Introduction to Network Layer:

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Introduction

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https://sameer9247.wordpress.com/2017/07/23/
osi-open-systems-interconnectionlayer/
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Contd.. Router

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Switching

Figure 8.1 Switched network

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Figure 8.2 Taxonomy of switched networks

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8-1 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
• A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected
by physical links.
• A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one
or more links.
• However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each
link.
• Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or
TDM.
Topics discussed in this section:
Three Phases
Efficiency
Delay
Circuit-Switched Technology in Telephone Networks
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Contd..

Figure 8.3 A trivial circuit-switched network

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 Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
 Before starting communication, the stations must make a
reservation for the resources to be used during the communication.
These resources, such as channels (bandwidth in FDM and time
slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and switch
input/output ports, must remain dedicated during the entire duration
of data transfer until the teardown phase.
 Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized
(physical layer transfer of the signal). The data are a continuous
flow sent by the source station and received by the destination
station, although there may be periods of silence.
 There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The switches
route the data based on their occupied band (FDM) or time slot
(TDM). Of course, there is end-to-end addressing used during the
setup phase, as we will see shortly. 14
 Note

In circuit switching, the resources need to be

reserved during the setup phase;
The resources remain dedicated for the entire
duration of data transfer until the teardown
phase.

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 Example 8.1

• As a trivial example, let us use a circuit-switched network to

connect eight telephones in a small area. Communication is
through 4-kHz voice channels.
• We assume that each link uses FDM to connect a maximum of two
voice channels. The bandwidth of each link is then 8 kHz.
• Figure 8.4 shows the situation. Telephone 1 is connected to
telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to 8; and 4 to 6.
• Of course the situation may change when new connections are
made. The switch controls the connections.

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Contd..

Figure 8.4 Circuit-switched network used in Example 8.1

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 Example 8.2

• As another example, consider a circuit-switched network that

connects computers in two remote offices of a private company.
• The offices are connected using a T-1 line leased from a
communication service provider.
• There are two 4 × 8 (4 inputs and 8 outputs) switches in this
network.
• For each switch, four output ports are folded into the input ports to
allow communication between computers in the same office.
• Four other output ports allow communication between the two
offices. Figure 8.5 shows the situation.

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Figure 8.5 Circuit-switched network used in Example 8.2

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Figure 8.6 Delay in a circuit-switched network

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Total Delay for Circuit Switched Network
 Transmission Delay: T & Propagation Delay: P
 Setup time, ST= Req Pkt +Ack Pkt
 Setup time, ST= Ts+Ps+ TD+PD.
 Data Transfer, DT= Tdata+ Pdata.
 Disconnect Time, DCT= TD+PD.
 Total Delay=ST+DT+ DCT
 Note : ignoring processing time in each switch

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Contd..
 4 hops (point-to-point links) between two terminals nodes;
Transmission rate 9600 bps on all links; 24 overhead bits [Header +
Trailer] for each packet; 1ms per-hop signal propagation delay. 1
sec. Call set-up time for circuit switched connection across 4 hops.
(a) Message size 5000 bits, packet size 1024 bits, all other
parameters the same.

 Circuit switching 5000 bits at 9600 bps ⇒ 0.521 sec.

 Message duration total propagation delay 0.004 sec.
 Total time for message is 0.521 + 0.004 + 1 = 1.525 sec

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Problem
 A path in a digital circuit-switched network has a data rate of
1 Mbps. The exchange of 1000 bits is required for the setup and
teardown phases. The distance between two parties is 5000 km.
Answer the following questions if the propagation speed is 2 X 108
m:
a. What is the total delay if 1000 bits of data are exchanged during
the data transfer phase?
b. What is the total delay if 100,000 bits of data are exchanged
during the data transfer phase?
c. What is the total delay if 1,000,000 bits of data are exchanged
during the data transfer phase?
d. Find the delay per 1000 bits of data for each of the above cases
and compare them. What can you infer?
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Note

Switching at the physical layer in the

traditional telephone network uses
the circuit-switching approach.

