Development

Studies
[3]
MODULE 1: THEORIES OF
DEVELOPMENT

MASUNGA SENIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL
 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage 2: Pre-Conditions for take-off is when there is improvement of transport
A theory is a set of ideas offering explanation about something. network, for example, roads, canals and railways.
Theories of development are ideas from such disciplines as economics, politics and  Agriculture revolution, for example, changes from subsistence to
sociology that attempt to explain how the world can be developed. commercial farming.
Different views have been brought forward, these include:  In Pre-Conditions for take -off stage, there is introduction of fertilizers,
 Modernisation theory hybrids and pesticides.
 Dependency theory  Specialisation of work begins.
 Sustainable Development theory  Improved technology that raises productivity.
 Environmentalism and sustainable development theory  Urbanisation starts.
 Populism Stage 3: Take-off is when industry stimulates city growth.
 Globalisation  There is rapid urbanisation in take-off stage.
 Gender and Development  Investment in capital goods rises and quickens economic growth.
 In take-off stage, some people become rich.
Stage 4: Drive to Maturity is when there is rapid increase in manufacturing and
service industries, have more exports and fewer imports.
 More people dependent on paid employment and wages generally
improve.
 Agriculture now fully mechanized with very few people engaged in it,
more people in industries.
 Demand for consumer goods increases.
Stage 5: The Age of High Consumption is when there is high production of
consumer goods.
 Large services sector that employs the majority of the people.
 High standards of living as wages are good for most people.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

Policies that should be implemented:

Fig.8
 There should be investment in industry and infrastructure.
 Apply or borrow ideas from the Capitalist countries of the North.
MODERNISATION THEORY  There should be emphasis on the importance of education and training.
Modernisation theory is a set of ideas that states that for developing countries to  People should give up their traditional habits and experiment with new
advance, they should copy development pattern that was taken by the developed ideas.
countries.  There should be change from subsistence agriculture to commercial
It is also referred to as the ‘Stages of Growth theory’. agriculture.
The theory suggests that a country goes through the following stages of  New production technologies should be introduced.
development.  There should be specialisation in production.
Stage 1: Traditional society stage depends on subsistence agriculture.  Urbanisation should take place.
 Technology is still simple or rudimentary.  There should be industrialisation.
 People live a simple life, therefore low standard of living.  People should be patient enough to accept less income until the economy
 In traditional society, people practice barter trading. of the country has grown.
 Traditional societies have few towns

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1: THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
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 THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION THEORY DESCRIBE THE STAGES OF THE MODERNISATION THEORY

 Modernisation theory shows the importance of capital investment as a fuel - The traditional society is where people practise barter system and
for economic development. subsistence farming. The people make simple crafts. The people also
 Modernisation theory lays emphasis on the need for change in the attitudes experience low standards of living.
and ways of life of people. - The Preconditions for take-off stage is where new technology arises. The
 Modernisation theory stresses the need to work hard for little money, for people start to practise commercial farming. The specialisation increases
example, working for low wages so as to enjoy full benefits later. in this stage. In this stage urbanisation starts to happen. The people start to
 Modernisation theory recognises that change can be unpleasant and that use hybrid seeds and fertilizers.
certain groups will suffer in the process. - The take-off stage is when there is investment in capital goods. There is
also growth of cities in the take-off stage. Some people become rich. In
THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION THEORY take-off stage there is rapid urbanisation.
- The Drive to maturity/ maturity stage is where manufacturing dominates
 Modernisation theory neglects political and social development. the economy. There are more exports than imports in drive to maturity
 Modernisation theory ignores the fact developing countries are affected by stage. The wages increase as most people get employed. The demand for
circumstances beyond their control that are deterrent to development, for consumer goods increases
example, natural disasters. - The age of high consumption/ high mass consumption stage is where
 Modernisation theory neglects the fact that some people value their service industries and consumer goods dominate the economy. The wages
are high for many people. Many people experience high living standards.
cultural practices too much to relinquish them.
 Modernisation theory also ignores the fact that developing countries lack
DESCRIBE THE BENEFITS TO THE PEOPLE OF A COUNTRY WHERE
cheap sources of raw materials that developed countries got from their
MODERNISATION HAS TAKEN PLACE.
former colonies.
 Capitalism is not the only way to achieve development, USSR and China
- The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken
developed under the Socialist mode of production.
place is that they will be technological development or people will start to
 Developing countries are unable to follow the pattern of development use modern technology.
because developed countries control their economies and determine trade - In a country were modernisation has taken place there will be
terms. infrastructural development, for example, tarred roads, hospitals and
 Globalisation, Multi -National Companies, free trade all make it difficult schools.
for developing countries to develop. - The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken
 There is an unfair international trading term that favours the developed place is having human resource development/ skilled manpower/ high
countries at the expense of the developing countries, the trade terms are literacy rate because the modernisation theory emphasis training and
set or determined by the developed countries. education.
 In many countries the wealth has never trickled down. - The countries were modernisation has taken place people will have
improved standard of living.
 In some countries industrialisation is slow with the economy trapped by - In a country were modernisation has taken place they will be improved
dependence on producing primary products. service delivery through research and development.

