DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

ICE 517
MODULE 3
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

Lecturer(s): Dr. A.A Adewale, Engr. Akua Collins

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 Learning Outcomes

 Discrete-time systems representation.

 State and show mathematically, the various classes of
Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems.
 Solve problems involving convolution.
 Solve problems involving difference equations.
 Work through the recursive and non-recursive
realizations of LTI systems.
 Solve problems involving the correlation of two signals.
 Solve problems involving autocorrelation and cross-
correlation.

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 Discrete-Time Signals and Signals

There are three ways of representing discrete-time

signals or sequences and they are:
1. Functional representation:

2. Tabular representation, such as:

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3. Sequence representation:
An infinite-duration signal or sequence with the time origin
𝑛 = 0 indicated by the symbol ∗ or ↑ is represented as:

If the origin is not given, take the first value as the origin
Graphical representation:

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A finite duration sequence is represented as:

But if the finite duration sequence satisfies the

condition 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 for 𝑛 < 0, it can be
represented as:

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 Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals

 The Unit Sample/Unit Impulse/Dirac delta function

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 The Unit Step Signal

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 The Unit Ramp Signal

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 The Exponential Signal

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 Classification of Discrete-Time Signal

 Energy signal and Power signal The energy of a signal

𝑥(𝑛) is given as: Summation of magnitude squared values of
x(n). I.e. if the energy is finite

𝑥 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑓, 0 < 𝐸 < ∞

The average power of a discrete-time signal is given as:

A power signal has finite power duration

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 Periodic and Aperiodic signals

A signal 𝑥(𝑛) is periodic with period 𝑁 that satisfies

the expression shown below:

But if there is no value of (N = period) that satisfies the above

expression, the signal is non-periodic or Aperiodic.
The signal:

Is periodic when 𝑓𝑜 is a rational number that is, if 𝑓𝑜 can be

expressed as:

Where 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠

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  Symmetric (even) & Anti-
symmetric (odd) Signals

A real valued signal 𝑥(𝑛) is symmetric (even) when: it

is a mirror image (folded version) of the other
𝑥 −𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑛)

Even Odd
A signal is said to be anti-symmetric (odd) if : it is not a
mirror image of the other
𝑥 −𝑛 = −𝑥(𝑛) 12
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Simple Manipulation of Discrete-Time Signal

a.)
A signal 𝑥 𝑛 may be shifted in time by replacing the
independent variable 𝑛 by 𝑛 − 𝑘, where 𝑘 is an integer.
Note: If 𝑘 is negative the signal shifts to the right (delay
operation) else k is positive and will shift to the left (an
advance operation) by 𝑛𝑡ℎ samples in time.

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B.) When the independent variable 𝑛 is replaced by −𝑛 the time
base is modified. The result of this modification is called a ‘folding’
or a ‘reflection’ of the signal about the origin 𝑛 = 0.
Note: Time-delay and folding operations are not commutative:

Where TD means time delay operation and FD means fold

operation.

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c) When the independent variable 𝑛 is replaced by
𝜇𝑛 where 𝜇 is an integer, the signal 𝑥(𝑛) is scaled
and it is referred to as ‘time-scaling’ or ‘down-
sampling’
The figure on the next slide shows the graphical
representation of the signal 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2𝑛
where 𝑥(𝑛) is the signal

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D) Amplitude Scaling: Multiply the value of every
signal sample by 𝐴.

E) The sum of two signals 𝑥1 (𝑛) and 𝑥2 (𝑛) is a signal

𝑦(𝑛), whose value at any instant is equal to the sum of
the values of these two signals at that instant, that is:

F) The product of two signals is simply defined as:

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 Discrete-Time Systems
A discrete-time system is a device or algorithm that operates on a
discrete-time signal, called the ‘input’ or ‘excitation’, according to
some well-defined rule, to produce another discrete-time signal called
the ‘output’ or ‘response’ of the system.

