Senior High School

Disaster Readiness and Risk

Reduction
Module 12:
Elements of the Fire Triangle

AIRs-LM

LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION
Module 12: Elements of the Fire Triangle
Second Edition, 2021

Copyright © 2021
La Union Schools Division
Region I

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced in any form without written
permission from the copyright owners.

Development Team of the Module

Author: Jermie B. Sotero

Editor: SDO La Union, Learning Resource Quality Assurance Team
Content Evaluator: Jodel Maria L. Regpala
Illustrator: Ernesto F. Ramos Jr.
Design and Layout: Jasper N. Arciaga

Management Team:

Atty. Donato D. Balderas Jr.

Schools Division Superintendent
Vivian Luz S. Pagatpatan, Ph D
Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
German E. Flora, Ph D, CID Chief
Virgilio C. Boado, Ph D, EPS in Charge of LRMS
Rominel S. Sobremonte, Ed D, EPS in charge in Science
Michael Jason D. Morales, PDO II
Claire P. Toluyen, Librarian II

Printed in the Philippines by:

Department of Education – SDO La Union

Office Address: Flores St. Catbangen, San Fernando City, La Union
Telefax: 072 – 205 – 0046
Email Address: launion@deped.gov.ph

LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 Senior High School

Disaster Readiness and Risk

Reduction
Module 12:
Elements of the Fire Triangle

LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear
learners, can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities,
questions, directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you
to understand each lesson.

Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you
step-by-step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.

Pre-tests are provided to measure your prior knowledge on lessons in

each SLM. This will tell you if you need to proceed on completing this module
or if you need to ask your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better
understanding of the lesson. At the end of each module, you need to answer
the post-test to self-check your learning. Answer keys are provided for each
activity and test. We trust that you will be honest in using these.

In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher are
also provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on
how they can best help you on your home-based learning.

Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on
any part of this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises
and tests. And read the instructions carefully before performing each task.

If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in

answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher
or facilitator.

Thank you.

LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 Target

In the previous lesson you were able to recognize, interpret, and were able to
use available tools for monitoring hydro meteorological hazards. It was stated that
most hydro meteorological hazards can be heard seconds before they reach our area.
Hence it is always necessary to be always active and prepared during this event
especially that such hazards forms and travel in the atmosphere is easy to see and
detect them from afar.

In this module, we will be discussing about the nature of fire.

Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the
potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process
that affects ecological systems around the globe. The positive effects of fire include
stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Its negative effects
include hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution, and water contamination.
If fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil
erosion by water.

Also, when vegetation is burned, the nitrogen it contains is released into the
atmosphere, unlike elements such as potassium and phosphorus which remain in
the ash and are quickly recycled into the soil. This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire
produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil, but this fecundity can
potentially be recovered as molecular nitrogen in the atmosphere is "fixed" and
converted to ammonia by natural phenomena such as lightning and
by leguminous plants that are "nitrogen-fixing" such as clover, peas, and green
beans.
After going through this learning material, you are expected to:
1. recognize elements of the fire triangle in different situations
(DRR11/12-IIe-f-37);
2. analyze the different causes of fire (DRR11/12-IIe-f-38); and
3. observe precautionary measures and proper procedures in addressing
a fire incident (DRR11/12-IIa-b-29)

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 Jumpstart

Activity 1. KWL Chart:

Answer the following questions below. Your answer will be evaluated base on the
rubric provided below. Leave the T part blank.

K W
What is your idea about fire triangle? What do you want to know about fire
triangle?

T
What do you think is the effect of fire triangle?

RUBRIC
Criteria Fair Good Very Good
2 points 3 points 4 points
Description has no Description provides Description was
new information some new written neatly, very
Quality of
and ideas are information and well informative
Writing
poorly organized organized and well organized

There are Few misspelled Virtually, no

misspelled words, words and spelling,
Grammar,
and punctuation punctuation errors punctuation or
Usage and
and grammatical but were able to grammatical errors
Mechanics
errors that provide a and were able to
interferes with the description provide a very good
description description.
provided

2 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 Discover

Fire can be devastating. They lead to property

loss, injuries, environmental damage, and sometimes Fire hazards can occur
fatalities. anywhere because the
three components of fire
It is therefore essential that everyone has safety are present everywhere:
knowledge in the preservation of fires and fuel, heat, and oxygen
preparedness in dealing with them.

FIRE TRIANGLE

Fire is the process of rapid oxidation of any

material resulting in burning. Oxidation
means that oxygen molecules interact with
different substances in the environment,
making it unstable and thus creating a
reaction. When burning happens, heat, and
other reaction products are released.

FUEL A fire triangle is a model that shows the

three essential components that when present
together can start a fire and sustain it- fuel, heat, and oxygen.