- The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken

place is availability of affordable goods.

- They will be wealth creation in a country where modernisation has taken

place.
- They will be employment creation in a country where modernisation has
taken place.
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 DEPENDENCY THEORY  Countries of the South should save and invest locally instead of
borrowing.
Define dependency theory  Local inventions should be encouraged, for example, development of local
technology.
Dependency is a set of ideas that argue that the South was unable to copy and adopt  Developing countries should become self-sufficient reliant.
the North’s path of industrialisation because the North exploited the South’s  Dependency theory encourages people to be patient and sacrifice for a
resources to enhance their economy and kept the South poor better future.

- Dependency theory is a set of ideas that states that in order to advance, THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
developing countries should rely less on developed ones.
 It focuses on all aspects of development which are social, political,
- It argues that less developed countries became economically reliant on the economic and environmental development.
North and thus the North became industrialised at the expense of the South  Dependency theory acknowledges the inter-linkage of countries globally.
who remained underdeveloped  Dependency theory explains the crippling effect of colonialism.
 Dependency theory emphasis the need for self- reliance in capital and
Dependency was developed in the 1960’s to try and explain why developing technology.
countries were failing to develop.
THE WEAKNESSES /DISADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
Europe and North America became rich and developed through exploiting the poor  It ignores the fact that the South lacks investment capital that would make
countries during colonialism. cutting links difficult.
 Dependency theory also ignores the fact that the developing countries
They exploited resources of developing countries and neglected their economies by would lose the benefits of international trade if it cuts links with the
not developing any industries or infrastructure. Countries of the North.
 Producing for the local market may result in the inefficient use of
Exploitation is still continuing today in the form of Neo-Colonialism, that is the
resources.
control of the economies of developing countries through;
 It neglects the fact that most people in the South aspire to the lifestyle of
the people of the Countries of the North, and may likely object when
 Trans National Corporations or Multi- National Companies
asked to stop importing products from Countries of the North.
 International loans (the debt trap)
 Most developing countries lack the capacity to develop the industrial
 Foreign Aid Control technology own their own.
 International trade  Governments will face a lot of opposition if they stop importing western
goods, for example, television and cars.
Dependency theorists argue that developing countries would be better off if they
 Some countries which have links with the Countries of the North
break off economic relations with the developed countries and develop on their own. developed successfully without cutting links with the Countries of the
North, for example, Cuba and Tanzania.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

 The Countries of the South/ developing countries should cut economic

links with Countries of the North/ developed countries.
 Developing countries should reduce spending on consumer goods but
spend more on capital goods, for example, machinery.

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 SUGGEST THREE WAYS IN WHICH DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CAN - There should be equitable distribution of resources of the world.
USE THE DEPENDENCY THEORY TO DEVELOP. - Use of appropriate technology to conserve resources and limit pollution.
- Recycling and reuse to prevent depletion.
-The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to develop is by
breaking off all links with the West and become self -reliant. THESTRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
-Developed countries can use dependency theory to develop by avoid borrowing
from outside but save and invest within the country.  Sustainable Development encourages one to think about conservation,
which is a good thing.
-The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to develop is by  It highlights the dangers facing the globe, such as pollution.
spending less on consumer goods.  Sustainable Development makes people aware that they have the common
problems.
-Developed countries can use dependency theory to develop by using appropriate  Makes the world realize the need for cooperation in solving environmental
technology and make its own industries or encourage local inventions. problem.
 It alerts the world to the unfair distribution of the global resources.
-The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to develop by
encouraging its people to exercise patience, work hard and shun modern lifestyles. THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY  Sustainable development ignores the possibility of the discovery of new
sources of resources.
Define Sustainable Development:  It dispels the possibility of a development of new technologies which will
help increase food supply, reduce pollution, and substitutes for minerals
- Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present that pollute the environment, for example, solar energy for wood and coal.
generation to meet its needs without jeopardizing the ability of future
 Sustainable development neglects a possibility of people and government
generations to meet their needs
joining hands to find ways of equitable distribution of resources.
- Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present
THEWAYS OF ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN A
generation to meet its needs so that future generations could also meet
COUNTRY
their needs.
- Stock piling of minerals / preservation until prices in the world market has
improved.
Sustainable Development was developed in the 1970’s as a response to the
- Introduction of Legislation / seasonal hunting / quotas / hunting licenses /
damage to the environment by the developed countries, for example, pollution,
National Parks & Game Reserves / Anti-poaching laws to prevent
depletion of species and resources, soil erosion, desertification and rapidly
extinction of natural resources.
rising global population.
- Stabilising population growth e.g. planning for small families, birth
There was also concern with the unequal sharing of the world’s resources, for
control, practicing population control, giving incentives to small families
example, 80% are consumed by the developed countries and 20% by
or penalize for large families
developing countries.
- Conservation measures; tree planting, recycling, re-use, reduce, refuse,
It calls for both equitable sharing and the caring for the environment.
clean-up, limited use of resources, good farming methods, Wildlife
Management Areas
POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES
- Education on resource use
- There should be conservation of the environment.
- Use of synthetic products
- Population growth should be stabilized, for example, contraceptive use
- Finding alternative energy sources, for example, the use of solar energy
and family planning.
instead of coal which causes air pollution.
- World agreements on environmental issues should be set up.
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 ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT - Promoting women’s organisations that fight for their rights, for example,
Emang Basadi and Metlhaetsile.
GENDER DEVELOPMENT - Including gender studies in the school curriculum to remove prejudice
among the young population.
There has been a realisation that women, despite being the majority population, have - Legislation, passing a law that gives equal rights to both men and women.
been excluded from most areas such as:
Political rights, there are few women in leadership positions. GLOBALISATION

