Definition : Points of Inflection

A point where the graph of a function has a tangen~ line and where
the concavity changes is a point of inflection.
Consider following example.
1
EXAMPLE The graph of y = f(x), where f(x) = (x 2 + l)
This is an even function, positive for all x, and has the x-axis as horizontal
asymptote. (For finding asymptote Refer Section 6.3).
 'fhe first derivative is given by

f'(x) = -2x
(x2+1)2'
50 f'(J{) O if x > O, f'(x) > 0 if x < 0, and f'(x) = O when x = 0. Therefore
func t1·on increases
. over
. the negat·ive axis,
· decreases over the pos1t1ve
· · axis.
·
tbC has a relative maximum at x -- O· The secon d denvat1ve· · ·1s given
· by
all d
2
f"(x) = (x +1)\-2) - (-2x)(x 2+ 1)(2x) 2bx 2 - 1)
. (x2 + 1)4 = (x 2 +l
y

2 X
1 1
{3
1
Fig. Graph of f(x) = ( 2 )
x +1
Thus f"(x) > 0 if 3x2 > 1, and f"(x) < O if 3x2 < 1. Hence, the first
1 · 1
derivatives increases when x2 > - and decreases when x2 < - . This information
3 3
is sufficient to draw the curve in Fig. 6.4. The two points on the graph corresponding

to x2 =
1
, where the second derivative changes its sign, arc called points of
3
i11.flectio11.
EXAMPLE Discuss the curve y = x4 - 4x3 with respect to concavity,
points of inflection and local maxima and minima. Use this informati.)n to sketch
the curve.
SOLUTION f(x) = x4 - 4x3,
:. f'(x) = 4x 3 - 12x2 = 4x2 (x - 3)
f"(x) = 12x2 - 24x = 12x (x - 2)
To find critical points, we set .
f '(x) = 0 and obtain x = 0 and x = 3.
To use the second derivative test, we evaluate f" at these critical points :
f"(O) = 0, f"(3) = 36 > 0
 Since f '(3) ::0 and f "(3) > 0, f(3) = - 27 is a local minirnurn.
Since f "(0) = 0, the second derivative test gives no information ab
critical point 0. out the
But since f '(x) < 0 for x < 0 and also for· O < x < ·3,, the first def
I
test tells us that f does not have a Ioca maximum or mmtmum at O tvativc
the expression for f '(x) shows that f decreases to the left of 3 and .tncrea
· In fact ,
the right of 3. ses to
= =
Since f "(x) owhen x Oor 2, we divide the real. line into intervat
these numbers as end points and complete the following chart . s With
Concavity
-
Interval f "(x) = 12(x - 2)
(...oo, 0) + upward

(0, 2) - downward

(2, oo) + upward

I
The point (0, 0) is an i11flectio11 point ·since the curve changes from
upward to concave downward there. Also (2, ..:..16) is an inflection p _concave
h ~nt~
t e cun:e _changes fr~m concave down~ard to conc~~e upward there. Usin nee th
local mm1mum, the intervals of concavity, and the mtlection points w kg e
the curve is Fig. _ ' e s etch
y

Inflection
on points

Fig.
EXAMPLE Find the points of inflection on the curve f(x) = (x + 2)3

SOLUTION f(x) = (x + 2)3

f '(x) = 3(x + 2)2, f '(x) = 0 when x = -2
f "(x) = 6(x + 2)
f "(x) = 6(x + 2) > 0 if x + 2 > 0 i.e. if x > - 2
and f "(x) = 6(x + 2) < 0 if x + 2 < 0 i.e.· if x < -2
t,•• ·

The point x = -2 at which the second derivative changes . its sign .

Therefore x = -2 is a point of inflection.
EXAMPLE Find the points of infection of the curve y = (\ogx) 3
SOLUTION y = f(x) = (logx)3

f'(x) = 3(1ogx)2 . .!_ = 3(1og x)2

X X

f"(x) =3
lt·2(1ogx)-.!_ - (logx)2 - l1
.
t
x2 .

= 3 [21ogx~;logx)2] = 31ogx~ -logx)

2

At the points of inflection f"(x) = O

logx = 0, 2 - logx = 0
x = e 0 = 1, logx = 2 x = e2
: . x = 1 and x = e 2 are points of infection.
 Tncing of Cartesian Cunres . . .