FUEL

- Fire needs fuel source or combustible material in order to burn. Fuel comes
in different forms: solid (e.g., wood, paper, plastic), liquid (e.g., gasoline, kerosene,
acetone), and gas (e.g., methane, propane, acetylene). Different types of fuel burn at
different rates.

HEAT

- This is needed to start and continue the combustion process. Combustion

happens when flammable vapor mix with air (oxygen) and is ignited by a spark or
flame. In essence, when the ignition temperature (heat) of the fuel (any material) is
reached, combustion reaction happens. This is because the energy stored in that
material reacts with the oxygen that is present in the air, giving off heat. Most solid
combustible materials ignite immediately because they instantly give off vapor and
readily reach their ignition or flammable temperature. Other solids may take time to
ignite because of their density such that the flammable vapor does not get released
fast. Liquid fuels, on the other hand, give off flammable vapor even in cold

3 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

temperatures. Hence, fire may still be produced even in temperatures below 0oC.
Petrol is an example of a liquid fuel that can be ignited at 43oC below 0.

OXYGEN
Fire hazards ca occur This constitutes about 21% of the air around us.
anywhere because the Oxygen reacts with flammable vapors given off by
three components of fire fuels and the reaction releases heat. The magnitude
are present everywhere. of the fire, whether it is going to be explosive or
Fire will not cease until flammable, depends on the ratio between the oxygen
one or more of the and fuel.
components are removed

THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON

The fire tetrahedron represents the addition of a

component in the chemical chain reaction, to the three already
present in the fire triangle. Once a fire has started, the
resulting exothermic chain reaction sustains the fire and
allows it to continue until or unless at least one of the
elements of the fire is blocked. Foam can be used to
deny the fire the oxygen it needs. Water can be used
to lower the temperature of the fuel below the
ignition point or to remove or disperse the
fuel. Halon can be used to remove free radicals and
create a barrier of inert gas in a direct attack on the chemical
reaction responsible for the fire.
Combustion is the chemical reaction that feeds a fire more
heat and allows it to continue.
When the fire involves burning metals
like lithium, magnesium, titanium, etc., it becomes even more important to consider
the energy release. The metals react faster with water than with oxygen and thereby
more energy is released. Pouring water on such a fire result in the fire getting hotter
or even exploding. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are ineffective against certain metals
such as titanium. Therefore, inert agents (e.g., dry sand) must be used to break the
chain reaction of metallic combustion.
In the same way, as soon as one of the four elements of the tetrahedron is
removed, combustion stops.

OXIDIZER
The oxidizer is the other reactant of the chemical reaction. In most cases, it is
the ambient air, and in particular one of its components, oxygen (O2). By depriving a
fire of air, it can be extinguished. For example, when covering the flame of a small
candle with an empty glass, fire stops. To the contrary, if air is blown over a wood
fire (as with bellows), the fire is activated by the introduction of more air.
Some chemicals, such as fluorine gas, perchlorate salts such as ammonium
perchlorate, or chlorine trifluoride, act as oxidizers, sometimes more powerful ones
than oxygen itself. A fire based on a reaction with these oxidizers can be very difficult
to put out until the oxidizer is exhausted; that leg of the fire triangle cannot be broken
by normal means (i.e., depriving it of air will not smother it).
4 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12
 In certain cases, such as some explosives, the oxidizer and combustible are
the same (e.g., nitroglycerin, an unstable molecule that has oxidizing parts in the
same molecule as the oxidizable parts).
Reaction is initiated by an activating energy, in most cases, it is heat. Several
examples include friction, as in case of matches, heating an electrical wire, a flame
(propagation of fire), or a spark (from a lighter or from any starting electrical device).
There are also many other ways to bring sufficient activation energy including
electricity, radiation, and pressure, all of which will lead to a temperature rise. In
most cases, heat production enables self-sustainability of the reaction, and enables
a chain reaction to grow. The temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor
to get a flammable mix with self-sustainable combustion is called its flash-point.

EXTINCTION OF FIRE

To stop a combustion reaction, one of the three elements of the fire triangle
must be removed.

Without sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. Heat can
be removed by the application of a substance which reduces the amount of heat
available to the fire reaction. This is often water, which absorbs heat for phase change
from water to steam. Introducing sufficient quantities and types of powder or gas in
the flame reduces the amount of heat available for the fire reaction in the same
manner. Scraping embers from a burning structure also removes the heat source.
Turning off the electricity in an electrical fire removes the ignition source.

Without fuel, a fire will stop. Fuel can be removed naturally, as where the fire
has consumed all the burnable fuel, or manually, by mechanically or chemically
removing the fuel from the fire. Fuel separation is an important factor in wildland
fire suppression, and is the basis for most major tactics, such as controlled burns.
The fire stops because a lower concentration of fuel vapor in the flame leads to a
decrease in energy release and a lower temperature. Removing the fuel thereby
decreases the heat.