Legal rights, no laws protecting women against oppression or abuse. Globalisation is a set of ideas that emphasis that all people of the world should
become once nation in order to bring democracy as a way of maintaining peace and
Access to education and training, most girls are uneducated because stability.
they are regarded as being less important.
Globalisation is the integration of the world’s economic, social and political systems
Accesses to property, most societies prohibit women from owning into one entity.
property, for example, land and livestock.
It involves interaction and interdependence of all the countries in the world- The
The unequal treatment at the work place, women are given low paying Global village.
jobs even if they have the same qualifications as men, for example, Globalisation came about after the collapse of the Communist bloc in the 1980’s.
managerial positions are held by men mostly. capitalism became the dominant political and economic system.

GENDER EQUALITY IN DEVELOPMENT POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

The move to include women in development started in the 1970’s and 1980’s as a - Organisations for economic cooperation for both developed and
result of the pressure from human and women’s rights groups. developing nations must implement -mutually agreeable and sustainable
There was a realisation that sidelining women and serious implications. policies to reinforce macro-economic structures.
- Infrastructure should be improved in developing countries.
THE PROBLEMS OF SIDELINING WOMEN - There should be fostering of good governance and participatory
democracy.
- More than half of the human resources are underutilized. - Policy makers in developing countries should facilitate the dissemination
- Large population families because women are ignorant of birth control and application of technological knowledge.
because of being illiterate.
- Poor health for families and consequently an unhealthy nation. THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION
- Less skilled manpower.
- Fewer enterprises since women have less access to credit. There will be emergence of more democratic system in the world.
More economic opportunities will be developed, especially for developing countries.
POLICIES THAT WILL ALLOW WOMEN TO PARTICIPATE IN
DEVELOPMENT THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION

- Giving women full access to credit capital. Globalisation may perpetuate domination of the world trade by the developed
- Giving women property rights. nations.
- Giving women access to education, for example, universal education
(compulsory and free). The regional blocks that already exist run against the concept of free trade.
- Affirmative action for women, that is programmes that deliberately
accelerates the promotion of women over men in education, politics,
business and the workplace.
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THE DEVELOPMENT THAT SHOW THE GROWTH OF A GLOBAL THE PROBLEM CREATED BY GLOBALISATION
VILLAGE
- Increase in poverty and inequalities between the developed and
- The emergence of satellite and high-tech global information systems, for developing countries.
example, DSTV and internet.
- Globalisation leads to concentration of capital and wealth in the developed
- Globalised patterns of consumerism, for example, consumer rights countries.
movements.
- It lead to emergence of Trans-National Corporations that are difficult to
- Growing appeal for a universalized wealthy ‘cosmopolitan life style’. control and monitor.

- Nation’s participation in world sport such as Miss World and FIFA World - Globalisation caused marginalization of the developed countries from the
Cup. global village because they lack capital, technology, skills and have weak
economies that are unable to compete.
- Relative decline of the Soviet Block, and other blocks.
- Globalisation cause environmental degradation by Trans-National
- The growth of regional and international agencies and organisations. Corporation.