= ·~
In order to trace the cartesian curves ,t ,s convenient to observe the fi0 11oWi

Step 1·: Symmetry :

(a) Symmetry about the x-axis : If th~ equation of the curve re
unaltered when y is replac~ by - Y, 1-~· only even powers of lllains
in the equation, the curve os symmetncal about the x-axis YOccllr
For example, the parabola y2 4ax is symmetrical about th
since y occurs only in even power. (Fig. 6.6) e X-txis
(b) Symmetry about the y-axis : If the equation of the curve rem ·
unaltered when x is replaced by - x, i.e. only even powers f ains
in the equation, the curve is symmetrical about the y-axis~ x °''''
F_or example, the parabola x2 = 4ay is symmetrical about th .
smce x occurs only in even powers (Fig. 6. 7). e Y-axis
y y

y2=4ax

Fig. 6.6 Fig. 6.7

(c) Symmetry about both x and y axes : If the e u .

such that the powers ofx and y both q atton of the cuive is
, . are even everywhe th h
is symmetrical about both the axes. y re en t e curve

For example, the circle

x2 + Y2 -- a2 is
• symmetrical

about both x and y-axes, since

X
the powers of both x and y are
even (Fig. 6.8).

(d) Symmetry in the o . . Fig. 6.8

. ppos1tc quadrants • If h
remains unaltered when • · t e equation of the curve
· simultaneously,
· the curvex is1s replaced. bY -x and Y is replaced by -y
F symmetrical · h
~r example, the hyperbola x = 2 • m t e opposite quadrant.
third quadrant. (Fig. 6.9) y c is symmetrical in the first and the
 y

Fig. 6.9
(e) Symmetry about the line Y= x : If the equation of the curve remains
unaltered when x and y ar · t h · · b
. e m ere anged, the curve 1s symmetncal a out
the lme y = x. ·

For ex~mpl~, the hyperbola xy = c2 is symmetrical about the line

Y = X _si~ce •nterc?anging x and y we have yx = c2 which is same as
the ongmal equal!on (Fig. 6.9).
Step 2 : Origin :
(a) Curves through the origin : If the equation of the curve does not
contain any constant term, the curve passes through the origin. It will
pass through the origin, if the equation is satisfied by (0, 0). .
For exampll , the parabola y2 = 4ax passes through the origin (Fig 6.6)
as it does not contain any constant term.
(b) Tangents at the origin : If the curve passes through the origin, the
tangents to the curve at the origin are obtained by equating to zero,
the lowest degree terms of the equation.
For example, the parabola y2 = 4ax passes through the origin. The lowest
degree term in the equation is - 4ax. Equating it to zero we have
- 4ax = 0, i.e. x = 0 which shows that the y-axis is the only tangent
at the origin.
EXAMPLE '
Find the tangents r.t the origin to the curve
y2(a + x) = x2(3a - x)
SOLUTION y2 (a + x) = x2 (3a - x)
The tangents at the origin are obtained by eqttating to zero the lowest degr.ee
tenns in the equation i.e. ay 2 - 3ax2 = 0
or a (y 2 - 3x2) = 0
a -:;; 0 :. y2 - 3x2 = 0 :. y = ± ,[j x
are the tangents at the origin.
398
Ste 3 . Study of Special Points on the Curve : . .
P · d •ugate points : A point 1s called a dollbl
N odes an conJ . ep.
(a) Cusp5, f the curve passes through 1t. The double p . 0111t
·r two branches
1
o ... • Otnt
• ed as a (i) Node (ii) Cusp and (111) conJugate -point. A may
be cl_assifi has two tangents, one for each branch; t such
a point, the curve . . h d bl .
') If the tangents are real and distinct, t e ou e point is can
(I ~a
node. (Fig. 6.10). ·
y
y

X 0 X
0
Fig." 6.11
Fig. 6.10
(ii) If the tangents are real and coincident the double point is called
a Cusp (Fig. 6.11).
(iii) A double point is called a conju~ate point or an isolated point
if it is neither a node nor a cusp, 1.e. the two tangents at the point
are all imaginary.
Such a point can not be shown in the figure.
(b) The points of intersection with the co-ordinate axes : The points
of intersection, if any with the x and y-axis can respectively obtained
by putting y = 0 and x = 0.
For example, the circle x2 + y2 = a2 meets the x-axis, where y = o,
i.e. x2 = a2 or x = ± a. It meets the y-axis, where x = 0, i.e. y2 = a2
or y = ± a. Thus the circle meets the x-axis at (± a, 9) and the
y-axis at (0, ± a).
(c) Points, where tangents are parallel to the co-ordinate axes : The
points, where the tangents are parallel to the x-axis are given by
dy = 0 and the points, where the tangents are parallel t~ the y- axis
dX .
. dv
are given by d~ = ± oo.
EXAMPLE Find the cusp for the curve a2x2 = y3 (2a - y)

SOLUTION Equating lowest degree term with zero.

We have a2x2 = 0 x2 = 0 :. x = 0, O
Since the two tangents at the origin are coincident, therefore origin is a cusp.
 4 : Asymp~otes :
5teP
A yrnptotes are the tangents to th
s l the cases which arises whe e curve at infi~ity. We shall con~ider
5epara~e y axis or (b) an obl' n an asymptote 1s (a) parallel to either
,o-ord1nate . ique asymptote.
(a) Asymptotes parallel to CG-<>rdinate axes :

(1·) To find the

. asymptotes parallel to x-axis,
• equate to zero the coefficient
.
of the highest degree tenns in x. ,

(ii) To fio d t_he asymptotes parallel to y-axis equate to zero the coefficient
of the highest degree tenns in y.

EXAMPLE Find the asymptotes of the curve

2 2 2 2
x y - x y - 5xy + x + y + 5 = 0.
SOLUTION We equate the coefficient of the highest powers of x, which
is y2 _ y with zero, we find . , ·
y (y - 1) = 0 Y = 0, Y = l asymptotes parallel to the x-axis.
Now equating the coefficient of the highest powers of y, which is x2 - 5x
with zero, .we find ·
x (x - 5) = .0 x = 0, x = 5, asymptotes parallel ~o the y-axis.
Hence the asymptotes parallel to co-ordinate axes are x = 0, x = 5,
Y= o. Y = t
(b) Oblique asymptotes :
(l) Let y = rnx + c be the equation of the asymptote to .the :curve.
(2) Form an nth degree polynomial of m by putting x = 1, y = m in the
given equation to the curve.
(3) Let ~n (m) and ~n _ 1 (m) be polynomials of terms of degree n and.
(n - 1) respectively.
(4) Solve ~n (m) =0 ,to determine m.
~n-1 (m)
(5) Find 'c' by the formula c = - fn (m)

(6) Substitute the values of m and c in y = mx + c in tum.

 . Where no Part of the Curve Lies :
Step 5 : Reg1ons .
(a) If it is possible to express the equation as y = f(x) and if Y becolll
imaginary for some value of x > a (say), then no part of the curve exists
.es
beyond x = a.
to
(b) Similarly, if it is possible express the equation as x = f(y) and 1·r
x becomes imaginary for some value of y > b(say), then no part 0 f the
curve exists beyond y = b.
Problems based on Cartesian Curves
EXAMPLE Cissoid of Diode 3
Trace the curve y2 (2a - x) x . =
SOLUTION The equation of the curve can be written as
,, x3
y·: 2a - X

(i) Symmetry : The ~quation contains only even powers of y, therefore

it is symmetrical about x-axis. · · '-
(ii) Origin : Equation does not contain any constant, therefore it passes
through the origin.
From (1) we have
2 3
y2 (2a - x) = x3 i.e. 2ay 2 - xy - x = 0
In order to find tangents at the origin, equaling to zero the lowest
degree terms, we have.
2aY 2 = 0 => Y2 = 0, Y = 0, 0 is a double point
x-axis is tangent at origin.
c11r•'e .,,..
(iii) Special poi~t- : ~ince th e two tangents at the origin arc coincident,
therefore ongm ts a Cusp.
for intersection with x-axis, we put y = 0
x3
- 2 =0==>x=0
a- X

and for in:er:scction with y-axis, we put x = 0

:. . 2ay = 0 ... y2 -_ 0 y =0
Thus curve meets the coordinate axes only at (0, 0).
3
(ir) Asymptotes : y2 = _x__
2a - X
As x 2~, Y 00, hence the only asymptote parallel to y-axis is

X = 2a. y x=2a asymptote

M Regions : From the equation
we observe that for x < O and /
x > 2a, y2 becomes negative
hence y becomes imaginary,
X
therefore the curve does not 0
exist for x < 0 and x > 2a. tangent .

A rough sketch of the curve is

~hown in Fig. 6.12.
Fig. 6.12

EXAMPLE Witch of Agnesi*

2 2
Trace the curve xy2 = 4a2 (2a - x) or xy = a (a - x), (a > 0).
SOLUTION ,
(i) Symmetry : T~e curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
(ii) Origin : The curve does not pass through the origin.
(iii) Points : When y = 0, x = 2a. :. It cuts the x-axis at (2a, 0).
· · 2
4a 2 (2a - x)
(iv)
•
Asymptotes
.
: y = .
- - ' X- - -
As x 0, y oo, hence the only asymptote is the line x = 0 i.e.
y-axis.
(v) Regions : If we solve for y,

y = 2a v~
 y
If x < 0, y becomes imaginary
no portion of curve lies to
the left of y-axis.
Also if x > 2a then also y is
imaginary. 0
.·. no portion of the curve lies
to the right of the line x == 2a.
The curve is therefore as shown
in Fig. 6 . 13. Fig. 6.13