The Effect of Advertising on

Children and Adolescents

Matthew A. Lapierre, PhD,​a Frances Fleming-Milici, PhD,​b Esther Rozendaal, PhD,​c
Anna R. McAlister, PhD,​d,​e Jessica Castonguay, PhDf

abstract In ∼100 years, marketing to children went from a severely frowned upon practice to an
integral part of growing up as companies came to realize that investing in marketing to
children and adolescents provides excellent immediate and future dividends. Each year,
enormous sums of money are spent to reach this valuable audience because children and
adolescents spend billions on their own purchases, influence family decisions about what
to buy, and promise a potential lifetime of brand loyalty. The channels to reach youth have
grown, and marketers are increasingly using them, often blurring the distinction between
entertainment and advertising. Because advertising to children and adolescents has become
ubiquitous, researchers who study its influence raise significant concerns about the practice,
especially as it relates to dietary behavior, family conflict, marketer tactics, and children’s
potential vulnerability as an audience. In this review by the Workgroup on Marketing
and Advertising, we highlight the state of the research in this area and suggest that more
research needs to be conducted on understanding the following: the effects of advertising
exposure, how psychological development affects children’s responses to marketing, the
problems associated with advertising in newer media, and how researchers, parents, and
practitioners might be able to mitigate the most deleterious advertising effects. We then
present avenues of future research along with recommendations for key stakeholders.

aDepartment of Communication, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona; bRudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity, University of Connecticut, Hartford, Connecticut; cRadboud University,

Nijmegen, Netherlands; dEndicott College, Beverly, Massachusetts; eMichigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan; and fTemple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

All authors conceptualized and organized the review, drafted the original manuscript, and approved the final manuscript as submitted.
The analysis, conclusions, and recommendations contained in each article are solely a product of the individual workgroup and are not the policy or opinions of, nor
do they represent an endorsement by Children and Screens: Institute of Digital Media and Child Development or the American Academy of Pediatrics.
DOI: https://​doi.​org/​10.​1542/​peds.​2016-​1758V
Accepted for publication Apr 19, 2017
Address correspondence to Matthew A. Lapierre, PhD, Department of Communication, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210025, Tucson, AZ 85721. E-mail: mlapierre@
email.arizona.edu
PEDIATRICS (ISSN Numbers: Print, 0031-4005; Online, 1098-4275).
Copyright © 2017 by the American Academy of Pediatrics
FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE: The authors have indicated they have no financial relationships relevant to this article to disclose.
FUNDING: This special supplement, “Children, Adolescents, and Screens: What We Know and What We Need to Learn,​” was made possible through the financial
support of Children and Screens: Institute of Digital Media and Child Development.
POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have indicated they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

