Personality Development

❑ Building a Better You

“Believe in yourself and all that you are. Know

that there is something inside you that is greater
than any obstacle.” – Christian D. Larson
What is Personality?
► In common parlance, Personality refers to a personal appearance with
a charming smile or outlook
► But according to Psychologists – it is concerned with growth and
development of a person’s whole psychological system
► Personality is the combination of characteristics, behaviors, thoughts,
and emotions that define an individual and differentiate them from
others.
► It encompasses how we think, feel, and act in various situations.
► Personality is the dynamic and organized set of characteristics
possessed by a person that uniquely influences their environment,
thoughts, emotions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations.
Components of Personality:
► Components of Personality:
1. Thoughts: The way we process information and
perceive the world around us.
2. Emotions: Our feelings and emotional responses to
different stimuli.
3. Behaviors: The actions we take in response to our
thoughts and emotions.
Key points: Features of the Personality Components
❑ Unique to Each Individual: No two personalities are exactly alike; everyone has a
unique blend of traits.
❑ Consistent Patterns: While our behavior can change depending on the situation, our
core personality traits tend to remain stable over time.
❑ Influences Interactions: Personality influences how we interact with others, how
we perceive ourselves, and how we cope with life's challenges.
❑ Complex and Multifaceted: Personality includes a wide range of traits and
characteristics, making it complex and multifaceted.
❑ Role of the Unconscious: According to psychoanalytic theories, much of our
personality is influenced by unconscious processes.
❑ Adaptive and Maladaptive Traits: Personalities can have traits that help us adapt
to the environment and those that might hinder us.
 IMP
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Do Again

The Big Five Personality Traits, also known as the

Five-Factor Model (FFM)
❑ Openness:
✔ Individuals high in openness tend to be imaginative, curious, and
open-minded.
✔ They enjoy exploring new concepts, seeking adventure, and are often
receptive to unconventional ideas and perspectives.
❑ Conscientiousness:
✔ People high in conscientiousness are diligent, reliable, and
self-disciplined.
✔ They set clear goals, plan ahead, and strive for achievement.
✔ They tend to be well-organized and demonstrate strong work ethic in
their endeavors.
The Big Five Personality Traits
► Extraversion:
Extraverts are outgoing, sociable, and energetic.
They enjoy being around others, engaging in social activities, and often
seek excitement and stimulation.
They are typically assertive in their interactions and may take on
leadership roles.
► Agreeableness:
Individuals high in agreeableness are warm, compassionate, and
considerate of others' feelings.
They value harmony in relationships, are cooperative in group settings,
and tend to be forgiving and empathetic towards others' needs and
perspectives.
The Big Five Personality Traits
► Neuroticism (Emotional Stability):
People high in neuroticism are more prone to experiencing negative
emotions and psychological distress.
They may be more sensitive to stress, exhibit mood swings, and worry
frequently.
In contrast, those low in neuroticism (high emotional stability) are
generally more calm, composed, and resilient in the face of
challenges.
Illustrative Example:
► Public Speaking Scenario:
• Person A: Before a public speech, Person A feels excited and energized
(high extraversion, low neuroticism). They prepare a few key points and
rely on their ability to improvise. During the speech, they engage the
audience with enthusiasm and charisma, responding confidently to
questions.
• Person B: Person B, on the other hand, feels anxious and nervous (high
neuroticism, low extraversion). They meticulously plan and script their
speech, practicing multiple times to reduce anxiety. During the speech,
they stick closely to their script and prefer not to deviate.
Illustrations:
► Workplace Challenge:
• Person C: Assigned a challenging project, Person C approaches it with
creativity and an open mind (high openness). They brainstorm
innovative solutions and enjoy exploring new ideas. They thrive in a
dynamic environment and adapt well to changes.
• Person D: Person D prefers structure and order (high
conscientiousness, low openness). They create a detailed plan and
timeline, ensuring every aspect of the project is carefully organized.
They focus on meeting deadlines and maintaining high standards of
accuracy and quality.
Illustrations:
► Social Gathering:
• Person E: At a party, Person E is the life of the event (high
extraversion). They enjoy meeting new people, starting conversations,
and are often found at the center of the group, making others laugh
and feel comfortable.
• Person F: Person F prefers one-on-one interactions or small groups
(low extraversion, high introversion). They find a quiet corner and
engage in deep, meaningful conversations with a few individuals
rather than mingling with the crowd.
Illustrations:
► Conflict Resolution:
• Person G: In a disagreement at work, Person G remains calm and
seeks to understand both sides of the issue (high agreeableness, high
emotional intelligence). They mediate the conflict by empathizing
with others' perspectives and finding a compromise.
• Person H: Person H is more assertive and direct (low agreeableness,
high conscientiousness). They focus on the facts and logic of the
situation, presenting their arguments clearly and firmly. They
prioritize reaching a resolution quickly, even if it means being
somewhat confrontational.
Illustrations:
► Handling Stress:
• Person I: Under stress, Person I tends to stay positive and look for
solutions (high resilience, high emotional stability). They practice
mindfulness and seek support from friends and family. They view
challenges as opportunities for growth.
• Person J: Person J feels overwhelmed and anxious under stress (low
emotional stability). They may withdraw and avoid dealing with the
problem directly. They need more time to process their emotions and may
benefit from structured support and reassurance.
Illustrations:
► Learning New Skills:
• Person K: When learning a new skill, Person K dives in with enthusiasm
and curiosity (high openness). They experiment and try different
approaches, enjoying the learning process itself. They are not afraid to
↑

make mistakes and learn from them.