- Emergence of Human Rights Protection Organisations, for example, THE GLOBALISATION CHALLENGES FOR AFRICA
Ditshwanelo.
 Education and training to produce competitive people who can work
THE ELEMENTS/ CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBALISATION anywhere in the world.

- Globalisation improves technology and production, for example, use of  Regional integration and continental Union to enable African economies
automated machines, information technology and technology transfers to to compete on the international market.
the developing countries.
 Controlling the repatriation of profits by Trans-National Corporations.
- Globalisation integrated global communication network, for example,
satellite, radio, television and radio networks, the internet and global  Controlling the brain drain, for example, the flight of skilled and
media publication such as newspapers and magazines. professional labour to the developed countries.

- Globalisations lead to trade liberation which is the removal of trade  Globalisation leads to shifting from primary production to secondary
barriers to facilitate the free movement of goods and services across production.
international boarders.
 Globalisation leads to controlling the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
- Globalisation leads to the rise of Trans-National Corporations, Global
business empires with subsidiaries all over. They are far much more  Globalisation builds a stable political climate in order to be able to attract
powerful economically than national governments.
investment.
- Globalisation caused decline of sovereign state, independent nation states
 Changing the African mindset from consumerism to saving, investment
will cease to exist and to be replaced by regional and international
and production.
economic groupings, for example, European Union.
 Respect for human rights and upholding their dignity and pride.

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Describe the challenges faced by Africa/ the countries of the South as a result of -The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through
globalisation introduction of global communication networks, for example, internet and
televisions.
Ideas such as: -The way through which globalisation encourages development is by trade
-The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that liberalisation or promotes foreign exchange.
of development of international crime syndicates or terrorism.
-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through
-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of increase of brain drain as international policing/ Interpol/ peaceful interventions.
a result of globalisation because most of skilled people in developed countries prefer
working in developed countries. -The way through which globalisation encourages development is by increase of
Trans-National Companies.
-The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that
of the dominance or control of the economy by the Multi-National Companies -The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through formation
taking profit away to their countries of origin. of regional and international groupings such as European Union and African Union.

-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of lack of funds to educate -The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through the
and train people to compete for jobs locally or have high illiteracy rate. promotion of democracy.

-The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that -The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through the free
of HIV and AIDS killing their skilled manpower. movement of labour.
-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through the
-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of having weak economies encouragement of investment or saving.
which fail to compete in a globalised world because of dependence on exporting raw
materials instead of finished goods. POPULISM

-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of loss of sovereignty as a Populism is a set of ideas that emphasizes that people should be agents of their own
result of globalisation. development.

- The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that They should deal with their problems on an individual level.
of loss of culture. They should deal with their problems via local non-governmental and voluntary
organisations.
- The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that
of difficult to accept change. The theory recognizes three sets of problems as obstructing human
development:
(ii) Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages development of all
countries.  Concentration of power within government bureaucracies and large
private sector firms and organisation.
Ideas such as:  The tendency to evoke narrow economic and technical criteria and
procedures as a basis for their decisions and general operations.
-The way through which globalisation encourages development of all countries is by  Exclusive mechanisms working through the state and the market
transfer of technology from developed countries to less developed countries, for marginalize the vast majority of poor people from political and economic
example, automated machines. /Improvement of technology/ from simple life.
technology to complex technology, for example automated machines.
Populism also opposes large –scale industrialisation and, instead, supports smaller
scale and community-oriented ventures in industry and agriculture.
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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define Sustainable Development:

2. Discuss three ways of achieving sustainable development in a 1. Study Fig. 4, which shows some theories of development.
country.

3. Define the modernisation theory

4. Describe any three stages of the modernisation theory

Pollution has proved to be a global problem and an obstacle against sustainable

development.

5. What is pollution?
Fig.4
6. State three sources of air pollution

7. Describe three ways by which air pollution can be prevented (a)(i) Describe the stages of the Modernisation theory.

Land pollution is also an obstacle towards sustainable development. (ii) Describe the benefits to the people of a country where modernisation has taken
place.
8. Define land pollution (b)(i) Describe the factors that slow down development in the developing countries.

9. Give three causes land pollution (ii) Explain how social indicators are used to measure development.

10. Describe three ways by which land pollution can be controlled

6.Study Fig. 6, which shows the division of the world into countries of the North and
11. What is sustainable development theory? countries of the South.

12. State three policy implications of the sustainable development

theory

13. Define the modernisation theory

14. Define dependency theory

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies Notes MODULE 1: THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
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 Fig.6

(a)(i) Describe the geographical locations of the countries of the South.

(ii) Describe the economic characteristics of the countries of the North.

(b)(i) Describe the challenges faced by the countries of the South as a result of
globalisation.

(ii) Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages development of all

countries.

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