NEURAL NETWORK
BRAIN The human brain is the command center for the human
nervous system. It receives signals from the body's sensory
organs and outputs information to the muscles. The human
brain has the same basic structure as other mammal brains
but is larger in relation to body size than any other brains
The brain is an amazing three-pound organ that controls all
functions of the body, interprets information from the
outside world, and embodies the essence of the mind and
soul. Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory are a few
of the many things governed by the brain. Protected within
the skull, the brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum,
and brainstem.
The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch from the
spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain.
*The brain makes up about 2% of a human’s body weight
PARTS OF
THE BRAIN
1.) CEREBRUM
Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is
composed of right and left hemispheres. It
performs higher functions like interpreting touch,
vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning,
emotions, learning, and fine control of movement.
2.) Cerebellum
Cerebellum is located under the
cerebrum. Its function is to
coordinate muscle movements,
maintain posture, and balance.
*The cerebrum makes up 85% of the brain’s weight
3.) Brainstem
Brainstem acts as a relay center
connecting the cerebrum and
cerebellum to the spinal cord. It
performs many automatic functions
such as breathing, heart rate, body
temperature, wake and sleep cycles,
digestion, sneezing, coughing,
vomiting, and swallowing.
Right Brain–Left Brain
The cerebrum is divided into two
halves: the right and left
hemispheres.
They are joined by a bundle of
fibers called the corpus callosum
that transmits messages from one
side to the other. The left hemisphere The right hemisphere
controls: controls:
Each hemisphere controls the
speech creativity
opposite side of the body. If a spatial ability
comprehension
stroke occurs on the right side of arithmetic artistic
the brain, your left arm or leg may writing musical skills.
be weak or paralyzed.
*The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in
about 92% of people
Lobes of the Brain
The cerebral hemispheres have
distinct fissures, which divide the
brain into lobes.
Each hemisphere has 4 lobes:
frontal, temporal, parietal, and
occipital. Each lobe may be
divided, once again, into areas that
serve very specific functions.
It is important to understand that
each lobe of the brain does not
function alone.
Lobes of the Brain
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
• Personality, behavior, emotions • Interprets language, words
• Judgment, planning, problem solving • Sense of touch, pain, temperature
(sensory strip)
• Speech: speaking and writing (Broca’s area)
• Body movement (motor strip) • Interprets signals from vision,
hearing, motor, sensory and memory
• Intelligence, concentration, selfawareness
• Spatial and visual perception
Lobes of the Brain
Occipital lobe Temporal lobe
• Interprets vision (color, light, movement • Understanding language (Wernicke’s
area)
• Memory
• Hearing
• Sequencing and organization
Language
In general, the left Aphasia is a disturbance of language affecting speech
production, comprehension, reading or writing, due to brain
hemisphere of the brain is injury—most commonly from stroke or trauma. The type of
responsible for language aphasia depends on the brain area damaged.
and speech and is called
Broca’s area lies in the left frontal lobe. If this area is
the "dominant" damaged, one may have difficulty moving the tongue or
hemisphere. The right facial muscles to produce the sounds of speech. The person
hemisphere plays a large can still read and understand spoken language but has
difficulty in speaking and writing (i.e., forming letters and
part in interpreting visual words, doesn't write within lines)—called Broca's aphasia.
information and spatial
processing. Wernicke's area lies in the left temporal lobe. Damage to
this area causes Wernicke's aphasia. The individual may
speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add
unnecessary words, and even create new words. They can
make speech sounds, however they have difficulty
understanding speech and are therefore unaware of their
mistakes.
Cortex
It is the surface of the cerebrum.
It has a folded appearance with hills and
valleys. The cortex contains 16 billion
neurons (the cerebellum has 70 billion =
86 billion total) that are arranged in
specific layers.
The cortex contains neurons (grey
matter), which are interconnected to
other brain areas by axons (white
matter). The cortex has a folded
appearance. A fold is called a gyrus and
the valley between is a sulcus.
Deep Structures
Pathways called white matter tracts connect
areas of the cortex to each other. Messages can
travel from one gyrus to another, from one lobe
to another, from one side of the brain to the
other, and to structures deep in the brain
Hypothalamus is located in the floor of the
third ventricle and is the master control of
the autonomic system. It plays a role in
controlling behaviors such as hunger, thirst,
sleep, and sexual response. It also regulates
body temperature, blood pressure,
emotions, and secretion of hormones.