• Person L: Person L prefers a systematic approach to learning (high
conscientiousness). They research thoroughly, follow instructions
carefully, and practice consistently until they master the skill. They
set clear goals and track their progress meticulously.
Personality Development
❑ Motivation

“The difference between a successful person and

others is not a lack of strength, not a lack of
knowledge, but rather a lack in will” – Vince
Lombardi
What is Motivation?
► Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and sustains
goal-oriented behaviors.
► It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of
water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
► Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that
stimulate people to take actions that lead to achieving a
goal.
► It involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive
forces that activate behavior.
Relevance of Motivation
► Goal Setting and Achievement:
• Motivation helps individuals set and pursue personal goals. It provides
the impetus to establish clear, achievable objectives and the
perseverance to attain them, fostering a sense of accomplishment and
self-worth.
► Continuous Learning and Growth:
• Motivated individuals are more likely to seek out new knowledge and
skills. This continuous learning process is vital for personal
development, enabling individuals to adapt to changes, overcome
challenges, and stay relevant.
Relevance…….
► Enhancing Self-Efficacy:
• Motivation boosts self-confidence and self-efficacy. Believing in one's
abilities to achieve desired outcomes is essential for personal growth.
Motivated individuals are more likely to take on challenging tasks and
persist in the face of adversity.
► Improving Resilience and Coping Skills:

N
• Motivation helps individuals develop resilience and effective coping
mechanisms. A motivated person is better equipped to handle
setbacks and stress, viewing obstacles as opportunities for growth
rather than insurmountable barriers.
Relevance…….
► Fostering Positive Attitudes and Behaviors:
• Motivation cultivates a positive mindset and proactive behaviors.
Motivated individuals tend to exhibit optimism, enthusiasm, and a
proactive approach to life's challenges, which are critical attributes
for personal development.
► Encouraging Self-Discipline and Time Management:
• Motivation is linked to self-discipline and effective time
management. Individuals who are motivated are more likely to
prioritize their tasks, manage their time efficiently, and avoid
procrastination, leading to more productive and fulfilling lives.
Relevance…….

X
► Building Healthy Relationships:
• Motivation influences the quality of interpersonal relationships.
Motivated individuals are more likely to invest time and effort in
building and maintaining healthy, supportive relationships, which
are essential for personal and social well-being.
► Promoting Overall Well-Being:
• Motivation contributes to overall mental and emotional
well-being. It encourages individuals to engage in activities that
promote physical health, mental clarity, and emotional stability,
leading to a balanced and fulfilling life.
Relevance…….

X
► Driving Innovation and Creativity:
• Motivated individuals are often more innovative and
creative. They seek out new experiences and ideas, which
can lead to personal and professional breakthroughs and a
richer, more dynamic personality.
► Aligning with Personal Values and Purpose:
• Motivation helps individuals align their actions with their
core values and life purpose. Understanding and pursuing
what truly matters to them leads to a more authentic and
meaningful life.
Factors of Motivation: Intrinsic Factors

-
► Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual and is driven by
personal satisfaction and the inherent enjoyment of the activity.
► Autonomy:
• The desire to have control over one's own actions and decisions. When
individuals feel they have a say in their tasks and how they complete
them, their motivation increases.
► Mastery:
• The drive to improve skills and become proficient in a particular area.
This includes the enjoyment of learning and personal growth.
-
Intrinsic factors
► Purpose:
• The sense that what one is doing has meaning and contributes to a larger
goal. Feeling that one's work has a positive impact can significantly boost
motivation.
► Interest:
• The natural curiosity and enjoyment of the activity itself. When people are
genuinely interested in what they are doing, they are more likely to be
motivated.
► Challenge:
• The appeal of engaging in tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult.
The right level of challenge can keep individuals engaged and motivated.
 -
Extrinsic Factors
► Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards or avoiding negative
consequences.
► Rewards:
• Financial incentives such as salary, bonuses, and benefits. Recognition and
tangible rewards can motivate individuals to achieve specific goals.
► Recognition:
• Acknowledgment and praise from others for achievements and efforts.
Public recognition can enhance motivation by providing validation and
esteem.
► Work Conditions:
• The physical and psychological work environment. A comfortable, safe, and
supportive workplace can improve motivation.
-
Extrinsic Factors
► Job Security:
• The assurance that one's job is stable and secure. Knowing that one's
position is not at risk can reduce stress and increase motivation.
► Leadership and Management:
• The style and behavior of supervisors and managers. Effective,
supportive, and inspiring leadership can boost motivation by fostering
a positive work culture.
► Feedback:
• Constructive feedback on performance. Regular and clear feedback
helps individuals understand how they are doing and where they can
improve.
-
Extrinsic Factors
► Peer Influence:
• The influence of colleagues and the work group. A collaborative and
positive team environment can enhance motivation through social
support and shared goals.
► Career Advancement Opportunities:
• Opportunities for promotion and professional growth. Knowing that
there is potential for career progression can motivate individuals to
perform well.
Personality Development

