Nuclear Reactor
Introduction:
Nuclear reactors are a pivotal technology in the modern world, playing a crucial role in energy production,
medical advancements, and scientific research. They are devices designed to initiate and control a sustained
nuclear chain reaction, releasing energy that can be harnessed for various applications.
Nuclear reactor is a device to obtain the nuclear energy in a controlled nuclear fission reactions, usually to
generate power. In other words, Nuclear reactor is an equipment for carrying out controlled nuclear fission
reactions, usually used to generate power.
• In a nuclear reactor, no more than one of the neutrons emitted when a nucleus undergoes fission is
allowed to be captured by another fissionable nucleus.
• In this way, the reaction is kept under control.
The Science of Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the fundamental process at the core of all nuclear reactors. It involves the splitting of an
atomic nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei, along with the release of energy and additional neutrons. Here’s
a step-by-step explanation:
• The Fission Process:
o A neutron collides with the nucleus of a fissile atom, such as uranium-235.
o The nucleus absorbs the neutron, becoming unstable.
o The unstable nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei (fission fragments) and releases two or three
neutrons.
o A large amount of energy is released in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragments and
electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays).
• Chain Reaction:
o The neutrons released by fission can initiate further fission events in nearby fissile atoms, creating
a self-sustaining chain reaction.
o In a controlled environment, such as a nuclear reactor, this chain reaction is maintained at a steady
rate to produce continuous energy.
• Energy Output:
o The energy released in fission is immense. For example, the fission of one uranium-235 nucleus
releases about 200 MeV (million electron volts) of energy, which is millions of times greater than
the energy released in a typical chemical reaction.
Components of a Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is composed of several critical components that work together to sustain the nuclear reaction,
convert energy into usable forms, and ensure safety. Each component has a specific function:
1. The Fuel:
o Material: The fuel used in most nuclear reactors is uranium dioxide (UO2) enriched with uranium-
235 or plutonium-239.
o Form: The fuel is typically formed into small ceramic pellets, each about the size of a pencil
eraser. These pellets are stacked into long, thin tubes made of zirconium alloy, called fuel rods.
o Assemblies: Multiple fuel rods are bundled together to form fuel assemblies, which are then
loaded into the reactor core.
o The enrichment is necessary, since the natural abundance of the fissionable U-235 is only 0.7% of
the heavier U-238, which is not fissionable.
o The fission of U-235, produce heat energy and neutrons that start the chain reaction .
2. Moderator:
A material that has the ability to slow down neutrons quickly and which, at the same time, has little
tendency to absorb neutrons is called a moderator.
o Purpose: The moderator slows down the neutrons produced by fission, increasing the likelihood
of further fission reactions.
o Materials:
1) The most commonly used moderator is Light water (H2O), heavy water (D2O) which
serves to moderate the energy of the fast neutrons emitted by the fission process, and
covert them to slow (neutrons) which are more effective in inducing fission of U-235.
2) Graphite rods are sometime used.
3) The most efficient moderator is helium which slows neutrons but does not absorb all
them.
o Neutrons slow down by losing energy due to collisions with atoms/molecules of the moderator.
3. Control Rods:
o Purpose: Control rods regulate the rate of the nuclear reaction by absorbing excess neutrons.
o Materials: Made from materials with high neutron absorption capacities, such as boron, cadmium,
or hafnium which is highly efficient for a neutron absorption.
o Operation: By inserting or withdrawing control rods among the nuclear fuel element in the
reactor, operators can increase or decrease the number of neutrons available to sustain the chain
reaction, thereby controlling the reactor’s power output.
4. Coolant:
o Purpose: The coolant transfers heat away from the reactor core to prevent overheating and to
produce steam for electricity generation.
o Types: Coolants can be liquid (water, heavy water, liquid sodium, liquid alloy of Na, K) or gas
(carbon dioxide, helium, CH4,) and benzene.
o Circulation: In many reactors, the coolant circulates through the reactor core and then passes
through a heat exchanger or directly drives steam turbines.
5. Pressure Vessel or Reactor Core:
o Structure: The reactor core houses the fuel assemblies, moderator, and control rods. It is typically
enclosed in a robust steel pressure vessel.
o Function: The core is the heart of the reactor, where the fission reactions occur. The pressure
vessel maintains the necessary environment for these reactions and contains the coolant under high
pressure.
6. Containment Structure:
o Design: The containment structure is a thick, airtight building made of reinforced concrete and
steel.
o Purpose: It acts as the final barrier to prevent the release of radioactive materials in the event of an
accident. The containment structure also protects the reactor from external impacts.
7. Turbines
Function: Turbines convert thermal energy (heat) into mechanical energy. In a nuclear power plant, this
process begins with the heat generated by nuclear fission in the reactor core.
Process
1. Heat Generation: In the reactor, nuclear fission produces heat, which is transferred to the reactor’s
coolant (usually water).
2. Steam Production: The heated coolant, which may be water in a PWR (Pressurized Water Reactor) or
BWR (Boiling Water Reactor), either directly produces steam (BWR) or transfers heat to a secondary
loop (PWR) where steam is produced.
3. Turbine Rotation: The high-pressure steam is directed onto the blades of a turbine. As the steam
expands and passes through the turbine, it causes the turbine blades to spin.
4. Energy Conversion: The mechanical energy of the spinning turbine is then used to drive a connected
generator.
8. Generator
Function: Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Process:
1. Mechanical to Electrical Conversion: The spinning turbine shaft is connected to a rotor inside
the generator. As the rotor spins within a magnetic field, it induces an electrical current in the
surrounding wire coils of the stator.
2. Electricity Production: This induced current is the electricity that is then sent out from the
generator to the power grid.
3. Transmission: The electricity produced is typically at a high voltage to minimize losses during
transmission over long distances. Transformers may be used to adjust the voltage levels for
different stages of transmission and distribution.
Light-Water Nuclear Power Plant
Most commercial power plants today are light water reactor. In this type of reactor, U-235 rods are
submerged in water. Here water acts as coolant and moderator. The control rods of B-10 are inserted or
removed automatically from space in between the fuel rods.
The heat emitted by fission U-235 in the fuel core is absorbed by the coolant. The heated coolant (water
at 3000C) then goes to the exchanger. Here the coolant transfer heat to sea water which is converted into steam.
The steam then turn the turbine, generation electricity. A reactor once start can continue to function and supply
power of generation.
