Basic Photogrammetry

Pramod Guragain
Instructor
 WHAT IS PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• The science of quantitative analysis of measurements from photographs
• Photos - light
• Gramma - to draw
• Metron - to measure

Photogrammetry is defined as the art, science and technology of obtaining

reliable Information about physical objects and the environment through process
of recording, measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of
recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena. As implied by
its name, the science originally consisted of analyzing photographs.
 BASIC CONCEPT
• The primary objective of the technique is to derive
precise coordinates of a point.
• This is done by viewing the area from two different
angles, thereby recreating the same conditions as
it existed at the time of photography.
 WHY PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• Very precise
• Time effective
• Cost effective
• Based on well established and tested algorithms.
• Less manual effort
• More geographic fidelity
 Cont…….
• Corrects all sorts of distortions.
• provide a reasonable geometric modeling alternative
when little is known about the geometric nature of the
image data.
• provide an integrated solution for multiple images or
photographs simultaneously
• achieve a reasonable accuracy without a great number
of GCPs
• create a three-dimensional stereo model or to extract
the elevation information
 What does photogrammetry get used
for?
• Mapping
• Shipbuilding
• Architectural models of buildings
• Archaeology surveys
• Medical uses e.g. human body scans for internal problem
analysis
• Missile or plane tracking
• Antenna measurement
• Verification of the design of manufactured structures.
• Virtual reality
• Entertainment
 How does photogrammetry work?
• Take images
• Get the camera parameters
• Find the locations of features (targets, edges, corners, etc.) on
ground
• Recreate conditions as were at time of photography
• Correspond features between images
• Compute the 3-D location of corresponding points using triangulation
• Generate orthophoto/ ortho images
• Mapping
 Photogrammetric Measurement
Pros and Cons

Advantages: Disadvantages:

• non-contact process • photographic coverage is limited

• 2D or 3D information options • photographic processing delays
• high density of measurement • measurement and analysis
delays
possible
• efficient only for large data sets
• photographs are a permanent
record
• measurements are made in the
laboratory
• re-measurement is possible
GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHY
 Types of photogrammetry

•Terrestrial
•Aerial
•Satellite
 BRANCHES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Analogue
Photogrammetry.
• In analog photogrammetry,
optical or mechanical
instruments were used to
reconstruct three-dimensional
geometry from two
overlapping photographs.
The main product during this
phase was topographic
maps.
 Analytical photogrammetry

• The computer replaces some expensive optical

and mechanical components.
• The resulting devices were analog/digital
hybrids.
• Analytical aerotriangulation, analytical plotters,
and orthophoto projectors were the main
developments during this phase.
• Outputs of analytical photogrammetry can be
topographic maps, but can also be digital
products, such as digital maps and DEMs
 Digital photogrammetry
• Digital photogrammetry is applied to digital
images that are stored and processed on a
computer.

• Digital photogrammetry is sometimes called

softcopy photogrammetry.

• The output products are in digital form, such as

digital maps, DEMs, and digital orthophotos
saved on computer storage media.
 Image recording in Aerial Photography

•Sun is the source of energy (EMR)

• Aerial Photogrammetry is sensitive to light in visible

wavelength & near infrared region.
• Photosensitive film acts as a sensor to record the images
• Variations in gray tones of images indicates different
amount of energy reflected from the objects as recorded
on the film
 Factors affecting the aerial photography
1.Scale
• It is the ratio of distances between two objects on an aerial
photograph and the actual distance of the same two objects on
the ground. The scale of A.P. is F/H where F=Focal length of
camera lens and H= Flying height above the mean terrain.

• The scale of different photograph varies because of the effect of

tilt and relief displacement. It needs constant height for
accuracy.
 Factors(contd..)
2. Camera / film / filter combinations:
For extraction of maximum information highest quality camera
(modern distortion free) latest version (image motion
compensation device to reduce the effect of forward motion
based on requirement)

3. Flight direction:
No of strip should be minimum, direction should be in
such a way that feature should be clearly specified (specially
along the length of area).
4. Time/season of photography
long shadow obscures detail. sun’s elevation
is 30 o above the horizon (3hr +_local noon time), season depends upon
the purpose of AP i.e., for geologic or soil Survey, ground should be
clearly visible.
 Factors(contd..)
5. Atmospheric conditions:
• Particles(dust, smoke & gasses) reduce the contrast
because of scattering.
• the best time is when the sky is clear (November to
february).
• Pre monsoon and monsoon periods are forbidden

6. Stereoscopic coverage:
60% forward overlap and 25% side lap for planimetry and
heights using stereoscopic principle of observation in 3 D.
 Factors(contd..)

•Spectral Coverage / Response:

Multispectral :
Depending upon the number of spectral bands.