❑ Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Introduction

► Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory provides a deeper

understanding of the dynamics of employee motivation
and satisfaction by emphasizing the distinction
between factors that lead to job satisfaction and those
that prevent dissatisfaction.
► This theory has been influential in shaping
management practices, particularly in designing jobs
and understanding what drives employee satisfaction
and performance.
Historical Perspective
► Frederick Herzberg developed the Two-Factor Theory in the late 1950s
through a study he conducted with 203 accountants and engineers in
the Pittsburgh area.
► Herzberg and his team used a qualitative research method called the
critical incident technique.
► Participants were asked to describe situations in which they felt
exceptionally good or bad about their jobs and to explain the reasons
for these feelings.
► The results revealed that factors contributing to job satisfaction were
different from those leading to job dissatisfaction.
► This led to the development of the Two-Factor Theory, where
motivators and hygiene factors were identified as the key elements
influencing employee attitudes towards work.
Motivators (Intrinsic Factors)
► Achievement: Employees feel motivated when they accomplish
challenging tasks or meet significant goals. The sense of personal
achievement and success is a strong driver of motivation.
► Recognition: Recognition from supervisors, peers, or the organization
as a whole for work well done contributes significantly to job
satisfaction. This could be in the form of praise, awards, or public
acknowledgment.
► Work Itself: The content of the job, including its complexity, variety,
and inherent interest, plays a crucial role in motivating employees.
Jobs that are meaningful and engaging tend to enhance satisfaction.
Motivators
► Responsibility: Giving employees more responsibility, autonomy, and
decision-making power can increase their sense of ownership and
commitment to their work, leading to higher motivation.
► Advancement: Opportunities for promotion and career development
are powerful motivators. Employees are more likely to stay motivated
when they see clear paths for advancement within the organization.
► Personal Growth: Providing opportunities for learning, skill
development, and personal growth can motivate employees to perform
better. This could include training programs, mentorship, or
challenging assignments that push them to develop new competencies.
Hygiene/Maintenance Factors (Extrinsic Factors)
► Company Policies and Administration: Fair and transparent policies,
clear communication of rules, and efficient administrative processes are
essential for preventing dissatisfaction. Poor policies or bureaucratic
inefficiencies can lead to frustration and demotivation.
► Supervision: The quality of leadership and management is crucial.
Employees who feel supported and valued by their supervisors are less
likely to experience dissatisfaction. Conversely, poor management can
lead to low morale and high turnover.
► Working Conditions: This includes the physical environment, safety,
equipment, and resources available to employees. Poor working
conditions can lead to stress and dissatisfaction, while good conditions
contribute to a positive work environment.
Hygiene Factors
► Salary: While salary is not a direct motivator, inadequate or perceived
unfair compensation can lead to dissatisfaction. Competitive and fair
wages help prevent dissatisfaction but don't necessarily motivate
employees to go above and beyond.
► Interpersonal Relations: The quality of relationships with colleagues,
supervisors, and subordinates plays a significant role in job
satisfaction. Positive interactions and a supportive work culture help
prevent dissatisfaction.
► Job Security: Employees who feel secure in their jobs are less likely to
be dissatisfied. Uncertainty about job stability can lead to anxiety and
dissatisfaction.
Implications of Herzberg's Theory

► Improving Motivation: To truly motivate employees,

organizations should focus on enhancing the motivators
by providing challenging work, opportunities for growth,
and recognition.
► Preventing Dissatisfaction: To prevent job
dissatisfaction, organizations should ensure that hygiene
factors such as salary, working conditions, and company
policies are adequate.
Practical Applications of Herzberg’s Theory

► Job Enrichment: To increase motivation, organizations

should focus on job enrichment by enhancing the content of
the job, such as by providing more challenging tasks,
increasing autonomy, and allowing employees to see the
results of their work.
► Redesigning Work Environment: By improving hygiene
factors such as working conditions, salary, and company
policies, organizations can reduce dissatisfaction, which
helps in retaining employees and maintaining morale.
Practical Applications

► Performance Appraisals: Recognizing achievements and

providing opportunities for personal growth during
performance appraisals can motivate employees to
perform better.
► Employee Engagement Strategies: Focusing on both
motivators and hygiene factors can lead to a more
holistic approach to employee engagement, ensuring that
employees are both satisfied and motivated to contribute
to the organization’s success.
Criticisms and Limitations of Herzberg’s Theory
► Overemphasis on Job Satisfaction: Some critics argue that the theory
focuses too much on job satisfaction and neglects other important
factors like organizational culture, leadership style, and individual
differences.
► Simplistic Dichotomy: The clear-cut division between motivators and
hygiene factors may be overly simplistic. In reality, some factors might
influence both satisfaction and dissatisfaction, depending on the
context.
► Cultural Differences: The theory may not apply equally across
different cultures. What is considered a motivator in one culture might
be a hygiene factor in another, and vice versa.
Herzberg’s Theory and Maslow’s Theory:
Relation
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Overlap in Addressing Human Needs
► Herzberg’s hygiene factors can be related to Maslow’s lower-level
needs (Physiological, Safety, and Social needs). These are basic
needs that must be met to avoid dissatisfaction. For example, salary
and job security (hygiene factors) correspond to physiological and
safety needs in Maslow’s hierarchy.
► Herzberg’s motivators correspond to Maslow’s higher-level needs
(Esteem and Self-Actualization). These are the factors that lead to
job satisfaction and are related to achieving one's full potential and
gaining recognition, much like Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization
needs.
Sequential Fulfillment of Needs
► Maslow’s theory suggests that individuals must satisfy
lower-level needs before progressing to higher-level needs.
Similarly, Herzberg’s theory implies that hygiene factors
(lower-level needs) must be addressed to prevent
dissatisfaction before motivators (higher-level needs) can
truly motivate.
► In both theories, once the basic needs (hygiene factors or
lower-level needs) are adequately satisfied, the focus shifts
to fulfilling higher-level needs (motivators or higher-level
needs).
Balancing Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
► Integration:
• Effective motivation strategies often integrate both intrinsic and extrinsic
factors. For example, a job that offers financial rewards (extrinsic) while also
providing opportunities for personal growth and mastery (intrinsic) can be
highly motivating.
► Personalization:
• Understanding individual differences and preferences is key. What motivates
one person may not motivate another, so personalizing motivational strategies
can be more effective.
► Sustainability:
• Intrinsic motivation tends to be more sustainable over the long term, as it is
driven by internal satisfaction. Extrinsic motivators can be effective in the
short term but may need to be adjusted to maintain their effectiveness.
Conclusion

► motivation is influenced by a complex

interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

► Recognizing and addressing these factors can

help individuals achieve their goals and
organizations enhance productivity and
satisfaction.
Theories of Motivation

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Expectancy Theory
Equity Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Drive Theory
Incentive Theory
Alderfer's ERG Theory
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

► Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory

proposed by Abraham Maslow.
► Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs was first introduced by Abraham
Maslow in his 1943 paper titled "A Theory of Human
Motivation" published in the journal Psychological Review.
► It suggests that human needs are arranged in a hierarchical
order, where individuals must satisfy lower-level needs
before they can address higher-level needs.
► The hierarchy is typically represented as a pyramid with five
levels
Graphical Presentation
Basic tenets of the theory
► Maslow's hierarchy of needs, proposed by Abraham Maslow, presents a
framework suggesting that human motivation stems from a hierarchy of five
fundamental categories: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and
self-actualization.
► The theory posits that as individuals progress through these needs, they
experience a greater sense of fulfillment and motivation.
► Maslow's framework offers insights into individual motivation and also
provides a lens through which we can better understand human behavior and
well-being.
► From the foundational physiological needs, which address basic requirements
for survival, to self-actualization, which represents the realization of one's
fullest potential, learn more about each category within Maslow's hierarchy.
Basic Tenets………..