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 The average young person growing Current State Therefore, there is concern not only
up in the United States sees for the negative effects associated
anywhere from 13 000 to 30 000 Influence of Marketing with the marketing of unhealthy
advertisements on television each Communications on Children products (ie, food, alcohol, and
year.‍1 However, these figures do The marketing of unhealthy products, tobacco) but also for the negative
not include the marketing content including unhealthy food as well effects associated with the way
online, in print, at the movies, in as alcohol and tobacco, is linked to marketing exposure in general may
video games, or at school. It is various negative outcomes for youth. influence how youth view material
important to note that advertising Research shows that food marketing possessions and themselves.
and marketing can serve a useful increases children’s immediate and
purpose for children. Marketing future consumption, food brand Children’s Consumer Development
may help socialize children as preferences are influenced by For decades, researchers have
consumers, inform them about product placements and advergames, recognized children as a vulnerable
products, and help them carve out and childhood obesity is related to consumer group because of their
unique identities as they reach viewing commercial television (not budding developmental abilities.
adulthood.‍2 Yet, as scholars who viewing DVDs or public television Relying on Piaget’s theory of
study advertising and children programming).‍4 cognitive development, researchers
have found, there are legitimate Youth exposure to alcohol in many studies have reported that
reasons to be concerned with advertising also delivers unhealthy until children are >7 years old, they
how marketers approach young consequences. Alcohol advertising do not have the ability to detect
audiences. increases the likelihood that persuasive intent in advertising.‍2
adolescents will start to use Researchers in modern studies
Some of the most pressing concerns alcohol and increases consumption have moved beyond the age-stage
are as follows: whether young among adolescents who already theory of cognitive development
people represent a vulnerable drink alcohol.‍3 This is particularly and have found other variables that
audience in need of protection; concerning because early alcohol use play a role in enhancing consumer
how marketers are reaching increases the risk of future alcohol competencies among young children.
children in online and social dependence.‍8 For example, research has shown
networking environments; what
Although tobacco marketing has been that theory of mind (ie, the ability
parents, practitioners, and policy
banned from television for more to think about the thoughts and
makers can do to help children
than 40 years, youth exposure to feeling of others) predicts elementary
contend with these messages; and
television advertising for electronic school-aged children’s ability to
what the marketing industry can
cigarettes (e-cigarettes) doubled understand selling intent and the
teach various stakeholders about
from 2011 to 2013.‍5 Contrary to social symbolism of brands.‍10,​11
‍
encouraging protective behaviors
the suggested positive aspects Similarly, preschool-aged children
in young people. Moreover, there
discussed by the manufacturers, with developed theory of mind are
are issues related to marketing
research shows that e-cigarette use better equipped to detect persuasive
and young people that can have
does not prevent and may increase intent.‍12 Furthermore, executive
serious implications, and they
conventional cigarette use among functioning (ie, the form of cognitive
deserve careful research attention
adolescents.‍9 development that explains impulse
because there are both short- and
control, planned behavior, and
long-term negative consequences Harm may also be caused by the
categorization skills) has been linked
connected with exposure to overwhelming exposure to all
to children’s ability to process brand
marketing messages for products types of marketing, and the images
messages.‍11
that are not healthy for children‍3–‍ 5‍ within this marketing, that children
and the idealized images and and adolescents experience. For What remains unknown is how
messages within the advertising example, a review of research found children move from basic consumer
that youth see.‍6,​7 In the following a consistent relationship between competencies to being critical
pages, we discuss the current state advertising exposure, materialism, thinkers capable of defending
of research in this area, and parent-child conflict.‍6 against persuasion. Children’s
offer suggestions for future Furthermore, a meta-analysis found readiness to learn from their social
research, and provide that advertising and other media world renders them vulnerable
recommendations to key portrayals depicting the thin-ideal until they develop skepticism.‍13 The
stakeholders regarding children, for women are related to a negative protracted development of executive
adolescents, and marketing. body image among women and girls.‍7 functions (which continues into