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Blocking or Non-blocking
 Blocking
 A blocking network is unable to connect end- points because the
critical paths are in use and there are no alternative paths
 Used on voice systems
 Short duration calls

 Non-blocking
 Permits all stations to connect (in pairs) at once
 Used for some data connections

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Circuit-Switched Routing
 Many connections will need paths through more than one switch
 Need to find a route
 Efficiency
 Resilience
 Public telephone switches are a tree structure
 Static routing uses the same approach all the time
 Dynamic routing allows for changes in routing depending on traffic
 Uses a peer structure for nodes

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Alternate Routing
 Possible routes between end offices predefined
 Originating switch selects appropriate route
 Routes listed in preference order
 Different sets of routes may be used at different times

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8-2 DATAGRAM NETWORKS

In data communications, we need to send messages

from one end system to another. If the message is
going to pass through a packet-switched network, it
needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable
size. The size of the packet is determined by the
network and the governing protocol.

Topics discussed in this section:

Routing Table
Efficiency
Delay
Datagram Networks in the Internet
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Two Basic Forms of Packet Switching
 Packets handled in two ways
 Datagram (covered in this section)
 Virtual circuit (covered in the next section)

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Datagram
 Each packet treated independently
 Packets can take any practical route
 Packets may arrive out of order
 Packets may get lost or delayed
 Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing packets

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Virtual Circuit
 Preplanned route established before any packets sent
 Call request and call accept packets establish connection
(handshake)
 Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of
destination address
 No routing decisions required for each packet
 Clear request to drop circuit
 Not a dedicated

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Contd..

Figure 8.7 A datagram network with four switches (routers)

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Contd..

Figure 8.8 Routing table in a datagram network

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Note

A switch in a datagram network uses a

routing table that is based on the
destination address.

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Note

The destination address in the header of

a packet in a datagram network
remains the same during the entire
journey of the packet.

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Contd..

Figure 8.9 Delay in a datagram network

There are three transmission times (3T), three propagation delays

(slopes 3't of the lines), and two waiting times (WI + w2)' We ignore
the processing time in each switch.Total delay =3T + 3t + WI + W2
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Question
Five equal-size datagrams belonging to the same message leave for
the destination one after another. However, they travel through
different paths as shown in the table.
We assume that the delay for each switch (including waiting and
processing) is 3, 10, 20, 7, and 20 ms respectively. Assuming that the
propagation speed is 2 × 108 m/s, find the order the datagrams
arrive at the destination and the delay for each. Ignore any other
delays in transmission.

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Note

Switching in the Internet is done by

using the datagram approach
to packet switching at
the network layer.

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8-3 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-

switched network and a datagram network. It has
some characteristics of both.

Topics discussed in this section:

Addressing
Three Phases
Efficiency
Delay
Circuit-Switched Technology in WANs

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Contd..
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network
and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.
 As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown
phases in addition to the data transfer phase.
 Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-
switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
 As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet
carries an address in the header. However, the address in the header
has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be the next switch and
the channel on which the packet is being canied), not end-to-end
jurisdiction. The reader may ask how the intermediate switches
know where to send the packet if there is no final destination
address carried by a packet. The answer will be clear when we
discuss virtual-circuit identifiers in the next section.
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Contd..
 As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path
established during the connection.
 A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link
layer, while a circuit-switched network is implemented in the
physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer. But
this may change in the future.

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Contd..

Figure 8.10 Virtual-circuit network

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Figure 8.11 Virtual-circuit identifier

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Figure 8.12 Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

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Figure 8.13 Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

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Figure 8.14 Setup request in a virtual-circuit network

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Contd..

Figure 8.15 Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

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Note

In virtual-circuit switching, all packets

belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path;
but the packets may arrive at the
destination with different delays
if resource allocation is on demand.

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Contd..

Figure 8.16 Delay in a virtual-circuit network

Total delay = 3T+ 3't + setup delay + teardown delay

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Note

Switching at the data link layer in a

switched WAN is normally
implemented by using
virtual-circuit techniques.