•Number and types of Camera and lens used:

Trimetrogon and convergent

• Types of photographic paper:

Glossy prints and matte prints

 Types of photographs
Aerial Terrestrial

Oblique

Vertical
Low oblique
(does not include
horizon)

Truly Vertical
High oblique
(includes horizon)

Tilted
(1deg< angle < 3deg)
Camera Orientation of Aerial Photographs
Types of Photograph – Due to Tilt

•Vertical airphoto --
View straight down,
depression angle 85° to
90°.

•Low-oblique vantage -
- Side view, horizon is
not visible, depression
angle typically 20-85°.

•High-oblique vantage
-- Side view, horizon is
visible, depression angle
typically less than 20°.
Types of aerial photographs
Aerial Camera Types due to View Angle Arial Photograph Flight Geometry

View Angle Increasing

Focal Length Increasing

f1 > f2 > f3 Focal Length

1 < 2 < 3 View Angle
 Types of photographs- view angle

Based on angular coverage:

Narrow angle - The angle of coverage is less than 50°

Normal angle - The angle of coverage is of the order of 60°

Wide angle - The angle of coverage is of the order of 90°

Super-wide angle- The angle of coverage is of the order of 120°

(Ultra-wide angle)
FOV: an angle or by the absolute value of the field of view with of the observation plane.
 Classification of Aerial photography
Different Criteria to classify aerial photographs

Scale:

Large scale: larger than 1: 20,000

Medium scale : 1: 20,000 - 1: 50,000

Small scale: smaller than 1: 50,000

(It may vary from country to country)

Lens of Aerial Camera Lens
Type of Lens Focal Use Field Angle
Length
Narrow 610 mm High rise 30 Degree
Angle building

Normal 300 mm Urban Area, 55 Degree

Angle Forest Area
Wide Angle 150 mm Topographical 90 Degree
Mapping
Supper Wide 90 mm Flat Area, 120 Degree
Angle Quick Coverage
Format of the Photograph
Size of the Photograph is termed a format
Three types of Format;
1. Small format: 70mm x70mm
2. Normal Format: 230mm x 230mm
3. Large Format: larger than normal format
 Types of Photograph
Tilt of camera axis: (Direction of exposure or axis of tilt criterion)

•Vertical Photograph:
• An aerial photo made with the camera axis or optical axis coinciding with the
direction of gravity.
•Truly vertical AP is rarely obtainable because of unavoidable rotation, or , tilts
caused by angular altitude of aircraft at the instant of exposure
•These unavoidable tilt cause slight (1-3o) unintentional inclination of the camera
optical axis.

•Tilted photograph:
•An aerial photograph made with the camera axis unintentionally tilt from the
vertical by a small amount, usually less than3o
 Classification (contd..)
•Tilted photograph:
•An aerial made with the camera axis unintentionally tilt
from photograph the vertical by a small amount, usually less
than3o
• Nadir line : The line traced on the ground directly beneath the
aircraft during image acquisition.

• Virtually all photographs are tilted

nadir
Vertical
• Oblique Photograph: An aerial photograph taken with the
camera axis directed intentionally between the horizontal and the
vertical
 Classification (contd..)

Oblique: Low oblique : tilt between 3-30 deg(horizon

doesn't appear in the photograph)
High oblique: tilt > 30 deg (if the horizon is
shown in the photograph)

Oblique

nadir
Aerial Photograph
Vertical Photo Oblique Photo
Low Oblique
High Oblique
 Advantages & disadvantages of Vertical AP

Advantages Disadvantages
• Less scale variation for mapping • Unfamiliar shape of objects
• More detail can be photographed • Difficult to photographed in
boundary area of country, while
• No more shadow effect.
there is conflict with neighbor.
• Most commonly used
• Only Professional can interpret
• Most of objects are hidden
Advantage & disadvantage of Oblique photo
Advantage Disadvantage
• Boundary area of country can • Much scale Variation
be easily photographed • Details are obstacled by shadow
• Familiar shape of the object. • No widely used
 Classification (contd..)
• Based on Film Type or emulsion used
• Black and white panchromatic:
Black & white AP is made with either Panchromatic film or infrared-
sensitive film.
• Pan chromatic film had long been standard film type for
photography. It extends UV and visible band
• Black and white infrared:
discriminate between deciduous and coniferous trees
• Color
The use of color is the fact that the human eye can
discriminate many more shades of colour than it can tones of gray.
• Panchromatic

• Black and White: sensitive to the full visible portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum of light and captures images in tones
of gray ranging from black to white
• Black and white Near Infrared
Types of Photographs

B&W Panchromatic B&W Infra-red

Infra Red Photo

B&W Panchromatic B&W (Near) Infra Red

Classification (contd..)
Based on Colour
• True Colour
• False Colour
• False Colour Infrared
Note: Color infrared (CIR), or false color, film is sensitive to green and
red in the visible portion of spectrum of light and extends into the
near-infrared region of the spectrum
Classification (contd..)

