1.
**Generalization**
Generalization is the process of extracting shared characteristics from two or more classes and
combining them into a generalized superclass. The derived classes inherit properties and behaviors from
the superclass.
** Example: **
- **Superclass: ** `Animal`
- **Subclasses: ** `Dog`, `Cat`, `Bird`
class Animal {
public:
void eat () {/*...*/}
};
class Dog: public Animal {/*...*/};
class Cat: public Animal {/*...*/};
**Diagram: **
Animal
/ \
Dog Cat
2. **Sub-typing (Extension)**
Sub-typing refers to creating new types (subclasses) by extending an existing type (superclass). This is
an "is-a" relationship where the subclass inherits properties from the superclass.
**Example: **
- `Dog` is a subtype of `Animal`, and `Cat` is another subtype of `Animal`.
3. **Specialization (Restriction)**
Specialization is the opposite of generalization. It refers to creating a more specific class from a general
class, restricting some features or behaviors.
**Example: **
- If `Animal` is generalized, `Dog` and `Cat` are specialized versions with additional properties, such as
`bark () ` for `Dog` and `meow () ` for `Cat`.
4. **Overriding**
Overriding occurs when a subclass provides a specific implementation of a method that is already
defined in its superclass. It improves the behavior(functionality) of the existing class.
**Example: **
class Animal {
public:
virtual void sound() {
cout << "Animal sound";
};
class Dog : public Animal {
public:
void sound() override {
cout << "Woof!";
};
- The method `sound()` is overridden in the `Dog` class to provide a specific behavior.
### 5. **Reasons for Overriding**
- **Customization:** To provide a specific behavior in a subclass.
- **Polymorphism:** To enable dynamic method invocation at runtime using base class pointers.
- **Reusability:** To reuse superclass methods while extending or modifying their behavior.
### 6. **Abstract Classes**
An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated directly and often contains at least one pure
virtual function.
**Example:**
```cpp
class Animal {
public:
virtual void sound() = 0; // pure virtual function
};
```
### 7. **Concrete Classes**
Concrete classes are classes that can be instantiated and provide implementations for all their
methods.
**Example:**
```cpp
class Dog : public Animal {
public:
void sound() override {
cout << "Woof!";
};
```
### 8. **Diamond Problem**
The **Diamond Problem** arises in languages like C++ with multiple inheritance, where a subclass
inherits from two classes that both inherit from a common base class.
**Example:**
```
/\
B C
\/
D
```
If both `B` and `C` inherit from `A`, and `D` inherits from both `B` and `C`, there may be ambiguity
about which version of `A`'s attributes or methods `D` should inherit.
### 9. **Solution to the Diamond Problem**
C++ resolves the Diamond Problem using **virtual inheritance**, ensuring that only one instance of
the base class is created.
**Example:**
```cpp
class A { /*...*/ };
class B : virtual public A { /*...*/ };
class C : virtual public A { /*...*/ };
class D : public B, public C { /*...*/ };
```
### 10. **Association**
Association represents a relationship between two classes where one class uses or interacts with
another class. It's a "has-a" relationship.
**Example:**
- A `Doctor` has a relationship with `Patient`.
**Diagram:**
```
Doctor ------- Patient
```
### 11. **Kinds of Association**
- **Bidirectional:** Both classes are aware of each other (e.g., `Doctor` and `Patient`).
- **Unidirectional:** One class knows about the other, but not vice versa (e.g., `Car` knows about
`Engine`, but `Engine` doesn't know about `Car`).
### 12. **Types of Simple Association**
- **One-to-One:** One object of class A is associated with one object of class B.
- **One-to-Many:** One object of class A is associated with multiple objects of class B.
- **Many-to-Many:** Many objects of class A are associated with many objects of class B.
### 13. **Ternary Association**
A ternary association involves three classes or entities.
**Example:**
- `Doctor`, `Patient`, and `Appointment`.
### **N-ary Association**
An **n-ary association** in object-oriented modeling refers to a relationship involving more than two
classes or entities. A **ternary association** (3-way relationship) is a common example, but in general,
n-ary associations can involve any number of entities (where *n* is the number of participating classes).
### **Real-Life Example 1: Hospital System (Ternary Association) **
Consider a healthcare system involving three entities:
- **Doctor**
- **Patient**
- **Appointment**
In this case, a **ternary association** (a 3-way relationship) would represent the connection between a
doctor, a patient, and a specific appointment.
- A **Doctor** schedules multiple **Appointments** with different **Patients**.
- A **Patient** can have multiple **Appointments** with different **Doctors**.
#### **Diagram (Ternary Association): **
```
Doctor ------ Appointment ------- Patient
```
#### Explanation:
In this relationship:
- Each appointment involves one doctor and one patient.
- The association **Appointment** is the entity that links both doctors and patients.
- The appointment entity may store additional information such as the appointment date, time, and
location, capturing the specific relationship between the doctor and the patient.
### **Real-Life Example 2: University Enrollment (Quaternary Association) **
In a university enrollment system, consider the following entities:
- **Student**
- **Course**
- **Semester**
- **Professor**
A **quaternary association** (a 4-way relationship) can model a situation where:
- A **Student** is enrolled in a **Course**.
- The **Course** is taught by a **Professor**.
- The course is offered in a specific **Semester**.
#### **Diagram (Quaternary Association):**
```
Student ------ Enrollment ------- Course
|--------- Professor
|--------- Semester
```
#### Explanation:
In this case:
- The **Enrollment** entity acts as the association between a student, a course, a professor, and the
semester in which the course is taken.
- The enrollment record can store specific details, such as the grade, course schedule, or other relevant
information.
### 14. **Composition**
Composition is a strong form of association where the lifetime of the contained object is bound to the
lifetime of the container. If the container is destroyed, the contained objects are also destroyed.
**Example:**
- A `House` contains `Rooms`. If the house is destroyed, the rooms are destroyed as well.
**Diagram:**
```
House <>---- Room
```
### 15. **Composition is Stronger**
Composition is stronger because it implies ownership. The container "owns" the contained objects, and
they cannot exist independently.
### 16. **Aggregation**
Aggregation is a weaker form of association where the contained objects can exist independently of
the container.
**Example:**
- A `Team` contains `Players`. If the team is disbanded, the players still exist.
**Diagram:**
```
Team ----<> Player
```
### 17. **Aggregation is Weaker**
Aggregation is weaker than composition because the lifetime of the contained objects is not
dependent on the container.