Without sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. With a
decreased oxygen concentration, the combustion process slows. Oxygen can be
denied to a fire using a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, a fire blanket or water.

ROLE OF WATER IN FIRE-FIGHTING

Water can have two different roles. In the case of a solid combustible, the solid
fuel produces pyrolyzing products under the influence of heat, commonly radiation.
This process is halted by the application of water, since water is more easily
evaporated than the fuel is pyrolyzed. Thereby energy is removed from the fuel
surface and it is cooled and the pyrolysis is stopped, removing the fuel supply to the
flames. In firefighting, this is referred to as surface cooling.

In the gas phase, i.e., in the flames or in the smoke, the combustible cannot
be separated from the oxidizer, and the only possible action consists of cooling down.
In this case, water droplets are evaporated in the gas phase, thereby lowering the
temperature and adding water vapor making the gas mixture noncombustible. This
requires droplets of a size less than about 0.2 mm. In firefighting, this is referred to
as gas cooling or smoke cooling.

5 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 Cases also exist where the ignition factor is not the activation energy. For
example, a smoke explosion is a very violent combustion of unburned gases
contained in the smoke created by a sudden fresh air input (oxidizer input). The
interval in which an air/gas mix can burn is limited by the explosive limits of the air.
This interval can be very small (kerosene) or large (acetylene).

Water cannot be used on certain type of fires:

• Fires where live electricity is present – as water conducts electricity it presents

an electrocution hazard.
• Hydrocarbon fires – as it will only spread the fire because of the difference in
density/hydrophobicity. For example, adding water to a fire with an oil source
will cause the oil to spread, since oil and water do not mix.
• Metal fires – as these fires produce huge amounts of energy (up to 7.550
calories/kg for aluminum) and water can also create violent chemical reactions
with burning metal (possibly even serving as an additional oxidizing agent).

Since these reactions are well understood, it has been possible to create
specific water-additives which will allow:

• A better heat absorption with a higher density than water.

• Carrying free radical catchers on the fire.
• Carrying foaming agents to enable water to stay on the surface of a liquid fire and
prevent gas release.
• Carrying specific reactive which will react and change the nature of the burning
material.

Water-additives are generally designed to be effective on several categories of

fires (class A + class B or even class A + class B + class F), meaning a better global
performance and usability of a single extinguisher on many different types of fires
(or fires that involve several different classes of materials).

Causes of Fire

Generally, there are two causes of fire: natural and man-made. The natural
causes of fire are those that result from natural hazards such as lighting and volcanic
activities. Lightning triggers fire because it carries with it a large amount of energy
that can induce ignition temperature changes in the material (fuel) that it comes in
contact with. So, when lightning strikes, say on a hut or grass, the ignition
temperature of the hut or grass s suddenly reached, causing combustion to take
place at once. The other natural causes of fire are volcanic eruptions. Fire can be
generated by the objects that get burned along the path of lava or by ejected
pyroclastic materials from a volcano. When the object comes in contact with
combustible materials, such as plants, fire can happen. Similarly, when there is land
movement due to seismic activities, damaged power lines or power circuits may ignite
a fire.

On the other hand, mad-made causes of fire are those caused by human or
machine errors. Here are some examples:

A. Electric wiring.
Faulty wiring, short circuits, overloaded circuits, and loose wiring connections may
induce fire in any structure or building. To prevent electrical fires, avoid overloading

6 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

the circuits and overheating electrical appliances; check electrical cords and replace
old, worn wirings; and get an electrical engineer or licensed electrician to check your
electrical wirings and connections, especially if you detect any electrical malfunction.

B. Unattended ignition sources.

A lighted candle, an improvised gas lamp, a cooking stove, and other sources of
ignition which are left unattended may topple and/or burn nearby flammable
objects. Never leave an open flame unattended, and keep combustibles away from it
to prevent fire.

C. Cigarettes.
Cigarette butts that are not properly put out and are thrown carelessly can spark
fire. The glowing ember from a discarded cigarette can come in contact with a
flammable material and cause fire. Careless smoking such as falling asleep at night
with a lit cigarette can also start a fire. To prevent creating fire, make sure that
cigarette is fully extinguished before throwing it.

D. Chemicals at home.
Many hazardous and flammable substances can be found at home. Pesticide, lighter
fluids, gasoline, spray paints, kerosene, dry cleaning agents, paints solvents, and
nail polish are flammable liquids that are used for wide variety of purposes in the
household. These substances contain chemicals that when mixed with air will give
off vapor that can ignite and burn when an ignition source is present. Flammable
liquids should be kept closed and stored in proper containers. Do not store
flammable liquids in the same cabinets with other dangerous substance because
they can react violently. Make sure they are kept away from any ignition source and
away from children.

E. Gasoline leaks from vehicles.

A gasoline (fuel) leak from a vehicle is likely caused by corrosion, a worn-out seal or
gasket, or a broken fuel injector. A leak from the tank, engine, fuel pump, or motor
compartment can be dangerous because these places get very hot. With enough heat
and gas, along with the oxygen in the air, ne spark can ignite the gas and start a fire.
One indicator of an imminent car explosion is the release of a strong gas smell where
gas is leaking. If you detect a strong gas odor, immediately take your car to an auto
repair shop and have it checked and repaired by a professional mechanics.

7 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 Explore

Activity 1: Use the needed element (Heat, Oxygen, Fuel, Chain reaction) to make your
own design of fire triangle and fire tetrahedron. Draw and color your design on a
separate sheet of paper. Use the rubric below to make your design.

RUBRIC
Criteria Fair Good Very Good
2 points 3 points 4 points
Design has a poor Design has a poor Designed properly
Quality of imagery and lacks imagery but it is and it is originality
Design originality originality made made
The output The output The output provided
Color provided is clear provided is clear made use of different
combination but with the use of and the usage of 3 color combination
1 color only colors. and is eye catching

Deepen

You are considered as a mechanical engineer in the Bureau of Fire Protection

Department. You were given a task to create the latest and most advance fire truck.
Draw your most ideal fire truck in a short bond paper. Use separate sheet of bond
paper for your output. Use the rubric as a guide.

RUBRIC

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Required The drawing All required Few of the Several required
Elements includes varied elements are required elements were
(coloring, use of different included on the elements are missing.
design) colors which suits poster. included on the
the design drawing
perfectly
Picture The drawing is The drawing is The drawing is The drawing is
exceptionally attractive in acceptably distractingly
attractive in terms terms of attractive messy or very
of design, layout, design, layout though it may poorly designed.
and neatness. and neatness. be a bit messy. It is not
attractive.

8 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

Process Questions:
Answer the following questions base on your output from the Deepen. Write your
answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. What is the difference of your fire truck to the current fire truck that our society
have?
2. What motivates you to make such design?
3. How effective is your designed fire truck during emergency situation?

RUBRIC
Criteria Fair Good Very Good
2 points 3 points 4 points
Description has no Description Description was
Quality of new information and provides some new written neatly,
Writing ideas are poorly information and very well
organized organized informative and
well organized
There are misspelled Few misspelled Virtually, no
Grammar, words, and words and spelling,
Usage and punctuation and punctuation errors punctuation or
Mechanics grammatical errors but were able to grammatical errors
that interferes with provide a and were able to
the description description provide a very
provided good description.

Gauge

A. Right or wrong. Analyze the statement below, if the statement provides a correct
idea write the word CORRECT, write the word WRONG if it is incorrect.

1. A lighted candle which left unattended may topple and/or burn nearby
flammable objects.
2. A worn-out seal or gasket, or a broken fuel injector can lead to an explosion.
3. A leak from a gasket, engine, fuel pump, or motor compartment can be
dangerous because it can explode.
4. The more sealed a chemical, the stronger it will explode when opened.
5. Short circuits is a situation when there are a lot of connections connected to
the socket but the main switch is off.

B. Directions: Read very carefully the questions below and choose the letter that
corresponds to your answer.
6. Which of the following does NOT belong in the group?
A. Metal fires B. Methane fire
C. Hydrocarbon fires D. Fires where live electricity is present

9 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

7. Which among the following type of fire where water can’t be used?
A. Metal fires B. Hydrocarbon fires
C. Fires where live electricity is present D. All of the above
8. Which among the following causes an electrocution hazard?
A. Metal fires B. Methane fire
C. Hydrocarbon fires D. Fires where live electricity is present

9. Where are the two roles of water in firefighting occur?

A. Solid and Gas B. Solid and Liquid C. Solid only D. Liquid only
10. Which element is needed to start and continue the combustion process?
A. Fire B. Fuel C. Heat D. Oxygen

C. JUMBLED WORD(S). Arrange the jumbled letters of a man made or natural cause
of fire to get the correct word.

11. TA CCHMIESLA MOHE

12. TTERIAGCE
13. RIIWNG EECCLTRI
14. CCIALOVN NEUPTRIO
15. LINESOGA SKEAL

10 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

References

Diwa Senior High School Series. Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction. Diwa
Learning Systems., Inc., 4/F SEDCCO 1 Bldg. 120 Thailand corner Legaspi Street.
Legaspi Village, 1229 Makati City, Philippines. Fire hazard pp 97-98.

11 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12

 For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – SDO La Union

Curriculum Implementation Division
Learning Resource Management Section
Flores St. Catbangen, San Fernando City La Union 2500
Telephone: (072) 607 - 8127
Telefax: (072) 205 - 0046
Email Address:
launion@deped.gov.ph
lrm.launion@deped.gov.ph

12 LU_Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction_Module12