr.) (Megascolecidae) as factors in organic waste
management. Biol. Fert. Soils 27, 155–161.
39. Prasad, R., Prasad, R.: Mahula: the tree of the poor. J. Trop. For. 7, 171–179
(1991)
40. Press. p 241–81.Professionals. p 23–36. R. Daniels, “The Scientific and
commercial significance of variations in strength and
41. R. Thomson and M. Kite, Conservation of leather and related materials, Elsevier
Linacre
42. Rathinamoorthy, R., Consumer’s Awareness on Sustainable Fashion, in
Sustainable Fashion: Consumer Awareness and Education, S.S. Muthu, Editor.
2019, Springer Singapore: Singapore. p. 1-36.
43. research. In: Edwards, C.A. (Ed.), Earthworm Ecology, second ed. CRC Press
LLC,

49
44. Sallam, S., Bueno, I., Nasser, M., Abdalla, A.: Effect of (Eucalyptus citriodora)
fresh or residue leaves on methane emission in vitro. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 9, 299–303
(2010)
45. Shahin R., Theodoros S. and Gareth C., “Recycling of Footwear Products: A
Position Paper Prepared”, Centre for Sustainable Manufacturing and
Reuse/recycling Technologies (SMART), Loughborough University, 2007
46. Sheoran, O.P., Tonk, D.S., Kaushik, L.S., Hasija, R.C. and Pannu, R.S. 1998.
Statistical Software Package for Agricultural Research Worker. Recent Advances
in information theory, Statistics and Computer Applications by D.S. Hooda and
R.C. Hasija, Department of Mathematics Statistics, CCS HAU, Hisar (139-143).
47. Shouche, S., Pandey, A., Bhati, P.: Study about the changes in physical
parameters during vermicomposting of floral wastes.J. Environ. Res. Dev. 6, 63–
68 (2011)
48. Singh, A., Jain, A., Sharma, B., Abhilash, P., Singh, H.: Solid waste management
of temple floral offerings by vermicomposting using Eisenia fetida. Waste Manag.
33, 1113–1118 (2013)
49. Small and Medium Enterprise Development Authority (SMEDA), “Leather
Footwear Manufacturing Unit: Pre-Feasibility Study”, Government of Pakistan,
March, 2002
50. stretch in leather”, World Leather, pp:20-25, November 2007.
51. Swain, M., Kar, S., Sahoo, A., Ray, R.: Ethanol fermentation of mahua (Madhuca
latifolia L.) flowers using free and immobilized yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae.
Microbiol. Res. 162, 93–98(2007)
52. Tharanathan RN. 2003.Biodegradable films and composite coatings: past, present
and
53. Trds’ Chem.,1944, 28(12): 270-280.
54. under uni-axial stress”, Eur. J. Mechanics, 1993, 12(4): 471-492.
55. UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization), “Leather and
leather products for the global market: Made in Ethiopia” 2012

50