Developmental

and Educational
Psychology for
Teachers
An applied approach

Second edition

Dennis M. McInerney &

David W. Putwain
Second edition published 2017
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 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH 11

and examine closely the work of Piaget, Kohlberg (and neo-Kohlbergian approaches),
Gilligan, and Turiel.
We discuss Piaget’s stages of moral reasoning, together with the notions of a morality
of constraint and a morality of cooperation. In line with recent thinking about Piagetian
stage theory, we provide a critique of his approach to moral development. Kohlberg’s
stages of moral development – preconventional, conventional, and postconventional –
are described and the current status of the theory is explored. In particular, we examine
sex differences in moral development, the relationship between moral reasoning and
moral behaviour, and cross-cultural implications. Neo-Kohlbergian developments of
Kohlberg’s theory are also examined. Gilligan’s critique of the male bias in Kohlberg’s
theory is examined, as well as her call for a revision which gives greater focus to a
morality of caring.
Turiel’s domain theory of moral development is also described. Within domain
theory a distinction is drawn between the child’s developing concepts of morality, and
other domains of social knowledge, such as social convention. According to domain
theory, the child’s concepts of morality and social convention emerge out of the child’s
attempts to account for qualitatively differing forms of social experience associated
with these two classes of social events. Hence, there are considerable differences in
perspectives between Turiel’s views and the stage theories of Piaget and Kohlberg.
Throughout the book these physical, cognitive, and personal themes of develop-
mental psychology are related to the educational experiences of the children so that
you as a practitioner are better prepared to facilitate the development of children. In
the next section we consider important qualities of research that provides the informa-
tion on child growth and development throughout this book.

Psychology and the scientific method

Progress in many fields depends upon asking questions and seeking answers. It is no
different for psychology. Why do people behave the way they do? How do people
learn? How do we form emotions? What are the relative effects of heredity and envi-
ronment on human development? What mechanisms are involved in walking, talking,
and perceiving? In order to answer questions effectively psychological researchers must
adopt scientific methods that allow for accuracy, objectivity, scepticism, and open-
mindedness. Unless researchers are accurate, what store can be placed in the answers?
Unless researchers are objective, how can they argue that the answers do not reflect
overt and covert biases? Unless researchers are willing to be sceptical, how can their
answers be challenged? Finally, unless researchers are open-minded how can they cope
with answers that appear ‘out of field’? (see for example, Bryman, 2012; Creswell &
Clark, 2007; Robson, 2011).
To investigate questions psychologists often hypothesise effects and relationships
between phenomena, and test these out through well-constructed experiments. At
other times, psychologists pose questions about phenomena that allow for research
approaches that are more open. When effects and relationships are found psycholo-
gists seek to discover ‘why’. Most often, the ‘why’ is related to a theoretical perspective
12 CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH

that underpins the research. Theory, rather than being something vague, is based on
principles independent of observations and provides the structure for investigations,
as well as a framework for analysing and interpreting data and applying findings
appropriately. All good psychological research reflects theoretical principles and you
will become familiar with many theories as you complete your study in psychology.
There are many under investigated research questions in developmental psychol-
ogy. It is important for researchers to ascertain whether a particular research question
has already been identified and answered by other researchers. It is futile to spend time
and resources on a problem that has already been highly researched unless there are
some puzzles still remaining. A literature review is conducted in a research area to find
out what is already known about an issue of interest. The literature review will also
suggest potential avenues for further investigation, partial solutions to the problem
under consideration, and appropriate methodologies, tools, and analyses for further
research. In other words, a background literature review provides researchers with a
good foundation upon which to construct their studies. Research literature is also an
essential resource for professionals wishing to keep abreast of their field.
When addressing a research question a researcher develops an appropriate research
design. The research design will be comprised of the research questions, an identifica-
tion of the appropriate data, the sample of participants that are needed to obtain these
data, and the method for gathering these data, and the analytical tools and approaches
to be used for analysing these data. Again, each of these elements must be consistent
with the research aims. In addition to these components of research are associated
concerns such as whether the researcher has access to the type and size of sample
needed, how long will the study take, how expensive will data entry and analysis be,
what special equipment is needed, and so on. For example, two basic designs used in
psychological research are cross-sectional designs and longitudinal designs. Cross-
sectional designs study a large number of participants at a given point in time, hence
are efficient in providing much data. Longitudinal designs usually study a smaller
number of participants continuously over a longer period of time that might stretch
over years. However, both of these designs have strengths and limitations, and it is
important to maximise the strength of a methodology so that it most clearly addresses
the research issue under examination.