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 adolescence) may explain why this in the United States, evidence undesirable advertising effects by
skepticism is slow to emerge.‍14 By suggests that marketers do engage actively talking with their children
late adolescence, children’s ability in this practice.‍16 Moreover, content about advertising.‍21 Yet, in the
to cope with advertising should analyses of food product Web sites contemporary media landscape, it
surface.‍13 However, even as adults, show that many companies feature has become increasingly difficult
we may be capable of skepticism but food products that are substantially for parents to guide their children,
still fail to use our critical-thinking less beneficial to children.‍18 particularly in online environments.‍22
skills at all times.‍13 Hence, further This makes it far more difficult
research is needed to understand Mitigating Advertising Effects for parents to recognize current
what (if any) individual differences Because of the concerns regarding advertising practices, which thereby
characterize mindful child and the appropriateness and possibly restricts their ability to talk to their
adolescent consumers. harmful consequences of advertising children about them.‍23
targeting youth, various initiatives
Marketing to Children in New Media have been taken to protect and Using Marketing Insights to Help
Environments Children
empower them. On a policy level,
As marketing to children has moved advertising regulations have been Despite frequent criticism, child-
to new media platforms, researchers implemented to restrict certain targeted marketing has the potential
have struggled to keep up with these types of advertising targeted at to encourage positive behaviors. The
changes. In the past, researchers children. However, many of these effectiveness of social marketing
could record a few hours of television policies (such as those related to confirms that identical techniques
to get a sense of how marketers alcohol and food marketing) are used to sell commercial products
were selling to children. However, self-regulated, and convincing can sell positive attitudes, ideas,
monitoring new media is fraught evidence for the efficacy of these and behaviors.‍24 Still, whereas there
with logistical issues because Web policies is still lacking.‍19,​20
‍ Moreover, is a vast research base looking at
sites can be altered in a matter as noted above, the boundless and adults and persuasion, little is known
of hours and social networks can simultaneously subtle nature of the regarding the theoretical foundations
privately reach out to young people online media landscape makes it of persuasion as applied to youth or
with commercial appeals. increasingly difficult to implement the potential to effectively market
and control advertising policies. healthful commercial products to
What we do know about marketing
young audiences.
appeals in newer media is that they In response to the difficulties
are often qualitatively different from related to advertising policies, One reason is that few theoretical
traditional advertisements. Instead of there have been calls to invest in frameworks were developed with
receiving messages passively, online the development of educational children in mind. For example,
advertisements engage children interventions to empower children the Theory of Planned Behavior
actively through advergaming by increasing their advertising presents a concise way to assess and
platforms (ie, games featuring knowledge. However, research then target precursors to behavior.
branded content) and/or through indicates that possessing advertising Although it has been used in research
solicitation as brand ambassadors knowledge does not necessarily with youth ≥9 years old, these
(eg, encouraging children to reach enable children to cope with studies often suggest the need to
out to friends about a product).‍15,​16
‍ advertising in a conscious and critical adjust the model to explain children’s
These practices are particularly manner.‍14 Because of the types of behaviors.‍25 In addition, it is unclear
problematic because evidence appeals used and children’s growing how this and other theoretical
shows that children have more cognitive abilities, young people may models apply to younger children.
difficulty understanding that they not be motivated or able to evaluate
Similarly, there is scant evidence
are being marketed to in these online advertising and make well-informed
regarding effective message
settings.‍17 consumer decisions.‍14 Therefore,
design for young audiences. One
further investigation is needed
Research also shows that marketers example of this gulf in the research
to understand how best to use
reaching children in online settings surrounds message framing. Some
education interventions.
are acting with little oversight and research suggests that adults
are often more aggressive with However, there is research that typically respond best to gain-
their marketing strategies. For shows parents can play a key framed messages (ie, messages
example, although companies are role in increasing their children’s that highlight the advantages of
legally forbidden from collecting comprehension of advertising performing a behavior), yet young
data on children <13 years old and counteract potentially children respond equally favorably to

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 both gain- and loss-framed content platforms. By considering the pressure should be applied to
(ie, messages that emphasize the challenges associated with tracking marketers to ensure that their
negative repercussions of not taking advertising on new media devices, practices are developmentally
action).‍26 Furthermore, adolescents such a study would include insights appropriate and transparent (eg,
may respond differently to message from ethnographers, computer alcohol advertising).
framing because of developmental scientists, behavioral scientists,
characteristics. For example, it is and public health specialists; Educators
argued that adolescents are more •• Longitudinal research exploring Those working directly with
influenced by loss-framed messages how youth process marketing children and/or developing
because these messages enhance messages across media platforms curricula for children should focus
cognitive dissonance in youth, yet and across ages, with a particular on interventions that increase
adults are likely to experience this focus on the following: children’s advertising knowledge
dissonance regardless of the message
⚬⚬ Understanding the link between and help them engage critically with
frame.‍27
persuasive-intent understanding commercial messages in ways that
Lastly, whereas social marketing and message perception and are developmentally appropriate.
has frequently been investigated reception by using both direct Educators should also engage directly
from a public health perspective, and indirect measures that can with young people to learn about the
little has been done to assess how reveal the processes through multitude of ways marketers target
commercial media messages can which children are persuaded this audience.
have a positive impact on children. by different forms of marketing
Certain marketing tactics, such messages;
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