System Technologies Notes

Processor (CPU)

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer, responsible for carrying out
instructions of a computer program.

 CPU speed is measured in gigahertz (GHz), which defines how much data can be processed
in a specific time. Higher GHz generally means faster processing have cores, which allow
multitasking. A dual-core processor has two cores, and a quad-core has four, allowing tasks
to be split and completed faster.

System

 Operating System (OS) is system software that manages hardware and software resources.

 It allows different applications to communicate and sends the right instructions to hardware.

 Examples inclws 10**, which provides user-friendly interfaces and hardware compatibility.

Optical Drive

 **used to read and write data on optical discs like CDs and DVDs. Although not as common
today due to USB and cloud storage, they are still used for software installation and media
playback.

Memory and Storage

 **Primary storage RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read-Only Memory). RAM is
volatile memory that stores data temporarily, while ROM is non-volatile and holds basic
instructions for starting the computer.

 Secondary storage includes hard drives (HDDs), s drives (SSDs), and external devices like
USBs. These are non-volatile and store data for long-term use.

DDR4 and DDR5

 DDR4 and DDR5 refer to two differentness of RAM technology.

o DDR4 is widely used, offering good speed and power efficiency.

o DDR5 is newer, offering faster speeds and better bandwidth, improving multitasking
and performance in data-heavy tasks like gaming and video editing.

Wired and Wireless Input Devices

 Wired devices: Devices like boards and mice** that connect directly to the computer via a
cable. They are reliable and generally have lower latency.

 Wireless devices: Devices like Bluetooth or wireless keyboards and mice that connect
wirelessly. They provide more mobility but can have higher latency and require batteries or
charging.

Comparisons of Two Computers (Advertisements)

When comparing computers baseisements:

 CPU speed: Higher GHz and number of cores lead to faster processing.
  RAM: More RAM (e.g., 8 GB vs 4 GB) allows better multitasking and performance for
resource-heavy programs.

 Storage: A larger storage capacity (e.g., 1 TB) provides more space for files and applications.

 Operating System: Newer operating systems like Windows 10 ensure compatibility with
newer software and features .

Processor (CPU)

 Functions: The CPU executes instructions from programs, performing basic arithmetic, logic,
control, and input/output (I/O) operations.

 Cores: Each core in a CPU can handle a different task simultaneously, making multi-core
processors ideal for multitasking or running complex applications (e.g., video editing,
gaming). A dual-core processor can run two processes at once, while quad-core or octa-core
processors can run even more.

 Cache: The CPU has a small amount of memory called cache (L1, L2, L3), which stores
frequently used data for quick access, speeding up processing time.

Operating System (OS)

 Purpose: The OS serves as an interface between the user and hardware, managing system
resources, executing programs, and controlling hardware like the processor and memory.

 Types of OS:

o Desktop OS: Such as Windows 10, macOS, and Linux distributions. Windows offers
wide compatibility with software, while macOS is known for its seamless integration
with Apple hardware. Linux is highly customizable and open-source.

o Mobile OS: Systems like Android and iOS manage mobile device operations, offering
touch interfaces and support for mobile apps.

 Common Functions: File management, memory management, process scheduling, and

device management.

Optical Drive

 Types:

o CD Drive: Reads and writes data from Compact Discs (up to 700 MB of storage).

o DVD Drive: More advanced than CD, with storage up to 4.7 GB per disc.

o Blu-ray Drive: Can read/write high-definition media, with storage capacities up to 50

GB on dual-layer discs.

 Uses: Optical drives are commonly used to install software, watch movies, or transfer large
amounts of data, though USB drives and cloud storage have largely replaced them.

Memory and Storage

 RAM (Random Access Memory):

 o Volatile memory that temporarily stores data and programs currently in use. More
RAM improves system performance and multitasking.

o Types:

 DDR4 RAM: Common in modern systems, offering faster data transfer rates
and lower power consumption than older DDR versions.

 DDR5 RAM: Newer and faster, capable of higher bandwidth and

performance for intensive applications like 3D rendering or gaming.

 ROM (Read-Only Memory):

o Non-volatile memory that stores critical instructions for booting up the system (e.g.,
BIOS).

 Secondary Storage:

o HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Traditional storage using spinning platters to store data.
They offer larger capacities (e.g., 1TB, 2TB) but are slower than SSDs.

o SSD (Solid-State Drive): Uses flash memory for faster read/write speeds and no
moving parts, which makes it more durable. It’s ideal for faster boot times and
loading applications.

o External Storage: USB drives, external SSDs, and external hard drives provide
additional portable storage solutions.

