Linear Control Systems

S.SRINIVASA RAO

Assistant Professor

Department of ECE

Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering(A)

Visakhapattanam
 Unit II
Modelling of linear control Systems
Mathematical models of Physical systems

Transfer function models of linear time-invariant systems

Electrical, Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Systems

Electrical Analogues

Block diagram and their Reduction techniques

Signal flow graph

Learning outcomes

Determine the transfer function of linear-time-invariant systems.

Explain the conversion of Electro- Mechanical System to analogous

Electrical System

Solve the transfer function through Block Diagram method and Signal
Flow graph
In this chapter we develop mathematical models from schematics of physical systems.
We will discuss two methods:
(1) transfer functions in the frequency domain and
(2) state equations in the time domain.
As we proceed, we will notice that in every case the first step in developing a mathematical
model is to apply the fundamental physical laws of science and engineering.
For example, when we model electrical networks, Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, which are
basic laws of electric networks, will be applied initially. We will sum voltages in a loop or sum
currents at a node.
When we study mechanical systems, we will use Newton’s laws as the fundamental guiding
principles. Here we will sum forces or torques.
From these equations we will obtain the relationship between the system’s output and input.
Kirchhoff’s and Newton’s laws lead to mathematical models that describe the
relationship between the input and output of dynamic systems.
One such model is the linear, time-invariant differential equation

……(1.2)

Although the differential equation relates the system to its input and output, it is
not a satisfying representation from a system perspective. Because, we see that
the system parameters, which are the coefficients, appear throughout the
equation. In addition, the output, c(t), and the input, r(t), also appear
throughout the equation.
We would prefer a mathematical representation like

……….. fig(1)

where the input, output, and system are distinct and separate parts.
Also, we would like to represent conveniently the interconnection of several
subsystems.

………. fig (2)

where a mathematical function, called a transfer function, is inside each block,

and block functions can easily be combined to yield figure 1 for ease of analysis
and design. This convenience cannot be obtained with the differential equation.
 Section 1

In this section we present the Laplace transform and its inverse.

We present the idea of the partial-fraction expansion and the solution to

differential equations.
partial-fraction expansion
If 𝐹1 (𝑠)= N(s)/D(s), where the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s),then
a partial-fraction expansion can be made.
2
Ex: 𝐹1 (𝑠)=
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+2

If the order of N(s) is greater than or equal to the order of D(s), then N(s) must
be divided by D(s) successively until the result has a remainder whose
numerator is of order less than its denominator.
Ex:
Laplace Transform Solution of a Differential Equation

PROBLEM: Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial
conditions are zero. Use the Laplace transform.
Ex: Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s)

step 1:

step 2:

step 3:
We are now ready to formulate the system representation shown in fig1 by establishing
transfer function
Transfer Function for a Differential Equation

Find the transfer function represented by

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial conditions, we
have
Using the above transfer function G(s) find the response, c(t) to an input,
r(t)=u(t), a unit step, assuming zero initial conditions
 Section 2
In Section 1, we have seen that any physical system that can be represented by
a linear, time-invariant differential equation can be modeled as a transfer
function.

In Section 2 , we will see modeling of individual subsystems.

i.e. how to represent electrical networks, translational mechanical systems,

rotational mechanical systems, and electromechanical systems as transfer
functions.
Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) to
the input voltage, V(s) in Figure 2.3.

when we model electrical networks, Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, which are
basic laws of electric networks, will be applied initially.
 Mechanical systems
There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.

Translational mechanical systems: Rotational mechanical systems:

 These systems move along a straight  These systems move about a fixed
line. axis.
 Variables that are used to describe the  Variables that are used to describe
translational motion are the rotational motion are angular
Acceleration a(t), velocity v(t) and acceleration α(t) , angular velocity
ω(t) and angular displacement θ(t).
displacement x(t).
 These systems are modelled by using
 These systems are modelled by using
three basic elements :
three basic elements:
Mass(M; kg), spring(K; N/m), dashpot Moment of inertia(J; Kg-𝒎𝟐 ),
or viscous damper(B; N-s/m). torsional spring(K;N-m/rad) and
dashpot(B;N-m/rad/s
Translational mechanical systems: Rotational mechanical systems:

Newton’s law of motion for Newton’s law of motion for rotational

translational systems states that systems states that
“the algebraic sum of forces acting on a “the algebraic sum of moments or
rigid body in a given direction, is equal torques about a fixed axis is equal to
to the product of the mass of the body the product of the inertia and the
and its acceleration in the given angular acceleration about the axis”.
direction”.
 Translational Mechanical Systems

 When a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, it is opposed by

opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity of the system.

 The force acting on the mechanical body are governed by Newton’s second
law of motion.