QUESTION POINT

Consider cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs. What are their

strengths and weaknesses? Suggest two projects, one in which it would be
important to have a longitudinal approach and one in which it would be
important to have a cross-sectional approach. Give reasons for your decision about
the appropriateness of the research design.

In the next section we describe some common forms of research design in

psychology.
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH 13

Basic and applied research

Before we consider specific methodologies, it is necessary to consider basic and
applied research (see, Mayer, 2008; Spiel, 2009; Stokes, 1997). It is common to
make a distinction between what is called basic (sometimes called ‘pure’) and applied
research. What is basic research? What is applied research? At its most simple level,
basic research deals with the generation of new knowledge or the extension of exist-
ing knowledge. It might be an experiment examining the impact of x on y, or a study
of the attitudes of individuals to a particular issue. The focus is clearly on the provi-
sion of new information without regard to immediate practical application of the
knowledge. The research may even appear somewhat unrelated to ‘real world’ issues
and the solving of specific problems. An example of this might be the tracking of eye
movement in newly born children. There are many examples of basic research having
a dramatic impact on our everyday lives through the clever application of new infor-
mation to old problems. For example, the discovery of recency and latency effects
regarding recognition and recall resulted in communication theory advocating that
the delivery of information is more or less effective when given in chunks using the
seven, plus or minus two, rule.
Applied research, as its name implies, is concerned with the application of knowl-
edge to solve specific practical problems. For example, once it is discovered that x
has a particular effect on y, other researchers may attempt to use this information to
solve a relevant problem. Indeed the progress of much scientific practice proceeds in
this way. Hence, applied research in psychology may study the effectiveness of a self-
esteem programme on academic achievement. In many cases, research studies may
have basic and applied components.

QUESTION POINT

Discuss with other students some potential basic psychological experiments that
relate to education. Discuss some potential applied psychological experiments that
relate to education. Can you easily tell the difference between a study that has a
basic focus and a study that has an applied focus?

Research methods
Below the level of basic and applied research are the research methods that research-
ers choose to conduct their research. We have already mentioned two designs of
importance: cross-sectional and longitudinal. Research reported throughout this
book will represent both types. Three methodological approaches commonly used
in psychology are experimental research, quasi-experimental research, and correla-
tional research. Each approach has its specific requirements and is suited to particular
research questions and settings. These methods can be used with either cross-sectional
or longitudinal designs.
14 CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH

ACTIVITY POST

Consider a range of research articles suggested by your lecturer. Can you identify
the research method used in each?

Experimental research
In experimental research the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables
(those chosen as important by the researcher) in order to observe their effects on one
or more dependent variables (outcomes seen to be important by the researcher) (Hole,
2012; Robson, 2011). All other variables that might have a confounding effect on out-
comes are controlled. Confounding refers to the situation where the researcher cannot
effectively tease out what are the ‘real’ causes owing to the possible effects of other ele-
ments not controlled for. For example, the researcher might be interested in the effects of
reaction time of individuals to blinking red and green lights. Variables that might have
an impact such as sex, age, disabilities, and so on, are either built into the experiment as
independent variables so that their effects may be examined, or controlled so that they
do not confound the results. Control of these variables may be achieved through ran-
domising or counterbalancing the variables, if the sample is large enough, or matching
and holding them constant across groups. Extraneous elements that might also have an
unwanted effect (such as time of day, room distractions, etc.) are also controlled so that
the direct effect of red and green lights on reaction time is validly measured.

QUESTION POINT

Discuss, with examples, randomising and counterbalancing in experiments. Why

would a large sample be desirable for randomising and counterbalancing?

There are a number of experimental designs used by researchers. These deal with
issues such as the number and arrangement of independent variables. They also deal
with the way subjects are selected and assigned to conditions, how confounding vari-
ables are controlled for, and finally a description of the statistical analyses used to
evaluate the results of the experimental manipulation. These elements of research
design are very important for the researcher and others to establish whether the results
of the experiment are generalisable to other situations, and so that other researchers
can replicate the research if they want to.

Quasi-experimental research
At times, it is not possible to control all potentially confounding variables. Furthermore,
the interactive effects of a whole range of variables (such as socio-economic status,
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH 15

educational level of parents, culture, and prior educational experiences) might not eas-
ily be controlled or manipulated in an experimental design. This is particularly the case
when the researcher conducts an experiment with human participants in intact groups.
In other words, the researcher has less control over matching and randomisation. It
is common for classroom experiments to be quasi-experimental as the researcher has
little control over who is in each class. For example, if a researcher wants to examine
the effects of an ‘old’ and ‘new’ way of teaching by comparing the outcomes in two
classes there is a more limited possibility for experimental control. Nevertheless, well-
planned quasi-experimental research can have many of the hallmarks of experimental
research, by incorporating as many principles of scientific control as possible given
the circumstances. Well-planned quasi-experimental research can allow for pre-post
comparisons when groups are tested at the beginning and end of some treatment in
order to examine any differential outcomes. Any initial differences in groups owing
to lack of randomisation can be partially controlled for by statistical techniques. For
example, if a researcher was examining the effects of a new reading programme on
an experimental classroom compared with a control classroom and there were pre-
existing initial differences in intelligence and reading ability in the two classes, both
prior reading ability and intelligence can be added to the statistical analyses so that
these are controlled. Any residual differences remaining between the experimental and
control groups can be attributed to the experimental treatment.
In other quasi-experimental research, some level of randomisation to groups, some
matching, and various statistical controls over the data to eliminate variance due to
extraneous features of the design and sample can be utilised. In fact, in some cases,
the distinction between true experimental and quasi-experimental research is tenuous
in much psychological research. Quasi-experimental research may also have greater
ecological validity than experimental research when dealing with human subjects.

Correlational research
Both experimental and quasi-experimental research is concerned with demonstrating
causal relationships. That is, the experimenter sets out to demonstrate that if variable
x is manipulated in a particular way it will have a causal effect on what happens to
variable y. Not all psychological research is amenable to such an approach, nor is all
research clearly able to isolate causality. The focus of much psychological research,
therefore, is to demonstrate relationships between variables, such as when variable
x varies, variable y varies in some predictable way. This type of research is called cor-
relational research.
If two variables completely covary, that is as one variable increases by one unit,
the other variable also increases by one unit the coefficient of relationship is 1.0. If
there is absolutely no covariation the coefficient of relationship is 0.0. If the covaria-
tion is in the same direction, that is, as one variable measure increases the other also
increases, the coefficient is positive ( ). If the covariation is in the opposite direction,
for example, as one variable measure increases the other variable measure decreases,
the coefficient is negative (–). There are statistical tests that measure whether the
covariation is significant. A rule of thumb suggests that coefficients above 0.4 are
generally considered meaningful relationships between variables. Much educational
16 CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH

and developmental research is correlational in nature. There are many excellent texts
around on quantitative research and you should consult some of these (see, for
example, Field, 2013; Miles, 2012).

ACTIVITY POST

Select three research articles from the journal Child Development, or other
developmental psychology journal. Select one example of experimental,
quasi-experimental, and correlational research. Write a brief overview of each
article illustrating the specific qualities of the methodology that identifies it
as experimental, quasi-experimental or correlational. What are the relative
strengths of each approach? Can you identify three potential research questions
in developmental psychology that could be answered by each approach?

QUESTION POINT

Do you think any one method of research (experimental, quasi-experimental,

correlational, qualitative) is better suited to psychological research than another? Why?