DDR4 and DDR5

 DDR4:

o The most widely used type of RAM, offering good speed and efficiency for typical
applications.

o Data transfer rates range from 1600 to 3200 MHz

o Used in mainstream computers, from office systems to gaming machines.

 DDR5:

o Next-generation RAM, offering twice the bandwidth and capacity of DDR4.

o Designed for heavy multitasking, gaming, and data-intensive applications.

o Higher performance for future technologies like artificial intelligence, machine

learning, and high-end gaming.

Wired and Wireless Input Devices

 Wired Input Devices:

o USB keyboard and mouse: Connect through USB ports, offering consistent, reliable
performance without the need for batteries or charging.

o Advantages: No latency or signal interference, and they tend to be more affordable.

o Disadvantages: Limited range due to the cable length, less flexibility.

  Wireless Input Devices:

o Bluetooth keyboards and mice: Use wireless technology to connect to the

computer, providing more freedom of movement and less desk clutter.

o Advantages: Portability and flexibility, as they can be used at a distance from the
computer.

o Disadvantages: Higher latency than wired devices, potential signal interference, and
they require batteries or charging.

Comparisons of Two Computers (Advertisement Example)

When comparing two computers based on their features:

 Processor (CPU): A comparison might highlight one with a higher GHz or more cores (e.g.,
Intel Core i5 vs Intel Core i7). A higher number of cores and clock speed generally means
better multitasking and faster performance in demanding applications.

 RAM: One computer may offer 4GB while the other has 8GB or more, with higher RAM
enabling smoother multitasking and better performance for memory-intensive applications
like video editing or gaming.

 Storage: Comparing 256GB SSD vs 1TB HDD, an SSD provides faster boot times and quicker
access to data, while an HDD offers more storage space but slower performance.

 Graphics: Some computers may include integrated graphics, while others have dedicated
GPUs (e.g., NVIDIA GTX or Radeon), which are essential for gaming, video editing, or 3D
rendering.

Internet and Network Technologies Notes

1. Network

 Definition: A network is a collection of computers and devices connected to share resources

and communicate. This can happen through wired (Ethernet cables) or wireless (Wi-Fi)
connections.

 Types:

o LAN (Local Area Network): Small networks that cover a limited area, like a school or
office. They can be either wired or wireless (WLAN). LANs allow resources (printers,
files) to be shared between devices easilyrea Network) **: Larger networks that
span over wide geographical areas, like a city's networks or the internet itself.

 Components:

o NIC (Network Interface Card): Allows a computer to connect to a network, either

through wired Ethernet or wireless antennas.

o Router: Directs traffic between multiple devices and manages the connection to the
internet.
 o Switch: Connects multiple devices within the same network, enabling
communication between them.

2. Search Definition: A search engine is a software system designed to carry out web searches,
helping users find information across the World Wide Web (WWW).

 Examples:

o Google: The most popular search engine, which sorts and ranks websites based on
relevance.

o Bing and Yahoo are other examples.

 Working Mechanism: Search engines index web pages by crawling through websites, storing
information, and ranking results based on keywords entered by users.

3. Web Browser

 Definition: A web browser is software that allows users to access and navigate the World
Wide Web. It retrieves, presents, and transfers information across websites.

 Examples:

o Google Chrome: Known for speed and wide extension support.

o Mozilla Firefox: Open-source, privacy-focused.

o Microsoft Edge: Optimized for Windows OS, integrates with other Microsoft
services.

o Safari: Default biOS and macOS devices.

 Functions: A browser fetches website content via URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) and
displays it for users. Browsers support extensions, private browsing, and advanced security
features like phishing protection.

4. Email Address

 **Defines is a unique identifier for sending and receiving electronic mail (emails) across the
internet. It consists of two parts:

o Username: The first part, chosen by the user.

o Domain: After the "@" symbol, specifying the mail service provider (e.g., Gmail,
Yahoo, Outlook) .

 Uses: Email addresses are essential for online on, registration on websites, and signing up
for services.

 Types of Email Software:

o Desktop clients: Like Microsoft Outlook and Mozilla Thunderbird, which are
installed on devices.

o Web-based email (webmail): Services like Gmail, Yahoo Mail, and Hotmail, which
are accessed through web browsers【5†source】 .
  Managing Email:

o Use folders, labels, and fi(Gr11_CAT_Theory_LB_prin…) prioritize incoming

messages.

o You can set up distribution lists for group emails

1. Questionnaire

 Definition: A questionnaire is a research tool used to gather information from respondents

in a structured format. It is typically used in surveys to collect data for statistical analysis.

 Types:

o Closed-ended questions: Offer a set list of responses (e.g., Yes/No, Multiple Choice).

o Open-ended questions: Allow respondents to express their answers freely.