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 Switched VC vs Permanent VC setup

 A virtual circuit can be either switched or permanent.

 If permanent, an outgoing VCI is given to the source, and an
incoming VCI is given to the destination.
 The source always uses this VCI to send frames to this particular
destination.
 The destination knows that the frame is coming from that particular
source if the frame carries the corresponding incoming VCI.
 If a duplex connection is needed, two virtual circuits are
established.

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Contd..
 A PVC has several drawbacks:
 Always connected, so always paying
 Connection is between two parties only.

 If you need a connection to another point, you need another PVC.

 Don’t like these disadvantages? Use an SVC.

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8-4 STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH

We use switches in circuit-switched and packet-

switched networks. In this section, we discuss the
structures of the switches used in each type of
network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Structure of Circuit Switches
Structure of Packet Switches

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Structure of Circuit Switches
 Circuit Switching uses either of two technologies
 Space-Division Switch
 Time-Division Switch

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Space-Division Switch
 Single transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a
physically separate set of crosspoints.
 Crossbar Switch
 Multistage Switch

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Contd..
Crossbar switch

Figure 8.17 Crossbar switch with three inputs and four outputs
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Contd..
Multistage switch

Figure 8.18 Multistage switch

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Problem
Design a three-stage, 200 x 200 switch (N =200) with k =4 and n =20.
Solution
 In the first stage we have N/n or 10 crossbars, each of size 20 x 4.
 In the second stage, we have 4 crossbars, each of size 10 x 10. In
 The third stage, we have 10 crossbars, each of size 4 x 20.
 The total number of crosspoints is 2kN + k(N/n)2, or 2000
crosspoints.
 This is 5 percent of the number of crosspoints in a single-stage
switch (200 x 200 = 40,000).

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Three Stage Switch

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Figure 8.19 Time-slot interchange

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Contd..

Figure 8.20 Time-space-time switch

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Structure of Packet Switches

Figure 8.21 Packet switch components

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Contd..

Figure 8.22 Input port

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Contd..

Figure 8.23 Output port

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Contd..

Figure 8.24 A banyan switch

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Contd..

Figure 8.25 Examples of routing in a banyan switch

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4-4 NETWORK LAYER SERVICES

 In this section, we briefly discuss services provided by the network

layer.
 Our discussion is mostly based on the connectionless service, the
dominant service in today’s Internet.

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Logical Addressing

Figure 4.12 An imaginary part of the Internet 79

Services Provided at the Source Computer

Figure 4.13 Services provided at the source computer 80

Services Provided at Each Router

Figure 4.14 Processing at each router 81

Services Provided at the Destination Computer

Figure 4.15 Processing at the destination computer 82

8.
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8.84
Problems
 Design a three-stage, 200 × 200 switch (N = 200) with k = 4 and n =
20.

8.85
Problems
 Design a three-stage, 200 × 200 switch (N = 200) with k = 4 and n =
20.
 Sol. first stage we have N/n or 10 crossbars, each of size 20 × 4. In
the second stage, we have
 4 crossbars, each of size 10 × 10. In the third stage, we have 10
crossbars, each of size 4 × 20.

8.86
Sol conti.
 The total number of crosspoints is 2kN + k(N/n)2, or 2000
crosspoints. This is 5 percent of the
 number of crosspoints in a single-stage switch (200 × 200 =
40,000).

8.87
Drawback
 one drawback—blocking during periods of heavy traffic.
 Blocking refers to times when one input cannot be connected to an
output.

8.88
Non Blocking Condition
 Clos investigated the condition of nonblocking in multistage
switches.
 In nonblocking switching fabric, the number of middle-stage
switches must be at least 2n – 1.
 In other words, we need to have k ≥ 2n – 1.

8.89
Clos Criteria

8.90
In Summary
 What are the differences between a circuit switched network and a
packet switched network?
 Where can the control signals travel in a telephone network?
 What is a non-blocking switch/network?
 What are the differences between datagram packet switched and
virtual circuit packet switched?
 What are the differences between a circuit switch and a packet
switch?

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