Qualitative research
The research designs we have considered so far are largely quantitative designs in
which statistical analyses play a large role. One difficulty with such approaches is that
they can be somewhat removed from the real world of human experience. Increasingly
in psychology, researchers are using alternative methods to address questions in
more naturalistic contexts. Sometimes these alternatives are used in the early stages
of research to examine a problem in its ‘real’ or ‘normal’ context in order to generate
plausible hypotheses, or appropriate tools (such as survey questions) for later experi-
mental or correlational research. This research is referred to as qualitative research
(Eatough, 2012; Robson, 2011).
Qualitative studies are also used to understand or check on findings, that is, they can
be used to test hypotheses and provide information to supplement, validate, explain,
illuminate, or reinterpret quantitative data. At other times, qualitative approaches are
considered the essential means by which a problem can be most effectively addressed
because they allow the examination of a problem holistically, taking account of real
life in all its complexity and depth. In this latter case, for example, the researcher might
be specifically interested in the perceptions of the participants ‘from the inside’ which
could not be effectively addressed experimentally. In general, qualitative methods use
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH 17

relatively little standardised instrumentation and do not depend on extensive statistical

analyses.
Qualitative research has a long and illustrious history in psychology. Many key theo-
retical perspectives guiding psychology were derived from qualitative analyses. We only
need to mention Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky, Jung, Kohlberg, and Kuhn for you to realise
the rich informative contribution made by these theoreticians to our understanding
and awareness, and importantly, our view of human personality and development.
Qualitative research may be biographical involving an intense study of an indi-
vidual, ethnographic involving the intensive study of groups of people, naturalistic
such as observing children in classrooms and adults in shopping malls, survey based
such as questionnaires and interviews, and case study based in which detailed infor-
mation is gathered on particular individuals. In many cases, qualitative research
is positivistic, that is based on a priori theorising seeking for answers to research
questions. At other times qualitative research is more open and based on grounded
theory approaches in which questions, themes and issues arise from the analysis of
the data themselves.
Data may be obtained through archival records, oral histories, interviews,
autobiographies, studies of individuals and their lived experiences, surveys, obser-
vations, fieldwork studies, and so on. The aim of the researcher is to reduce the
data (and with qualitative research this can be quite extensive) into meaningful
patterns. For each approach, therefore, there will be related data reduction and
analysis techniques, such as coding, content and cluster analyses of documents
and scripts. Increasingly there are computer software packages available that facili-
tate the coding, reduction, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative data. As with
good quantitative research, the researcher needs to control extraneous variables
and ensure that spurious results are not generated by faulty analyses. There are
many excellent qualitative research texts around and you should consult a number
of these if you are interested in conducting qualitative research (see, for example,
Bannister et al., 2011; Smith, 2015; Wilig, 2013).

QUESTION POINT

Consider a number of research issues in psychology that you believe could be

studied most effectively through a qualitative approach. Why is a qualitative
approach most appropriate? How would you control for the accuracy of your
research in generating valid and reliable results?

Integrative reviews and meta-analyses

While you might not typically think that a literature review is a form of research, reviews
that involve a secondary analysis and synthesis of data across related studies is, in fact,
a very valuable form of research commonly used in psychology. All researchers depend
18 CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH

on both integrative reviews and meta-analyses to describe what findings are already
available on particular topics and how other researchers conducted their studies. An
integrative review is one that primarily synthesises and interprets findings on a topic
across a range of relevant research articles. It will identify themes, and may discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of particular articles and the field of research as a whole. A
meta-analysis goes further. It takes the primary statistical findings from a large number
of research projects related to a specific topic, such as the effect of self-esteem enhance-
ment programmes on academic achievement, and derives a measure which reflects
whether, on average, results are significant or not, and positive or negative. Both forms
of literature review are very useful for researchers developing a research programme.
Integrative reviews and meta-analyses are routinely used by psychologists to keep
abreast of recent developments in their field of expertise.