 Uses: Commonly used in research projects to gather primary data from individuals.

 Key points:

o When designing questionnaires, it is essential to ask clear, concise questions.

o Combining both open-ended and closed-ended questions can provide a

comprehensive view of the topic Interview

 Definition: An interview is a method of collecting data by directly asking people questions,

either in person, via telephone, or through online means.

 Types:

o Structured: Follows a predetermined set of questions, making data collection more

uniform.

o Unstructured: More conversational, allowing for follow-up questions based on the

interviewee’s responses.

o Semi-structured: A mix of both, providing flexibility while maintaining a level of

consistency.

 Purpose: Interviews allow for more in-depth insights and are ideal for qualitative research .

Definitions**

 Definition: Questions that do not restrict respondents to a set of predefined answers. They
often start with "why," "how," or "what."

 Purpose: These questions encourage detailed responses and are useful for exploring
complex issues or gathering comprehensive insights.

 Types:

o Fact-finding questions: Answered explicitly by factual data (e.g., "What is the capital
of France?").
 o Exploratory questions: Investigate deeper insights (e.g., "Why do you think this
solution works?").

o Predictive questions: Envision future outcomes (e.g., "What if we changed the

policy?").

o Judgment-based questions: Involve critical thinking or opinions (e.g., "How would

you rate this service?").

 Key tips: Use open-ended questions to refine data and provide greater depth to your
findings .

4. Closed Question definition: Closed-ended questions limit the responses to predefined options
such as "Yes" or "No" or a multiple-choice list.

 Purpose: These questions are quick to answer, easy to analyse statistically, and useful when
specific, quantifiable data is required.

 Examples:

o "Is the sky blue?" (Yes/No)

o "What is your age group?" (18-25, 26-35, etc.)

 Limitations: While they provide straightforward answers, they may lack depth or context.
They are ideal in the early stages of research .

5. **Reference and Citation: A citation is a reference to a source of information. In academic work,

it provides evidence for claims and allows others to verify and follow up on the research.

 Purpose: Citing sources gives credit to the original authors and helps avoid plagiarism.

 Types:

o In-text citation: A brief reference within the body of your text.

o Reference list: A full list of all sources cited, typically placed at the end of a
document.

 Common Formats: APA, MLA, Chicago .

6. Types of Sources

 Primary Sources accounts or data (e.g., interviews, surveys, original research).

 Secondary Sources: Interpretations or analyses of primary sources (e.g., textbooks, articles).

 Tertiary Sources: Summaries or collections of primary and secondary sources (e.g.,

encyclopaedias, indexes).

 Evaluating Sources: Sources should be evaluated for accuracy, currency, relevance, and
objectivity. Be mindful of biased or unreliable sources when conducting research .

Social Implications Notes

1. Email Netiquette
  Definition: Email netiquette refers to the proper and respectful way to communicate using
email.

 Guidelines for Writing Emails:

o Subject Line: Always provide a clear, brief subject line summarizing the content of
the email.

o Salutations: Use professional greetings such as "Dear [Name]" in formal situations.

In less formal cases, you can use "Hi" or "Hello," but avoid slang like "Yo" or
"Howzit."

o Tone: Avoid using humour, as it can be easily misinterpreted since the recipient
cannot hear tone or see facial expressions.

o Proofreading: Always proofread emails for spelling and grammatical errors before
sending them.

o Clarity: Ensure that the email content is clear and can be understood even without
prior knowledge. Avoid assuming the recipient knows the context of the
conversation attachments**: Avoid sending large attachments. Instead, use
compressed files or provide links to downloadable content .

ter Virus**

 Definition: A computer virus is malicious software designed to disrupt, damage, or gain

unauthorized access to computer systems.

 How They Spread: Viruses can spread through various means such as email attachments,
downloaded files, or by exploiting security vulnerabilities. Once a virus infects a system, it
can replicate and spread to other devices on the network .

 **Types of Vi - File Infector Viruses: Attach themselves to executable files and spread when
the file is executed.

o Macro Viruses: Infect files that use macros, such as Microsoft Word or Excel
documents.

o Trojan Horses: Pretend to be legitimate software but contain malicious functions.

 Prevention: Use updated antivirus software, avoid suspicious downloads or email

attachments, and regularly back up important data .

3. Green Computing definition: Green computing refers to the environmentally responsible use of
computers and related resources. This includes designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing of
computers and associated devices in a way that reduces their environmental impact .