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 Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-
Time Systems
A block diagram is a pictorial representation of a
system using interconnections of smaller sub-
systems which represent basic mathematical
functions. It also shows signal flow
1. An Adder: performs the addition of two signal
sequences:

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2. A Constant Multiplier: scales a signal
sequence:

3. A Signal Multiplier: multiplies two signal

sequences:

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4. The Unit Delay Element: a special system that
delays the signal passing through it by one sample.

5. The Unit Advance Element: it moves the input

𝑥 𝑛 ahead by one sample.

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Example: Sketch the block diagram of the discrete-time system described the
difference equation:
1 1 1
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑦 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
4 2 2
SOLUTION

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 Classification of Discrete-Time Systems

Static and Dynamic Systems

A discrete-time system is called ‘static’ or ‘memoryless’ if its
output depends only on the present input but not on past or
future samples of the input. Otherwise, the discrete-time
system is dynamic or has a memory.

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇𝐼𝐶
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 3𝑥(𝑛 − 1) → 𝐷𝑌𝑁𝐴𝑀𝐼𝐶

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 Testing for Static and
Dynamic Systems

• Check whether these systems are static or dynamic

(1) y(n) = x(n)
(2) y(n) = x(2n)
(3) Y(n) = x(-n+2)
σ𝑛+1
(4) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑘=−∞ 𝑥 𝑘

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 Time-invariant and Time-
variant Systems
A system is time-invariant if its input-output characteristics do
not change with time.

Where 𝜏 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.

Otherwise, the system is time variant.
Practical examples of time-invariant: Bus and train arrivals
and departures, The time it takes to cook indomie in CU
hostel & UNILAG hostel
Practical example of time-variant: Rainfall per month 27
Testing for Time-invariant and
Time-variant Systems

• Check whether these systems are time-variant or

time-invariant
(1) y(n)= cos [x(n)]
Solution
y(n)= T [x(n)]= cos [x(n)]
If the input is delayed by k , then the output will be
y(n-k) = cos [x(n-k)]
The system is shift-invariant or time-invariant

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Testing for Time-invariant and
Time-variant Systems

(2) y(n) = x(2n)

Solution
y(n)= T [x(n)]= x(2n)
If the input is delayed by k , then the output will be
y(n-k)= x[2(n-k)]
y(n-k)= x[2n-2k)]
By comparing the input and out, it is clear that the
system is time-variant
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 Linear and Non-Linear
Systems

A linear system is one that satisfies the ‘superposition

principle’. The superposition principle requires that the
response of the system to a weighted sum of signals be
equal to the corresponding weighted sum of the responses
(outputs) of the system to each of the individual input
signals. Let x1(n) & x2(n) be the two input sequences.
Then, the system is said to be linear if and only if

Otherwise, the system is non-linear.

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 Causal and Non-causal Systems
4. Causal versus Non-Causal Systems: A system is said
to be ‘causal’ if the output of the system at any time 𝑛
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦(𝑛) depends only on the present and past inputs
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 , 𝑥 𝑛 − 2 , … . .
The signal looks like this;
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑛 ,𝑥 𝑛 − 1 ,𝑥 𝑛 − 2 ….
Otherwise the signal is non-causal.
Non-causal systems contain present, past and future
inputs. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 , 𝑥(𝑛 + 2)
Practical examples of causal systems: Mobile phones
(rings only for the current calls), Human beings ( If I am
non-causal, I can write this Omega semester exam even
before getting the question) 31
Test for Causality & Non-causal causality

Check whether the systems described by the

following equations are causal or non-causal
(1) y(n)= x(n) + x(n-1)
(2) y(n)= x(n) + x(n+1)
(3) y(n)= x(2n)

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Stable and Unstable Systems
An arbitrary relaxed system is
said to be bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) stable if
and only if every bounded input produces a bounded output
Therefore, there exist some finite numbers, say 𝑀𝑥
and 𝑀𝑦 such that