• Colour infra-red/ false color

• Infrared film is sensitive not only to UV and visible energy but also
to NIR.
UV energy is used to monitor the change in population of animal
such as:polar bear, artic foxes and hares on snow-ice covered
surfaces.
Colour Photo

True Colour False Colour Infra-red

Geometric Characteristics of AP
•Essential for AP measurement & interpretation
• Basic Geometric Elements:
• Optical Axis
• Focal Length
• Film plane
• Picture plane
• Exposure Station
• Principal point
• Ground Principal point
 Basic Geometric (Contd..)
•Picture plane: A plane at perpendicular distance to the
optical axis at the focal distance in front of the lens. It is
represented by the positive contact print or photograph
taken from film.
Exposure Station: A point in space where light rays from
terrain objects are converged, occupied
by the camera lens at the instant of exposure(L)

Fiducial Marks:At least four marks located either in middle or

corner in the photos define the frame of reference for spatial
measurement
 Basic Geometric (Contd..)
Fiducial Axes: Opposite fiducial marks define a reference
line. Two pairs of opposite fiducial marks define two
reference lines that intersect at 90o.These two lines are
referred to as the x and y axes or the fiducial axes.

•Principal point(o):defined by the intersection of two lines

connecting opposite fiducial marks representing lens optical
axis & film plane( photo- nadir, photo plumb point)

•Ground Principal point(O):The point where prolongation of

the optical axis of the camera intersects the terrain .
 Basic Geometric Characteristics
• Flight lines, or Flight strips: lines drawn on the map to
represent the track of the aircraft.

Nadir Line:The line traced on the ground directly beneath

the aircraft during acquisition of photography
End lap or forward overlap or longitudinal overlap:
overlapping of coverage in adjacent pairs of vertical
photographs. At least 60 % is essential stereoscopic coverage
of a project area.
Side lap or lateral overlap : Side overlaping of coverage in adjacent
pairs of VP containing 15-35% overlap

Super lap : overlap among three consecutive photographs in a strip. It

is of at least 10%

•Stereopairs: Stereoscopic coverage consists successive pairs of

overlaping VP providing two different perspectives of the ground area
in their of end lap.
 Basic Geometric (Contd..)
• Stereo model: Three dimensional perception resulted by
viewing stereopair through a stereoscope.

Stereoscopic overlap area: Area included in the overlap

of successive photographs along a flight strip taken at
intervals, controlled by camera intervalometer. It contains
55 to 65 overlap %

Air Base: Ground distance between the photocenter at the time of

exposure. The larger the base –height ratio, the greater the
vertical exaggeration(greater apparent relief).
 Photographic Coverage along a flight strip

(a) Condition during exposure Coverage of

Endlap single photo

Stereoscopic
overlap area

Nadir line
(gound trace
of aircraft

Edge variation caused by

(b) Resulting photography flight line drift
 Basic Geometric (Contd..)
• Tilt
- The angle between the optical axis of the camera & the plumb line.

- The angle between the ground plane & the photo plane

- Vertical angle defined by the intersection, at the exposure station of the

optical axis with the plumb line

In Fig. < nop = t =Tilt

 Basic Geometric (Contd..)
• Scale of Photograph:
- The amount of detail shown on the photo or
imagery is dependent on the scale of the
photograph.
- An expression which shows that one unit of
distance on the photo represents a specific
number of units of actual ground distance.
Methods of expressing scale:
-Unit Equivalents: 1 mm= 25 m
- RF or Ratio: 1:25000
Photo Scale(S) =photo distance (d)/ground
distance(D)
 Basic Geometric (Contd..)
• Methods of Scale determination:
In decreasing order of accuracy:
- By establishing the relation of photo to ground:
R.F.= photo distance/ground distance

1. When the photograph is a true vertical & terrain

is flat :
Scale of photo = photo distance/ ground distance
= ka / KA
(from similar triangles Oka & OKA)
S = Ok / OK
S = f/ H-h
Where H = height of the aircraft above Mean Sea Level (Datum)
•f = focal length of the camera
•h= height of the ground point
Different Elevation
• For Point A

• For Point B

• For Datum Point

PROBLEMS
• A vertical photograph was taken at an altitude of 1200m above mean
sea level. Determine the scale of the photograph for terrain lying at
the elevation of 80m and 300m, if the focal length of the camera is 15
cm.
• A camera having focal length of 20cm is used to take a vertical
photograph to a terrain lying an average elevation of 1500m. What is
the height above the sea level at which the aircraft must fly in order
to get the scale of 1:8000 ?
 Relief Displacement
From Similar s Ona, OAK

f
r a
r’ b
n
From Similar s Onb, ONB

K
A
D
h

B
N
Relief: Radial from Principal Point
• The relief displacement increase as the distance from the principal
point increase.
• The relief displacement decreases with the increase in the flying
height.
• For points above datum, the relief displacement is positive being
radially outward.
• For points below datum, the relief displacement is negative being
radially inward.
• The relief displacement of the point vertically below the exposure
station is zero.