► This hierarchy ranges from more concrete needs such as food

and water to abstract concepts such as self-fulfillment.
► According to Maslow, when a lower need is met, the next need
on the hierarchy becomes our focus of attention
Physiological Needs
► These refer to basic physical needs like drinking when thirsty or eating
when hungry. According to Maslow, some of these needs involve our
efforts to meet the body’s need for homeostasis; that is, maintaining
consistent levels in different bodily systems (for example, maintaining a
body temperature of 98.6 degrees).
► Maslow considered physiological needs to be the most essential of our
needs. If someone is lacking in more than one need, they’re likely to try
to meet these physiological needs first. For example, if someone is
extremely hungry, it’s hard to focus on anything else besides food.
Another example of a physiological need would be the need for
adequate sleep.
Safety Needs
► Once people’s physiological requirements are met, the next need that
arises is a safe environment.
► Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children
need safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear
or anxiety when these are not met.
► Maslow pointed out that in adults living in developed nations, safety
needs are more apparent in emergencies (e.g. war and disasters), but
this need can also explain why we tend to prefer the familiar or why
we do things like purchase insurance and contribute to a savings
account.
Social Need: Love and Belonging
► According to Maslow, the next need in the hierarchy involves feeling
loved and accepted.
► This need includes both romantic relationships as well as ties to friends
and family members.
► It also includes our need to feel that we belong to a social group.
► Importantly, this need encompasses both feeling loved and feeling love
towards others.
► Since Maslow’s time, researchers have continued to explore how love
and belonging needs impact well-being.
► For example, having social connections is related to better physical
health and, conversely, feeling isolated (i.e. having unmet belonging
needs) has negative consequences for health and well-being.
Esteem
► Our esteem needs involve the desire to feel good about ourselves.
According to Maslow, esteem needs include two components.
► The first involves feeling self-confidence and feeling good about oneself.
► The second component involves feeling valued by others; that is, feeling
that our achievements and contributions have been recognized by other
people.
► When people’s esteem needs are met, they feel confident and see their
contributions and achievements as valuable and important.
► However, when their esteem needs are not met, they may experience what
psychologist Alfred Adler called “feelings of inferiority.”
Self-Actualization
► Self-actualization refers to feeling fulfilled, or feeling that we are living up
to our potential.
► One unique feature of self-actualization is that it looks different for
everyone. For one person, self-actualization might involve helping others;
for another person, it might involve achievements in an artistic or creative
field. Essentially, self-actualization means feeling that we are doing what
we believe we are meant to do.
► According to Maslow, achieving self-actualization is relatively rare, and his
examples of famous self-actualized individuals include Abraham
Lincoln, Albert Einstein, and Mother Teresa.
Maslow later added three more needs to the
hierarchy, making it an eight-level model:
► Cognitive Needs:
• The desire for knowledge, understanding, and exploration. This involves
curiosity, learning, and the pursuit of intellectual growth.
► Aesthetic Needs:
• The appreciation of beauty, balance, and form. This involves the pursuit of
aesthetic experiences and appreciation for beauty in art, nature, and other
aspects of life.
► Transcendence Needs:
• The desire to help others achieve self-actualization and to connect with
something beyond the self. This involves altruism, spiritual experiences, and
the pursuit of higher values and purposes.
Practical Applications
► Personal Development Plans:
• Individuals can use Maslow’s hierarchy to identify which needs they
need to focus on for their personal growth, from ensuring basic needs
are met to striving for self-actualization.
► Educational Programs:
• Educators can design curricula that address different levels of needs,
ensuring students feel safe and supported while encouraging personal
and academic growth.
Practical Applications
► Workplace Development:
• Employers can create environments that satisfy employees' basic needs
for safety and belonging, provide opportunities for achievement and
recognition, and support personal and professional growth.
► Therapeutic Interventions:
• Therapists can use the hierarchy to help clients identify unmet needs
and develop strategies to address them, facilitating overall personal
development.
Questions for Self-analysis

► How do you set and achieve your goals? What role does
motivation play in your goal-setting process, and how do you
stay motivated to reach your objectives?
► How does your environment (e.g., family, friends, workplace)
affect your motivation? Can you provide an example of how a
change in your environment either increased or decreased your
motivation?
Let’s call it a day

THANK YOU
SWOT Analysis

► Strengths
► Weaknesses,
► Opportunities and
► Threats
► It is a strategic planning tool used to identify internal strengths and
weaknesses, as well as external opportunities and threats.
Concluding Remarks

► Herzberg's theory suggests that improving hygiene factors

alone will not lead to higher motivation, but neglecting
them can lead to dissatisfaction.
► On the other hand, focusing on motivators can lead to
higher satisfaction and motivation, but it requires more
than just addressing basic needs.
Let’s call it a day

THANK YOU
Personality Development

❑ ERG Theory of Motivation

Introduction
► The ERG Theory of Motivation is a psychological
model developed by Clayton Alderfer as an
extension and refinement of Abraham Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs.
► Introduced in 1969, the ERG theory condenses
Maslow's five levels of human needs into three core
categories: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.
► This theory aims to address some limitations of
Maslow’s model and to better explain the
complexities of human motivation.
The Three Categories of Needs in ERG Theory
Existence Needs (E)