Deep Structures
Pituitary gland lies in a small pocket of bone
at the skull base called the sella turcica. The
pituitary gland is connected to the
hypothalamus of the brain by the pituitary
stalk. Known as the “master gland,” it
controls other endocrine glands in the body.
It secretes hormones that control sexual
development, promote bone and muscle
growth, and respond to stress.
Pineal gland is located behind the third
ventricle. It helps regulate the body’s
internal clock and circadian rhythms by
secreting melatonin. It has some role in
sexual development.
Deep Structures
Thalamus serves as a relay station for almost
all information that comes and goes to the
cortex. It plays a role in pain sensation,
attention, alertness and memory. Basal
ganglia includes the caudate, putamen and
globus pallidus. These nuclei work with the
cerebellum to coordinate fine motions, such
as fingertip movements.
Limbic system is the center of our emotions,
learning, and memory. Included in this system
are the cingulate gyri, hypothalamus, amygdala
(emotional reactions) and hippocampus
(memory).
Memory
Memory is a complex process that
includes three phases: Short-term memory, also called working memory,
occurs in the prefrontal cortex. It stores
Encoding (deciding what information for about one minute and its capacity
is limited to about 7 items.
information is important), Storing,
and Recalling. Long-term memory is processed in the
hippocampus of the temporal lobe and is activated
when you want to memorize something for a
Different areas of the brain are longer time. This memory has unlimited content
involved in different types of and duration capacity. It contains personal
memory. Your brain has to pay memories as well as facts and figures.
attention and rehearse in order for Skill memory is processed in the cerebellum,
which relays information to the basal ganglia. It
an event to move from shortterm stores automatic learned memories like tying a
to long-term memory—called shoe, playing an instrument, or riding a bike.
encoding.
Memory
Structures of the limbic
system involved in memory
formation.
The prefrontal cortex
holds recent events briefly in
short-term memory.
The
hippocampus is responsible for
encoding long-term memory.
Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid
The brain has hollow fluid-filled cavities
called ventricles. Inside the ventricles is a
ribbon-like structure called the choroid
plexus that makes clear colorless
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF flows within
and around the brain and spinal cord to
help cushion it from injury. This
circulating fluid is constantly being
absorbed and replenished.
Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid
There are two ventricles deep within the
cerebral hemispheres called the lateral
ventricles. They both connect with the third
ventricle through a separate opening called
the foramen of Monro.
The third ventricle
connects with the fourth ventricle through a
long narrow tube called the aqueduct of
Sylvius.
From the fourth ventricle, CSF flows
into the subarachnoid space where it bathes
and cushions the brain. CSF is recycled (or absorbed)
by special structures in the superior sagittal sinus
called arachnoid villi.
Skull
The purpose of the bony skull is to
protect the brain from injury.
The skull is formed from eight bones
that fuse together along suture lines.
These bones include the frontal,
parietal (2), temporal (2), sphenoid,
occipital, and ethmoid.
The face is formed from 14 paired
bones including the maxilla, zygoma,
nasal, palatine, lacrimal, inferior
nasal conchae, mandible, and vomer.
three distinct areas:
anterior fossa, middle fossa,
and posterior fossa
Similar to cables coming out the back
of a computer, all the arteries, veins
and nerves exit the base of the skull
through holes, called foramina. The
big hole in the middle (foramen
magnum) is where the spinal cord
exits.
Cranial nerves
The brain communicates with the body
through the spinal cord and twelve pairs
of cranial nerves.
Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves
that control hearing, eye movement,
facial sensations, taste, swallowing and
movement of the face, neck, shoulder
and tongue muscles originate in the
brainstem. The cranial nerves for smell
and vision originate in the
cerebrum.The Roman numeral, name,
and main function of the twelve cranial
nerves:
12 Cranial nerves
The Roman numeral, name, and main function of the twelve cranial nerves:
Meninges
The brain and
spinal cord are
covered and the outermost layer to
protected by three inward they are: the dura
mater, arachnoid mater, and
layers of tissue pia mater
called meninges
Meninges
Dura mater is a strong, thick membrane that closely lines the inside of the
skull; its two layers, the periosteal and meningeal dura, are fused and
separate only to form venous sinuses. The dura creates little folds or
compartments. There are two special dural folds, the falx and the
tentorium. The falx separates the right and left hemispheres of the brain
and the tentorium separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum.