 For translational systems it states that the sum of forces acting on a body is
equal to zero (or the sum of applied forces is equal to sum of opposing forces on
a body)
 Force balance equations of idealized elements
 Mass:
Mass is considered as the property of an element , that stores kinetic energy of the
translational motion. If a force is applied on a body having mass M, then it is opposed
by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is proportional to the acceleration
of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

Figure 1.9: Ideal mass

element

Where,
F is the applied force
Fm is the opposing force due to mass
M is mass ,a is acceleration, x is displacement
 Dashpot:
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to
friction of the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of
the body. Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.

Figure 1.10: Ideal dashpot with one

end fixed to a reference
Where 𝐹𝑏 is the opposing force
due to friction of dashpot
B is the frictional coefficient
v is velocity
x is displacement
 When the dashpot has displacement at both ends, the opposing force is
proportional to differential velocity.

Figure 1.11: Ideal dashpot with

displacement at both the ends
 Spring:
Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K,
then it is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing
force is proportional to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and
friction are negligible.

Where, Figure 1.12: Ideal spring with one

F is the applied force end fixed to a reference
Fk is the opposing force due to
elasticity of spring
K is spring constant
x is displacement
 When the spring has displacement at both ends, the opposing force is proportional
to differential displacement.

Figure 1.13: Ideal spring with

displacement at both the ends
Guidelines to determine the transfer function of a mechanical translational system:
Example - 1:
Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in figure and
determine the transfer function.

In the given system applied force f(t) is the input and displacement ‘x’ is the output.
Let, Laplace Transform of f(t) is F(s) ,
Laplace Transform of x1 is X1(s),
Laplace Transform of x is X(s).
The required transfer function is X(s) /F(s).
The system has two nodes, they are mass M1 and mass M2.
The differential equations governing the system are given by force balance equations at
these nodes.
Let the displacement of mass M1 be x1.
Opposing forces on mass M1 are:

Figure 1.14:
Free body diagram of mass M1 (Node 1)
Opposing forces on mass M2 :

Figure 1.15: Free body diagram

of mass M2 (Node 2)
Transfer Function:
Example – 2:

The system has two nodes and they are mass M1 and M2. The differential Equations
governing the system are force balance equations at these nodes.
Figure 1.16: Free body diagram
of mass M1 (Node 1)
Figure 1.17: Free body diagram
of mass M2 (Node 2)
Example – 3:
Write the equations of Motion in S-domain for the system shown below and determine the
transfer function of the system.

Let x1 be the displacement at the meeting point of spring and dashpot. Laplace
transform of x1 is X1(s). The system has two nodes and they are mass M and meeting
point of spring and dashpot.
By Newton’s second law the force balance equation is given by

Figure 1.18: Free body

diagram of mass M
(Node 1)
Figure 1.19: Free body
diagram at the meeting
point of spring and dashpot
(Node 2)
Exercise – 4:
 Determine the transfer function of the system shown below.
Fig 1.16 Idealized dash-pot with angular
displacement at booth ends
• The input force(F) in mechanical system is analogous to either voltage source (V) or current
source(I)

• The output velocity in mechanical system is analogous to either voltage (v) or current (i) in an
element.
The three basic elements i.e. mass(m),spring(k), dashpot or viscous damper(B) used
to model the mechanical translational systems are analogous to inductance,
capacitance and resistance of electrical systems.

Since the electrical system has two types of inputs either voltage or current source , there are
two types of analogies

(i)Force-voltage analogy

(ii)Force-current analogy
Table-1.3: Analogous Quantities in Force-Voltage analogy
Table-1.4: Analogous elements in Force-Current analogy
Table-1.5: Analogous Quantities in Force-Current analogy
6)The element connected between two nodes (masses) in mechanical system is
represented as a common element between two nodes in electrical analogous
system.
Force-Current analogous circuit
• In rotational mechanical system the input Torque(T) is analogous to either voltage source (V) or
current source(I)

• The output angular velocity is analogous to either voltage (v) or current (i) in an element.
The three basic elements i.e. moment of inertia(J) of mass, torsional spring(k), rotational
dashpot (B) used to model the rotational mechanical systems are analogous to inductance,
capacitance and resistance of electrical systems.

Since the electrical system has two types of inputs either voltage or current source , there are two types
of analogies

(i) Torque -voltage analogy

(ii) Torque-current analogy

Torque -voltage analogy
Torque-current analogy
Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

The systems that are having hybrids of electrical and mechanical variables, are
called electromechanical systems.
Ex: Antenna azimuth position controlled system
A motor is an electromechanical component that yields a displacement output
for a voltage input, that is, a mechanical output generated by an electrical input.
We will derive the transfer function for one particular kind of electromechanical
system, the armature-controlled dc servomotor .
 Reduction of Multiple Subsystems
• We have been working with individual subsystems represented by a block with its
input and output. More complicated systems, however, are represented by the
interconnection of many subsystems. We want to represent multiple subsystems
as a single transfer function.
Ex:

• Multiple subsystems are represented in two ways: as block diagrams and as

signal-flow graphs. Block diagrams are usually used for frequency-domain
analysis and design, and signal-flow graphs for state-space analysis.
Signal-flow graphs represent transfer functions as lines, and signals as small-circular
nodes . Summing is implicit.