► These correspond to Maslow's Physiological and Safety

needs.
► Existence needs are the most basic and essential
requirements for human survival, such as food, water, air,
shelter, and protection from physical harm.
► In the workplace, this would include basic working
conditions, salary, job security, and other material needs.
Relatedness Needs (R)
► These align with Maslow's Social needs and the Esteem
needs that are derived from relationships.
► Relatedness needs involve the desire for interpersonal
relationships, social connections, and belonging.
► This includes interactions with family, friends, co-workers,
and the community.
► It also encompasses the need for recognition, respect, and
a sense of belonging within social groups.
Growth Needs (G)
► These correspond to Maslow's Esteem needs that are
self-directed and Self-Actualization needs.
► Growth needs Include
pertain to personal development,
self-improvement, and the fulfillment of one’s potential.
► This includes the desire for creativity, problem-solving,
learning new skills, and achieving personal goals.
► In a work setting, growth needs are related to opportunities
for advancement, challenging work, and professional
development.
Key Principles of ERG Theory
Non-Hierarchical Structure:
► Unlike Maslow’s hierarchy, where needs are fulfilled in a
strict sequence from the lowest to the highest, the ERG
theory sayes
posits that more than one need can be pursued
simultaneously.
► For example, an individual can work on satisfying their
existence, relatedness, and growth needs at the same time.
Principles:
Frustration-Regression Principle:
► A key concept in ERG theory is the Frustration-Regression
Principle.
► This principle suggests that if an individual is frustrated in
their attempts to satisfy a higher-level need (such as
growth), they may regress to focusing on a lower-level need
(such as relatedness or existence).
► For instance, if a person cannot achieve personal growth
due to lack of opportunities, they may turn their attention
to building stronger social relationships or seeking more
material security.
Principles:

Satisfaction-Progression Principle:
► Similar to Maslow’s concept, ERG theory also includes the
Satisfaction-Progression Principle, where satisfying
lower-level needs (like existence) allows an individual to
move forward to focus on higher-level needs (such as
relatedness or growth).
Implications of the ERG Theory

► Managers must understand that an employee has various

needs that must be satisfied at the same time.
► According to the ERG theory, if the manager concentrates
solely on one need at a time, this will not effectively
motivate the employee.
► Also, the frustration-regression aspect of ERG Theory has an
added effect on workplace motivation.
Applications of ERG Theory
Workplace Motivation:
► Managers can use the ERG theory to understand that employees
might have different levels of needs at the same time. By recognizing
that a one-size-fits-all approach to motivation may not work,
managers can tailor their strategies to address multiple needs
simultaneously.
► For instance, providing adequate salary and job security (Existence),
fostering a supportive and collaborative work environment
(Relatedness), and offering opportunities for professional
development (Growth) can help in keeping employees motivated.
Employee Engagement and Retention
► Understanding the Frustration-Regression Principle helps
managers identify potential issues.
► If employees are unable to achieve personal growth due to
limitations in their roles, they may become demotivated and
focus on basic needs, leading to disengagement.
► Addressing such frustrations by offering new challenges or
developmental opportunities can help retain talent.
Flexible Motivational Strategies
► ERG theory allows for more flexibility in designing
motivational strategies, as it recognizes that employees'
needs can change over time and do not necessarily follow a
strict hierarchy.
► This flexibility can lead to more effective management
practices that align with the diverse motivations of the
workforce.
Comparison with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Difference between Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
and Alderfer’s ERG Theory
► Number of Needs: Maslow – 5 and ERG - 3
► Structure of Needs: Maslow’s theory follows hierarchical
structure, where needs must be satisfied in a specific
sequence. A person must satisfy lower-level needs before
progressing to higher-level needs. On the other hand, ERG
Theory follows a non-hierarchical structure, where more
than one need can be pursued simultaneously. Needs do not
have to be fulfilled in a strict order.
Difference:
Frustration-Regression Concept:
► Maslow’s theory does not explicitly include the concept of
frustration-regression. If a higher-level need is unmet, it does
not suggest a regression to lower needs. On the contrary, ERG
theory introduces the Frustration-Regression Principle,
where frustration in satisfying a higher-level need can lead to
regression to lower-level needs. For instance, if growth needs
are blocked, a person might regress to focusing on
relatedness or existence needs.
Difference:
Flexibility of Needs
► Less flexible, as it assumes a linear progression through
the hierarchy. An individual cannot skip levels or focus on
higher needs before lower ones are met.
► More flexible, allowing for the possibility of simultaneous
need satisfaction and recognition that different individuals
may prioritize different needs based on circumstances.
Difference:
Nature of Needs
► Distinct, separate categories where each need level is
independent.
► Overlapping categories where a single need can fit into multiple
categories depending on the situation.

Thus, Maslow’s theory is structured, sequential, and assumes a

linear progression through needs, while Alderfer’s ERG theory is
more flexible, allowing for simultaneous pursuit of needs and
incorporating a regression mechanism when higher needs are
unmet.
Concluding Remarks
► The ERG Theory of Motivation provides a more nuanced
and flexible understanding of human motivation compared
to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
► By recognizing that different needs can be pursued
simultaneously and that frustration can lead to regression,
the ERG theory offers a more realistic approach to
understanding and addressing motivation in various
settings, including the workplace.
Personality Development