The arachnoid is made of elastic tissue. The space between the dura and
arachnoid membranes is called the subdural space.
Pia mater hugs the surface of the brain following its folds and grooves. The
pia mater has many blood vessels that reach deep into the brain. The space
between the arachnoid and pia is called the subarachnoid space. It is here
where the cerebrospinal fluid bathes and cushions the brain.
Blood supply
Blood is carried to the
brain by two paired
arteries, the internal
carotid arteries and the
vertebral arteries. The
internal carotid arteries
supply most of the
cerebrum
Blood supply
The vertebral arteries supply the cerebellum,
brainstem, and the underside of the cerebrum.
After passing through the skull, the right and left
vertebral arteries join together to form the basilar
artery. The basilar artery and the internal carotid
arteries communicate with each other at the base
of the brain called the Circle of Willis.
This communication between the internal carotid and vertebral-basilar
systems is an important safety feature of the brain, as it allows collateral blood
flow to come across the Circle of Willis and prevent brain damage if one of the
major vessels becomes blocked.
Blood supply
The venous circulation of the brain is
different from that of the rest of the body.
The major vein collectors are integrated into
the dura to form venous sinuses, which
collect the blood from the brain and pass it to
the jugular veins. The superior and inferior
sagittal sinuses drain the cerebrum, while
the cavernous sinuses drain the anterior
skull base. All sinuses eventually drain to the
sigmoid sinuses, which exit the skull and
form the jugular veins. These two jugular
veins are essentially the only drainage of the
brain.
Cells of the Brain
The brain is made up of
two types of cells:
nerve cells
(neurons)
glial cells.
Nerve Cell
Neurons are cells that convey
information through electrical and
chemical signals.
They come in various sizes and shapes,
but all consist of a cell body, dendrites,
and an axon. When a neuron is excited, it
transmits its energy to neurons within
its vicinity.
The process of transmitting information
through neurons is similar to electrical
wiring in your home, where an electrical
circuit is made up of numerous wires
connected in such a way that when a
light switch is turned on, a light bulb
will beam.
Nerve Cell
Neurons transmit information through
electrical and chemical signals. They
have many arms called dendrites that
pick up messages from other nerve cells.
These messages are passed to the cell
body, which determines if the message
should be passed along. Important
messages are passed to the end of the
axon where sacs containing
neurotransmitters open into the
synapse. The neurotransmitter
molecules cross the synapse and fit into
special receptors on the receiving nerve
cell, which stimulates that cell to pass on
the message.
Glial Cell
Glia cells ( Greek word meaning “glue” )
are a type of cell that provides physical
and chemical support to neurons and
maintain their environment. They are
located in the central nervous system
and peripheral nervous system,
They are sometimes called the “glue” of
the nervous system, as well as neuroglia
or just glia and are about 10-50 times
more glia than nerve cells and are the
most common type of cells involved in
brain tumors.
Types of Glial Cell
Stroglia or astrocytes - are the caretakers they regulate the blood
brain barrier, allowing nutrients and molecules to interact with
neurons. They control homeostasis, neuronal defense and repair, scar
formation, and also affect electrical impulses
Oligodendroglia cells - create a fatty substance called myelin that
insulates axons – allowing electrical messages to travel faster.
Ependymal cells - line the ventricles and secrete cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).
Microglia - are the brain’s immune cells, protecting it from invaders
and cleaning up debris. They also prune synapses.
Facts about the human brain:
The human brain is the largest brain of all vertebrates relative to body
size
It weighs about 3.3 lbs. (1.5 kilograms)
The average male has a brain volume of 1,275 cubic centimeters
The average female has a brain volume of 1,131 cubic centimeters
The brain makes up about 2% of a human’s body weight
It contains about 86 billion nerve cells (neurons)—the “gray matter”
It contains billions of nerve fibers (axons and dendrites)—the “white
matter” • These neurons are connected by trillions of connections or
synapses.4