For all n.
If for some bounded input sequence 𝑥 𝑛 , the
output is unbounded (infinite), the system is
classified as unstable.
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 Testing for BIBO stability of
Systems

• check whether these systems are stable or

unstable
(1) y(n) = x(2n)
The system is BIBO stable
(2) y(n) = x(n) cos (wn)
The system is BIBO stable
Note that , sine & cosine functions always produce
stable systems but exponential functions produce
unstable systems

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 Interconnection of Discrete-Time System

Discrete-time systems can be connected in

a) Series/Cascade b) parallel

𝐶𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐷𝐸: 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝜏1 ∗ 𝜏2

𝑃𝐴𝑅𝐴𝐿𝐿𝐸𝐿: 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2

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 Convolution

The ‘convolution sum’ formula is:

𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘)
𝑘=−∞

Convolution is a mathematical way of combining two

signals to form a third signal. It is one of the most
important techniques in DSP.

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 To convolve graphically follow these four steps;
1. Folding: fold ℎ 𝑘 about 𝑘 = 0 to obtain
ℎ −𝑘 .
2. Shifting: shift ℎ −𝑘 by 𝑛𝑜 to the right if 𝑛𝑜 is
positive and to the left when it is negative.
3. Multiplication: multiply 𝑥(𝑘) by ℎ(𝑛𝑜 − 𝑘) to
obtain the product sequence 𝑣𝑛𝑜 (𝑘) ≡
𝑥 𝑘 ℎ(𝑛𝑜 − 𝑘).
4. Summation: Sum all the values of the product
sequence 𝑣𝑛𝑜 (𝑘) to obtain the value of the
output at time 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜 .
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 Example 1: The impulse response of a linear time-
invariant system is:
ℎ 𝑛 = 1, 2∗ , 1, −1
Determine the response of the system to the input
signal 𝑥 𝑛 = 1∗ 1, 2, 3, 1 using the graphical
method.
 Note: when the origin of a sequence is not
indicated, take the first digit as the origin. E.g.
ℎ 𝑛 = 1, 2, 1, −1 , 1 becomes the origin
Let the elements or entries in input signal represent M,
and those in the impulse response represent N,
Therefore 𝑴 + 𝑵 − 𝟏
gives an idea of the number of computations one
should perform. E.g. in the example above, 8
computations would be carried out.
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SOLUTION 1

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 Convolution Cont’d

 Verify the answer to example 1 using the convolution

formula or analytical method
ℎ 𝑛 = 1, 2∗ , 1, −1 , 𝑥 𝑛 = 1∗ 1, 2, 3, 1
∞

𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘)
𝑘=−∞
4

𝑦 −1 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ(−1 − 𝑘)
𝑘=0
𝑥 0 ℎ −1 + 𝑥 1 ℎ −2 + 𝑥 2 ℎ −3 + 𝑥 3 ℎ −4
+ 𝑥 4 ℎ(−5)
1×1+1×0+2×0+3×0+1×0=1
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 Convolution Cont’d

𝑦 0 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ(−𝑘)
𝑘=0

𝑥 0 ℎ 0 + 𝑥 1 ℎ −1 + 𝑥 2 ℎ −2
+ 𝑥 3 ℎ −3 + 𝑥 4 ℎ(−4)
1×2+1×1+2×0+3×0+1×0=3

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 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
 Enumerate the steps for the convolution of two signals by
graphical method
 using the steps enumerated above, find the response of the
input 𝑥 𝑛 = 4∗ 1, 2, 5 to the signal ℎ 𝑛 = 1, 2∗ , 1, −1
 Verify the result obtained above using the convolution
formula, multiplication method and tabular or tabulation
method.
 Test for the causality of the following systems
1. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 ,
2. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑦 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 ,
1
3. 3. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 +
𝑥(𝑛−1)

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