General principles of good research

Research on child growth and development is very common in Western societies. From
this research much information is derived that gives norms for physical, motor, and
cognitive development on which professionals and caregivers can evaluate an indi-
vidual’s growth, as well as guidelines for interpreting development in a whole range of
areas from personal and social to moral and intellectual.
From infancy onwards, caregivers and other professionals such as nurses, doctors,
social workers, teachers, and coaches weigh, measure, poke, and prod youngsters to
assess whether or not they are growing and developing according to norms or other
expected standards. In this sense, the process of measurement relates to collecting specific
quantitative data which might be in centimetres, kilograms, number of erupted teeth,
heart rate, or visual acuity (Fife-Shaw, 2012). Evaluation, on the other hand, refers to the
quality, value, or worth of the information gathered (Robson, 2011). So while a child
might weigh 15 kilograms (an objective measurement), they might be evaluated as being
scrawny or pudgy (a subjective, ‘evaluative’ judgment). To make the interpretation less
subjective other criteria (such as age norms) need to be applied to make the evaluation.
In this context these evaluations are often referred to as assessments (Biesta, 2009).

Validity in measurement
We generally use the term validity in measurement to refer to whether we are indeed
measuring what we intend to measure. More importantly, validity refers to the appro-
priateness of a measure for the specific inferences or decisions that result from the
scores generated by the measure (Robson, 2011). Researchers need to be confident
that the interpretations they make are based upon a dependable measure, do not
overstate what the measure allows them to state, and are appropriate to the intentions
of the measurement’s use. For example, it would be inappropriate to use a measure of
intellectual performance to evaluate interpersonal relationship skills for purposes of
employing a person.
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH 19

Various types of evidence may be accrued to support the validity of measurements

(Shadish, 2002; Shadish et al., 2002). Among the evidence that may be used to support
the validity of a particular measurement are face, content, criterion, and construct
evidence.
Face validity evidence indicates that the task or measure in the research, at least
on the surface, measures what it purports to measure (Kleine, 2000). It is a relatively
low level indicator of validity, but it is, nevertheless, an important starting point.
For example, a question such as ‘how much is 4 times twelve’ would have face validity
for measuring mathematical intelligence but not for measuring emotional intelligence.
Individuals completing a test or exercise should, by and large, see a link between the
purposes of the task and what they are actually asked to do.
Content validity evidence is provided when the measure, such as a questionnaire
or intelligence test or biological measure reflects the appropriate domain of investiga-
tion. In other words, the activity should match as closely as possible the objectives
for which it was designed. In this case it would be inappropriate to test swimming
ability through a paper and pencil test if the teaching consisted largely of practical
swimming activities.
Criterion validity evidence is provided when the results of specific measurement
such as a new intelligence or personality test converge with the results of other estab-
lished measurements. For example, we might be interested in comparing individual
performances on a particular aptitude test with other evidence of performance –
completion of a practical activity, position in class, teacher rankings– to see if the new
test is measuring the same underlying quality. In each of these cases the researcher
is establishing a benchmark with which to assess how well the new measurement
techniques ‘measure up’ (Kline, 2000; Newton & Shaw, 2014). If the data from our
measurements are compared at the same time and lead to the same conclusions about
the individual’s performance, the evidence from each is called concurrent validity.
When the data are able to predict a criterion outcome, such as school performance
or job promotion, we can say that the measurement provides predictive evidence for
its validity.
At times, researchers design questionnaires to measure psychological constructs
such as competitiveness, self-concept, figural intelligence, creativity, or anxiety. When
researchers wish to establish that the questions designed to measure a dimension such
as self-concept do measure this underlying theoretical construct in a systematic way,
they may use a statistical procedure called factor analysis. When procedures such as
factor analysis are used to support the underlying dimensions being measured by
a test, we speak of establishing construct validity evidence (Kline, 2000; Newton &
Shaw, 2014).
Factor analysis is well beyond the scope of this book. A simpler method of estab-
lishing construct validity of tasks might be used. For example, if we design a test
to measure mechanical aptitude we should be able to use the data obtained from
testing individuals to classify them as either more or less mechanically able. To
the extent that our classification is supported by external evidence (such as perfor-
mance in mechanical tasks), we have evidence of the construct validity of the test
(Newton & Shaw, 2014).
20 CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH

Reliability in measurement
Researchers need to be confident that any measures they use are reliable – that is,
stable and consistent over time, this is referred to measurement reliability (Meyer,
2010). If measures are not stable and consistent over time then very little use can be
made of them. For example, if a psychological measurement indicated a pathology in
an individual on one testing, but not on a subsequent testing, we have no clear evi-
dence on which to base assessment, treatment, or practice. Indeed, if a test or proce-
dure produces unreliable results then the test or procedure can not be a valid measure
of the domain under examination. There are a number of ways in which reliability
is assessed, although few measures would be totally reliable. One way to evaluate
reliability is to present the test or exercise to the same participants on two different
occasions. If the test is reliable it should produce similar results on both occasions.
This approach is referred to as test-retest reliability. At other times we may use two
or more observers to rate a response and compare their ratings. This is referred to as
inter-rater reliability. An illustration of this would be two raters coding responses
to an open ended questionnaire, or two raters rating the incidence of aggression
between two children in a playground. If the codings or observations are reliable
they should be similar for the two raters. A further form of reliability referred to as
internal consistency reliability is based on statistical techniques. If several items on a
survey are used to tap into a psychological dimension such as anxiety there should be
high intercorrelation between these items, and low correlation between these items
and items measuring an oppositional dimension such as joy. Internal consistency
reliability tests produce coefficients ranging from 1.00 which means total intercor-
relation to 0.00. Usually researchers like their internal consistency measures to show
a coefficient of greater than 0.7.

Ethics and research

All psychological research conducted through universities and other institutions such
as schools and hospitals is controlled by ethics committees. There are ethical standards
for conducting research with children and adolescents which seek to protect the par-
ticipants from any intrusive or dangerous physical or psychological procedure. Ethical
standards also require that participants be appropriately informed about the nature
and purpose of the research, and they must give their active permission to participate.
For minors, parental permission is essential. In most cases research cannot proceed
until the programme of research is vetted by the appropriate committee and official
sanction given. It is usual to provide some form of report to participants or organisa-
tions sponsoring or supporting the research, and in most cases reports guarantee the
confidentiality of all participants.
In your careers as teachers or psychologists you may wish to conduct research,
either as part of your ongoing training, or to obtain information relevant to your
clients. In this instance you must ensure that you have followed all ethics provisions
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH 21

required in your work-place. Most professional psychological bodies such as the

British Psychological Association and the British Educational Research Association
have their own ethics guidelines that should be consulted. These are available at the
following websites: https://bera.ac.uk/researchers-resources/resources-for-researchers
and http://bps.org.uk/what-we-do/ethics-standards/ethics-standards

Internet resources

Much valuable information on developmental psychology and related topics is found

on the Internet. Throughout this book, we will direct you to web addresses for further
information on specific topics. Useful general websites for developmental psychology
for teachers are listed below. We advise you to add these to your favourites list, as well
as those you discover yourself.

• Psychcrawler is an excellent search engine designed by the American

Psychological Association to find most things related to psychology: http://
psychcrawler.com
• Psych Web is an excellent site that contains lots of psychology-related
information for students and teachers of psychology: http://psywww.com/
index.html
• Encyclopedia of Psychology. Type in a topic and see what you get! http://
psychology.org
• American Psychological Association (APA). The APA publishes many excellent
journals in psychology. You will find a list of them at this website. It also has hot
links to a number of useful psychology sites: http://apa.org

The following websites are for important associations in psychology or psychology in

education. You should be familiar with them, as they will present many resources for
your study of educational and developmental psychology.

• American Psychological Association. http://apa.org

• Australian Psychological Society. http://psychology.org.au
• British Psychological Society. http://bps.org.uk/index.cfm
• The British Educational Research Association. https://bera.ac.uk/
• The American Educational Research Association (AERA). http://aera.net

The following websites will also be useful:

• APA Style Resources. This is a must for those writing papers in psychology:
http://psywww.com/ resource/apacrib.htm
• Journal of Educational Psychology home page. An important journal with which
you should be familiar: http://apa.org/journals/edu.html
22 CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH

• Psychology Journals. This site hot-links to major journals in psychology. It is

prepared by Athabasca University in Canada: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/
aupr/journals.shtml
• Research Digest. Summaries of the most recent research provided by the British
Psychological Society. http://digest.bps.org.uk/
• Teaching and Learning Toolkit. Accessible summaries of educational research.
https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/toolkit/
• Guidelines for Effective Teaching. https://teachingcommons.stanford.edu/
resources/learning-resources
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