❑ Conflict Management
Introduction
► Conflict is a disagreement or clash between ideas,
principles, or people.
► It arises when two or more parties perceive that
their interests, needs, or goals are incompatible.
► Conflict is a natural part of human interaction and
can occur in any setting—workplaces, families,
communities, etc.
► Conflict can be both constructive (leading to
growth, innovation) and destructive (leading to
stress, breakdowns in relationships).
Definition
► According to S.P. Robbins, conflict is a process that begins
when one party perceives that another party has negatively
affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the
first party cares about. Conflict involves a situation in which
there are incompatible goals, cognitions, or emotions within
or between individuals or groups.
► Aswathappa defines conflict as a disagreement between
individuals or groups that can arise from differences in goals,
values, beliefs, or behaviors. Conflict can be seen as an
inevitable aspect of human interaction in organizational
settings.
CONFLICT – A plain vanilla definition
► Any situation in which there are incompatible Goals,
Cognitions or Emotions within or between individuals or
groups that lead to opposition or antagonistic interaction.
► The definition recognizes three basic types of conflicts-
❑ Goal Conflict - Individualistic
❑ Cognitive Conflict
❑ Affective Conflict
V

Goal Conflict
► Goal conflict arises when the desired end states or preferred outcomes of
different individuals or groups seem to be incompatible, making it
difficult to achieve both goals simultaneously. This type of conflict often
requires careful negotiation, prioritization, or compromise to resolve.
► Approach-Approach Conflict: This occurs when an individual or group
has to choose between two desirable goals. The conflict arises from the
difficulty of deciding which goal to pursue.
► Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: This occurs when an individual or group
has to choose between two undesirable goals. The conflict stems from the
reluctance to choose either option.
► Approach-Avoidance Conflict: This occurs when a single goal has both
attractive and unattractive aspects, leading to a conflict about whether to
pursue it.
-
Approach-Approach Conflict - Example
► Imagine you're offered two fantastic job opportunities at
the same time.
► One is a high-paying position at a prestigious company in a
bustling city, while the other is a role at a smaller,
innovative start-up with great potential in a more relaxed,
scenic location.
► Both options are desirable, but you can only choose one,
leading to an approach-approach conflict where you're torn
between two positive outcomes.
-

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - Example

► Consider a situation where a student dislikes both studying
for an upcoming difficult exam and the prospect of failing
the course if they don’t study.
► They are forced to choose between two undesirable options:
either endure the stress of studying or risk failing the exam.
► This creates an avoidance-avoidance conflict, where the
student must decide between two negative outcomes.
-

Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Example

► Suppose you’re considering taking a high-profile project at
work that could significantly boost your career.
► However, this project requires long hours and may strain
your work-life balance.
► The opportunity is attractive because of the career
advancement it offers (approach), but at the same time,
the personal sacrifices involved make it less appealing
(avoidance).
► This situation represents an approach-avoidance conflict,
where a single goal has both positive and negative aspects.
-

Cognitive Conflict
► Cognitive conflict refers to differences in ideas, opinions, or
perspectives among individuals or groups. This type of conflict is
intellectual and arises from disagreements over tasks, strategies, or
interpretations of information.
► Cognitive conflict is usually focused on the task or issue at hand rather
than personal differences. It involves debates, discussions, and critical
thinking.
► When managed well, cognitive conflict can be constructive, leading to
better decision-making and innovative solutions.
Examples

► A team debates different strategies for launching a new

product, with each member presenting a different
approach based on their analysis.
► Disagreements between managers on the best course of
action to improve operational efficiency.
Affective Conflict
► Affective conflict, also known as emotional or relational conflict,
arises from personal incompatibilities, emotional responses, or
interpersonal issues between individuals.
► This type of conflict is emotional rather than intellectual and often
involves feelings of anger, distrust, or resentment.
► Affective conflict is centered around personal relationships and
emotions, rather than tasks or ideas.
► Affective conflict is often destructive, leading to reduced
cooperation, communication breakdowns, and a toxic work
environment.
Examples

► Tension between two colleagues who dislike each other,

leading to frequent arguments and a hostile work
atmosphere.
► Conflict between a manager and an employee due to
perceived favoritism or unfair treatment, resulting in
resentment and lack of motivation.
Nature of Conflict:
► Functional Conflict (or Constructive Conflict): This type
of conflict supports the goals of the group and enhances
its performance. For example, a debate on the best
strategy to achieve a project goal can lead to better
decision-making and innovation.
► Dysfunctional Conflict (or Destructive Conflict): This type
of conflict hinders group performance and can lead to
decreased productivity, morale, and cooperation. An
example would be a personal dispute between team
members that escalates and disrupts the workflow.
Levels of Conflict
Intrapersonal
Conflict

Intra-organization
Interpersonal Conflict
al Conflict

Inter-group
conflict Intra-group
Conflict
Intrapersonal Conflicts
► This conflict occurs within an individual and involves internal
struggles regarding decisions, values, or emotions.
► Approach-Approach Conflict: Choosing between two
desirable options.
► Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: Choosing between two
undesirable options.
► Approach-Avoidance Conflict: When a single option has
both positive and negative aspects.
-
Interpersonal Conflict
► Conflict between two or more individuals, often arising from
personal differences, misunderstandings, or competition.
► Examples: Conflicts between colleagues over differences in
working styles or personality clashes.
► Disagreements between a manager and a subordinate about
task expectations or performance issues.
Causes of Interpersonal Conflicts
► Personality Differences
► Perceptions
► Clashes of values and interests
► Power and status differences
► Scarce Resources
-
► Personality Differences
• Explanation: Personality differences are one of the most
common causes of interpersonal conflict. When individuals with
contrasting personality traits interact, misunderstandings and
disagreements can occur. Different ways of thinking, behaving,
and communicating can lead to friction.
• Example: A conflict might arise between a detail-oriented
manager who prefers meticulous planning and a more
spontaneous employee who favors flexibility and improvisation.
The manager’s need for structure may clash with the
employee’s preference for adaptability, leading to
disagreements over how tasks should be completed.
-
► Perceptions
• Explanation: Perceptions involve how individuals interpret
situations, behaviors, or intentions. Conflicts can arise when people
perceive the same situation differently due to their backgrounds,
experiences, or biases.
• Example: Two colleagues might perceive a supervisor's feedback
differently—one might see it as constructive criticism, while the
other perceives it as an unfair attack. This difference in perception
can lead to interpersonal conflict as they react differently to the
feedback and possibly to each other.
-
► Clashes of Values and Interests
• Explanation: Values and interests are deeply held beliefs and
priorities that guide behavior. When individuals have conflicting
values or interests, it can lead to interpersonal conflict. This type of
conflict is often more intense because it touches on core aspects of a
person's identity.
• Example: In a team project, one member might prioritize completing
the project as quickly as possible to move on to other tasks (interest
in efficiency), while another member prioritizes thoroughness and
accuracy, even if it takes more time (value for quality). The clash
between these interests and values can create conflict over how the
project should be approached.
► Power and Status Differences
• Explanation: Power and status differences can create conflicts when
individuals feel their authority or status is being challenged or
undermined. This can occur in hierarchical relationships or among
peers who perceive power dynamics differently.
• Example: A conflict might arise between a senior employee who
feels entitled to make decisions due to their experience and a junior
employee who believes they have innovative ideas that should be
considered. The senior employee might perceive the junior’s input as
disrespectful, while the junior employee might feel undervalued,
leading to interpersonal conflict.
 -
► Scarce Resources
• Explanation: Scarce resources, such as time, money, or
physical space, often lead to conflicts as individuals or
groups compete for limited resources. When resources
are insufficient to meet everyone’s needs or desires,
competition can lead to disputes.
• Example: Two departments might conflict over a limited
budget allocation. If both departments believe they
deserve a larger share of the budget to meet their
objectives, the competition for this scarce resource can
lead to heated disputes and interpersonal tensions
between department heads.
-
Intra-group Conflict
► Conflict within a group, such as a team or department, often due to
differing opinions or competition for roles.
► Examples: Disagreements over project direction, competition within a
team.
► It may eventually be resolved when the group reaches a consensus.
► This conflict may be categorized as –
► Substantive Conflict: Conflict based on the nature of the task and is
associated with intellectual disagreements among the group members.
► Affective Conflict: It derives primarily from the group’s interpersonal
relations. It is associated with emotional responses aroused during
interpersonal clashes.
V
Intergroup Conflict
► Conflict between different groups or departments within an
organization.
► Examples: Rivalries between departments, competition for
resources or recognition.
► Conflict between the sales and production departments over
the allocation of resources or the setting of priorities.
~
Intra-Organizational Conflict
► Intra-organizational conflict refers to conflict that occurs within an
organization.
► This type of conflict can arise between different levels of the
organization, among different departments or units, or between line
and staff positions.
► Intra-organizational conflict is classified into three main categories:
❑ Vertical Conflict
❑ Horizontal Conflict
❑ Line-staff conflict
❑ Role Conflict
-
Vertical Conflict
► Definition: Vertical conflict occurs between different hierarchical
levels within an organization, such as between supervisors and
subordinates, or between different management levels.
► Examples:
► A conflict between a manager and an employee over the delegation
of tasks, where the employee feels overburdened and the manager
feels the employee is not performing adequately.
► Disputes between middle management and senior management
regarding strategic decisions or changes in organizational policy.
Causes for Vertical Conflicts
► Authority and Power Dynamics: Conflicts may arise due to
the exercise of authority, where subordinates feel that they
are being treated unfairly or where supervisors feel that
their authority is being challenged.
► Communication Barriers: Miscommunication or lack of
communication between different levels can lead to
misunderstandings and conflict.
► Differing Objectives: Managers at different levels may have
different objectives or priorities, leading to conflicts over
resources, decisions, or strategies.
Horizontal Conflicts
► Definition: Horizontal conflict occurs between individuals or groups at
the same hierarchical level within an organization. This type of
conflict is often seen between colleagues, teams, or departments that
are equal in status but have differing objectives or responsibilities.
► Examples:
► A conflict between the marketing and sales departments over who
should lead a new product launch campaign.
► Disagreements between two project teams working on different
aspects of a larger project, where one team’s delays affect the
other’s timeline.
 Causes for Horizontal Conflicts

❑ Resource Allocation: Conflicts often arise when departments

or teams compete for limited resources such as budget,
personnel, or time.
❑ Task Interdependence: When departments or teams depend
on each other to complete tasks, any delay or inefficiency in
one team can create conflict with others.
❑ Goal Incongruence: Different teams or departments may have
goals that are not aligned, leading to conflicts in
decision-making or prioritization.
Line-Staff Conflict
► Definition: Line-staff conflict occurs between line managers, who are
responsible for the core operations of the organization, and staff
personnel, who provide specialized support and advisory services.
Line managers often have direct authority, while staff personnel
provide expertise without direct control over operations.
► Examples: A conflict between a production manager (line) and a
quality control specialist (staff) over the implementation of new
quality standards, where the manager feels the standards are too
stringent and hinder production efficiency.
► Disagreements between HR staff and department managers over
hiring decisions, where managers want quick recruitment to fill
vacancies, but HR insists on a thorough selection process.
Causes of Line-staff Conflict
► Authority Confusion: Line managers may feel that staff
personnel are overstepping their advisory role, while staff
may feel their expertise is undervalued.
► Differing Perspectives: Line managers focus on day-to-day
operations and efficiency, whereas staff personnel may
prioritize long-term planning, innovation, or specialized
knowledge.
► Role Ambiguity: Lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities
can lead to conflicts over decision-making authority and
accountability.
Role Conflicts