• We will develop techniques to reduce each representation to a single transfer

function.
• Block diagram algebra will be used to reduce block diagrams and Mason’s rule
to reduce signal-flow graphs.
 Block Diagram Representation

 The block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions

performed by each component and on the flow of signals.
 Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exists among various
components.
 The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing
point.
Ex:

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 Block:
 In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks.
 The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the corresponding
blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of flow of signals.

Figure 1.29: Functional block

 Summing point:

 Summing points are used to add two or more signals in the system.
 The plus or minus sign at each arrow head indicates whether the signal is to be
added or subtracted.
 It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the same
dimensions and the same units.

Figure 1.30: Summing point

Branch point:

A branch point is a point from which the signal goes concurrently to other
blocks or summing points.

Figure 1.31: Branch point

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Rules of block diagram algebra:
Rule-1: Combining the blocks incascade.

Rule-2: Combining Parallel blocks (or combining feed forward paths)

Rule-3: Moving the branch point ahead of the block.

 Rule-4: Moving the branch point before theblock

Rule-5: Moving the summing point ahead of the block.

Rule-6: Moving the summing point before the block.

10
Rule-7: Interchanging summingpoints

Rule-8: Splitting summingpoints

Rule-9: Combining summingpoints

Rule-10: Elimination of (negative) feedback loop

C=(R-CH)G => C=RG-CHG => C+CHG=RG

C(1+HG)=RG => C/R = G/(1+GH)

Rule-11: Elimination of (positive) feedback loop

C=(R+CH)G => C=RG+CHG => C-CHG=RG

C(1-HG)=RG => C/R = G/(1-GH)
Example - 1: Reduce the block diagram and find C/R
Step -1: Move the branch point after the block
Step -2: Eliminate the feedback path and combining blocks in cascade.

Step -3: Combining parallel blocks.

Step -4: Combining blocks in cascade.

Transfer Function:
Example - 2: Using block diagram reduction technique find closed
loop transfer function for the system
Solution:

Step-1: Moving the branch point before the block

Step-2: Combining the blocks in cascade and eliminating parallel blocks

Step-3: Moving summing point before the block.

Step-4: Interchanging summing points and modifying branch points.

Step-5: Eliminating feedback path and combining blocks in cascade.

Step-6: Eliminating the feedback path
Step-7: Eliminating the feedback path
Example - 3: Determine the overall transfer function for the system

Solution:

Step-1: Moving the branch point before the block.

Step-2: Combining the blocks in cascade and rearranging the branch points.

Step-3: Eliminating the feedback path

Step-4: Combining the blocks in cascade and eliminating feedback path.

Step-5: Combining the blocks in cascade.

 Step-6: Eliminating the feedback path.

Step-7: Combining the blocks in cascade.

The overall transfer function of the system is given by.
 Example - 4: For the system represented by the block diagram, evaluate the closed loop transfer function
when the input R is (i) station-I and (ii) station-II

Solution:
Consider the input R is at station-I and so the input at station-II is made zero. Let the output
be C1. Since there is no input at station-II that summing point can be removed.

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Step-1: Shift the take off point of feedback H3 ahead of G3 and re-arrange the branch points.

Step-2: Eliminating the feedback H2 and combining blocks in cascade.

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Step-3: Eliminating the feedback path.

Step-4: Combining the blocks in cascade.

12
Step-5: Eliminating feedback path H1

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Consider the input R is at station II and so the input at station-I is made zero. Let the output
be C2. Since there is no input at station-I that summing point can be removed and a negative
sign can be attached to the feedback path gain H1.

Step-1: Combining the blocks in cascade, shifting the summing point of H2 before G2 and re-
arranging the branch points.
Step-2: Combining the blocks in cascade and Interchanging the summing points.

Step-3: Combining parallel blocks and eliminating feedback path. 128

Step-4: Combining the blocks in cascade.

129
Step-5: Eliminating the feedback path.

130
Exercise – 1:
Obtain the closed loop transfer function C(s) /R(s) of the system whose block diagram is
shown below..

131
Exercise – 2:
For the system represented by the below block diagram, determine C1/R1 and C2/R1.

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Signal-Flow Graphs

Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams.

Unlike block diagrams, which consist of blocks, signals, summing junctions, and
pickoff points, a signal-flow graph consists only of branches, which represent
systems, and nodes, which represent signals.
These elements are shown in Figures 5.17(a) and (b), respectively.
A system is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction of signal
flow through the system.
Adjacent to the line we write the transfer function.
A signal is a node with the signal’s name written adjacent to the node.
• Figure 5.17(c) shows the interconnection of the systems and the signals. Each
signal is the sum of signals flowing into it. For example, we see that the signal
Step-1
Step-2
Step-3
 Step-4

Step-5
EX-2
Ans:
Ans: