MP4073 HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION

Operational advancements of
microprocessors over the
years were primarily due to
speed
(frequency) and parallelism
increment [1] [2] [3] [13]. The
addition of more transistors
has led to
other ways and/or
techniques of increasing
parallelism and improving
performance [13].
Subsequently, architects then
sought to increase parallelism
by executing multiple
instructions
simultaneously (instruction-
level parallelism or ILP)
through pipelining techniques
and
superscalar architectures and
to reduce the latency of
accessing memory with ever
larger on-chip
caches. Microprocessors
further increased ILP by
implementing out-of-order
execution engines
that completed useful work
instead of stalling on data
and control dependencies
[4]. It is now
obvious that ILP increment,
due to energy, heat and wire
delay issues can no longer
provide
performance improvements
that track Moore’s Law [5].
Therefore, vendors have
shifted attention
to exploring thread-level
parallelism (TLP) by
designing chips with multiple
processors,
otherwise known as Multi-
core or Chip Multiprocessors
(CMPs). The implementation
of high
level TLP on multi-core(s) will
continue to provide
performance improvement
while dealing with
the traditional technology
issues faced by single-core
performance [4]. These new
designs are
referred to as multi-core
processors because it has
minimum of two execution
cores with distinct
execution pipelines, functional
units and usually one level of
private cache [24].
A Multi-core processor consists
of two or more cores on a
single die [6] [9] [26]. The
cores of
CMPs are essential
components usually
computation units and caches
[6]. The individual cores
on a multi-core processor
don’t necessarily run as fast
as the highest performing
single-core
processors, but they improve
overall performance by
handling more workloads in
parallel [7] [
I/O Channels and its types
I/O Channel is an extension of the DMA concept. It has ability to
execute I/O
operations. Processor does not execute I/O instructions itself. Processor
initiates I/O transfer by instructing the I/O channel to execute a
program in memory.
Program specifies – Device or devices, Area or areas of memory,
Priority, and Error condition actions
Types of I/O Channels :

1. Selector Channel :

Selector channel controls multiple high-speed devices. It is dedicated to

the transfer of data with one of the devices. In selector channel, each
device is handled by a controller or I/O module. It controls the I/O
controllers shown in the figure.

2. Multiplexer Channel :

Multiplexer channel is a DMA controller that can handle multiple devices at

the same time. It can do block transfers for several devices at once.
Two types of multiplexers are used in this channel:
1. Byte Multiplexer –
It is used for low-speed devices. It transmits or accepts characters.
Interleaves bytes from several devices.
2. Block Multiplexer –
It accepts or transmits block of characters. Interleaves blocks of bytes from
several devices. Used for high-speed devices.

The sensory memories act as buffers for stimuli received through the
senses. A sensory memory exists for each sensory channel: iconic
memory for visual stimuli, echoic memory for aural stimuli and haptic
memory for touch. These memories are constantly overwritten by new
information coming in on these channels.
Human memory: How we make, remember, and forget memories
Human memory happens in many parts of the brain at once, and some
types of memories stick around longer than others.

From the moment we are born, our brains are bombarded

by an immense amount of information about ourselves and the
world around us. So, how do we hold on to everything we've
learned and experienced? Memories.

Humans retain different types of memories for different

lengths of time. Short-term memories last seconds to hours,
while long-term memories last for years. We also have a
working memory, which lets us keep something in our minds for
a limited time by repeating it. Whenever you say a phone
number to yourself over and over to remember it, you're using
your working memory.

Another way to categorize memories is by the subject of

the memory itself, and whether you are consciously aware of it.
Declarative memory, also called explicit memory, consists of the
sorts of memories you experience consciously. Some of these
memories are facts or “common knowledge”: things like the
capital of Portugal (Lisbon), or the number of cards in a standard
deck of playing cards (52). Others consist of past events you've
experienced, such as a childhood birthday.

Nondeclarative memory, also called implicit memory,

unconsciously builds up. These include procedural memories,
which your body uses to remember the skills you've learned. Do
you play an instrument or ride a bicycle? Those are your
procedural memories at work. Nondeclarative memories also
can shape your body's unthinking responses, like salivating at
the sight of your favorite food or tensing up when you see
something you fear.

In general, declarative memories are easier to form than

nondeclarative memories. It takes less time to memorize a
country's capital than it does to learn how to play the violin. But
nondeclarative memories stick around more easily. Once you've
learned to ride a bicycle, you're not likely to forget.

The types of amnesia

 To understand how we remember things, it's incredibly
helpful to study how we forget—which is why neuroscientists
study amnesia, the loss of memories or the ability to learn.
Amnesia is usually the result of some kind of trauma to the
brain, such as a head injury, a stroke, a brain tumor, or chronic
alcoholism.

There are two main types of amnesia. The first, retrograde

amnesia, occurs where you forget things you knew before the
brain trauma. Anterograde amnesia is when brain trauma
curtails or stops someone's ability to form new memories.

The most famous case study of anterograde amnesia

is Henry Molaison, who in 1953 had parts of his brain removed
as a last-ditch treatment for severe seizures. While Molaison—
known when he was alive as H.M.—remembered much of his
childhood, he was unable to form new declarative memories.
People who worked with him for decades had to re-introduce
themselves with every visit.

Neuroanatomy of human memory

Damage to two main regions of the brain can cause severe

loss of memory, or amnesia. The first of these is the
hippocampal formation (see Figure 1). Operations in which its
structures have been removed to cure epilepsy cause amnesia.
More convincingly, patients who have suffered small strokes
affecting only the hippocampal formation experience severe
amnesia.
A second brain region concerned with memory is the
diencephalon. Haemorrhaging in the diencephalon (in
Korsakoff's Syndrome) results in dramatic loss of memory;
strokes in this region can also have the same effect. The
hippocampus has a large efferent pathway, known as the fornix,
which terminates in the mamillary bodies. Lesions of the fornix
have also caused significant loss of memory.
The various structures mentioned so far are all part of a
circuit known as the limbic system (Figure 1). The fact that
damage to any of the structures can cause amnesia has led
many to propose that memory is mediated by a ‘circuit’ in
which, rather like an electrical circuit, damage anywhere will
have the same effect.
A psychological model of memory
Although there are some disagreements as to the
psychological basis of memory, there is broad agreement on a
‘modal’ model for memory. The model is essentially based on
information processing, where memory is conceived of as a
series of ‘stores’ between which information flows. Three types
of basic store are identified: sensory store, short-term store
(STS), and long-term store (LTS) (see Figure 2). (These terms
should not be confused with the commonly used phrases, ‘short-
term memory’ and ‘long-term memory’, which memory theorists
avoid because they are used very imprecisely to indicate
periods of time over which information is held. In contrast, STS
and LTS refer to hypothetical brain structures with assumed
properties.