► Definition: Role conflict occurs when an individual faces

incompatible or contradictory expectations related to their
job role, leading to stress and confusion.
► Examples: A manager is expected to enforce strict
deadlines while also being empathetic towards employees’
personal issues.
► An employee promoted to a supervisory role struggles to
balance their new authority with maintaining friendly
relationships with former peers.
Causes of Role Conflict
► Intra-role Conflict: This occurs when there are conflicting expectations
within the same role. For example, a manager may be expected to
enforce strict deadlines while also being empathetic and understanding
towards employees’ personal challenges. Balancing these conflicting
expectations can lead to intra-role conflict.
► Inter-role Conflict: This arises when an individual holds multiple roles
that have incompatible demands. For instance, a person who is both a
team leader and a project contributor may face conflicts when the
responsibilities of leading the team clash with the demands of
completing individual tasks.
► Person-role Conflict: This occurs when there is a mismatch between an
individual’s personal values or abilities and the expectations of their
role. For example, a person who values creativity may experience
conflict if their job requires them to follow rigid procedures without
room for innovation.
Managing Conflict
► Conflict management is the process of identifying and
handling conflicts in a constructive manner.
► It involves recognizing, understanding, and addressing
disputes between individuals or groups in order to minimize
negative impacts and promote positive outcomes.
► The goal of conflict management is not to eliminate conflict
entirely but to manage it in a way that fosters
communication, problem-solving, and collaboration,
ultimately leading to a resolution that is acceptable to all
parties involved.
Preventing Conflicts
► Preventing conflict involves creating an organizational
environment that minimizes the potential for conflict.
► This can be achieved through strategic management of goal
structures, reward systems, trust-building, communication,
and coordination.
► According to Edgar Schein, the preventive measures are as
follows:
Preventive measures
► Goal Structure
• Aligned Objectives: Ensuring that individual, team, and departmental
goals are aligned with the overall objectives of the organization
reduces conflicts. When everyone works towards common goals, the
likelihood of goal-related disputes diminishes.
• Clear Expectations: Clearly defined goals and expectations help
prevent misunderstandings and conflicts. Employees should
understand how their goals fit into the broader organizational
strategy.
Preventive measures
► Reward System
• Fair and Transparent Rewards: A well-designed reward
system that recognizes and rewards contributions fairly
helps in preventing conflicts. Inequities in rewards can
lead to dissatisfaction and competition, which often
results in conflict.
• Team-Based Rewards: Encouraging team-based rewards
rather than individual rewards fosters collaboration and
reduces competition between peers, thereby preventing
horizontal conflicts.
Preventive measures
► Trust and Communication
• Building Trust: Trust is a foundational element in preventing
conflict. Building trust involves transparency, consistency, and
fairness in leadership actions. When employees trust their
managers and peers, they are less likely to engage in conflict.
• Effective Communication: Open and honest communication is
key to preventing misunderstandings that can lead to conflict.
Regular meetings, clear directives, and feedback mechanisms
help in maintaining clarity and preventing potential disputes.
Preventive measures
► Coordination
• Streamlining Processes: Ensuring that organizational
processes are well-coordinated reduces the likelihood of
conflict. Clear roles and responsibilities, along with
effective interdepartmental coordination, help in
minimizing overlaps and conflicts of interest.
• Collaborative Tools: Utilizing collaborative tools and
platforms can enhance coordination across teams and
departments, reducing misunderstandings and misaligned
efforts.
Resolving Behavioral Conflicts
► When conflict arises, it's crucial to have strategies in place
to resolve it effectively. Behavioral conflicts can be
addressed through various methods, ranging from avoiding
the conflict to engaging in problem-solving.
► Various researches have identified five primary strategies for
dealing with and reducing the impact of behavioural
conflicts.
Conflict Resolution
► Ignoring the Conflict
• When to Use: Ignoring the conflict, also known as
Avoidance, can be effective when the conflict is trivial or
when it is expected to resolve on its own. This approach is
suitable when the issue is not critical and may dissipate
over time without intervention.
• Risks: If ignored for too long, unresolved conflicts may
escalate and become more difficult to manage later.
Therefore, this approach should be used with caution.
Conflict Resolution
► Smoothing
• When to Use: Smoothing involves downplaying the
differences between conflicting parties and emphasizing
commonalities. This approach is useful when maintaining
harmony is more important than resolving the specific
conflict, or when the conflict is based on misunderstandings.
• Risks: Over-reliance on smoothing can lead to unresolved
underlying issues, which may resurface later. It may also
cause one party to feel that their concerns are not being
addressed.
Conflict Resolution
► Compromising
• When to Use: Compromising is a middle-ground approach
where both parties give up something to reach a mutually
acceptable solution. It is effective when both parties have
equal power and when the conflict needs a quick
resolution.
• Risks: Compromising may lead to a solution that is
acceptable but not optimal for either party. It can also
result in dissatisfaction if one party feels they have
sacrificed more than the other.
Conflict Resolution
► Forcing
• When to Use: Forcing, or Competing, involves one party
asserting their viewpoint at the expense of the other. This
approach is appropriate in situations where a quick,
decisive action is needed, or when the conflict is about
critical issues that require a firm stance.
• Risks: Forcing can lead to resentment and further conflict if
the other party feels marginalized. It may also damage
relationships and reduce cooperation in the future.
Conflict Resolution
► Problem-Solving
• When to Use: Problem-solving, also known as Collaborating,
involves both parties working together to find a solution that
satisfies everyone’s needs. This approach is the most effective
for resolving conflicts when there is time and willingness from
both sides to engage in dialogue.
• Risks: Problem-solving requires a high level of communication,
trust, and time. If not managed properly, it can become
time-consuming and may not always lead to a resolution.
Concluding Remark
► At the heart of successful conflict resolution lies a fundamental truth: trust is the
single most crucial factor in reducing and eliminating negative conflict.
► When trust is present, individuals are more likely to communicate openly, listen
actively, and approach disagreements with a genuine desire to understand and
collaborate.
► Trust fosters an environment where differences can be explored constructively, and
where even the most challenging conflicts can be resolved with mutual respect and
shared commitment.
► Building and maintaining trust is not just a strategy; it is the foundation upon which
enduring relationships and effective conflict management are built.
► Without trust, resolution efforts falter, but with it, even the most complex conflicts
can be transformed into opportunities for growth and unity.
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