 Principles of Green Computing Energy Efficiency: Using devices that consume less energy,
such as Energy Star-rated equipment.

o Recycling: Proper disposal and recycling of electronic waste to prevent harmful

materials from polluting the environment.

o Virtualization: Reducing the number of physical devices by using virtual machines or

cloud services.
 o Paper Reduction: Reducing the use of paper by promoting digital communication
and storage .

1. HTML (Opening and Closing tags, Working with Colours):

 Tags: HTML uses tags enclosed in angle brackets (e.g., <html>, <body>, <h1>). Every tag has
an opening (<tag>) and closing (</tag>) to define the structure and content of a webpage.

o Opening tags: Define the start of an element (e.g., <p> for a paragraph).

o Closing tags: Mark the end of that element (e.g., </p> for the end of the paragraph).

o Example: <h1> opens a heading, and </h1> closes it.

 Working with Colours:

o HTML allows you to set colours using the style attribute or CSS (Cascading Style
Sheets).

o Colours can be defined by name (e.g., "red"), hex codes (e.g., #FF0000 for red), or
RGB values (e.g., rgb(255, 0, 0) for red).

o Example: <p style="color: blue;">This text is blue.</p>

2. Spreadsheet (Error Indicators, Functions, Types of Charts):

 Error Indicators:

o Error messages in spreadsheets indicate problems in formulas or data. Common

examples include:

 #DIV/0!: Occurs when a number is divided by zero.

 #VALUE!: Happens when there’s an incorrect type of argument or operand.

 #NAME?: Appears when Excel doesn’t recognize the text in a formula.

 Functions:

o SUM: Adds a range of numbers. Example: =SUM(A1:A5)

o AVERAGE: Calculates the average of numbers in a range. Example:

=AVERAGE(B1:B10)

o COUNT: Counts the number of cells that contain numbers. Example:

=COUNT(C1:C15)

o IF: Performs a logical test and returns one value if true, another if false. Example:
=IF(A1>10, "Yes", "No")

 Types of Charts:

o Bar Charts: Used to compare data across categories.

 o Pie Charts: Display data as a percentage of a whole, commonly used for proportions.

o Line Charts: Show trends over time by connecting data points with lines.

o Scatter Plots: Show relationships between two sets of data, useful for correlation
analysis.

3. Word-Processing (Save, Save As, Picture Formatting):

 Save: Saves the current version of the document. It updates the file with any new changes
made.

o Shortcut: Ctrl + S (Windows) or Cmd + S (Mac).

 Save As: Used when you want to save the document as a new file or in a different format
(e.g., saving a .docx as a .pdf).

o It’s useful when you need multiple versions of the same document or to export it in
another format.

 Picture Formatting:

o Resizing: Allows you to change the size of the image without altering its original
proportions.

o Cropping: Allows you to trim parts of an image that you don’t need.

o Alignment: Lets you adjust where the picture is placed relative to the text (e.g., left,
right, center).

o Wrapping: Controls how text wraps around a picture. Options include in-line,
square, and tight wrapping.

Integrated scenario

1. Virus

 Symptoms of Infection:

o Slow system performance, unexpected crashes, and frequent pop-up messages can
indicate a virus infection.

o Files may disappear, become corrupted, or new, unknown files might appear on
your system.

 Common Virus Types:

o Boot Sector Virus: Infects the master boot record (MBR), making it difficult to
remove.

o Polymorphic Virus: Changes its code to avoid detection by antivirus programs.

 Advanced Protection:
 o Use firewalls, avoid downloading software from unknown sources, and enable
automatic system updates to protect against emerging threats .

2. Social Media (continued)

Impacts on Society:

 Echo chambers: Social media platforms can create echo chambers, where users are only
exposed to information that reinforces their existing beliefs, potentially leading to
polarization.
 Cyberbullying: The anonymity and accessibility of social media can facilitate cyberbullying,
causing emotional distress and harm.
 Influence on Mental Health: Excessive social media use has been linked to issues like
anxiety, depression, and poor sleep quality, especially in teens and young adults.

Social Media for Business:

 Branding and Marketing: Companies use platforms like Instagram and Facebook for
targeted advertising, reaching specific demographics.
 Customer Engagement: Businesses engage with customers through real-time interactions,
building loyalty and addressing concerns quickly.

3. Hackers and Crackers (continued)

 White-hat Hackers: Ethical hackers who are employed by organizations to find

vulnerabilities in their systems and fix them before malicious actors exploit them. They often
work in penetration testing or as cybersecurity experts.

 Black-hat Hackers: Criminal hackers who break into systems illegally for malicious purposes
such as stealing data, installing malware, or causing system damage.

 Grey-hat Hackers: These hackers fall between white and black hats. They may break into
systems without permission but without malicious intent, often highlighting vulnerabilities
to the public or the organization itself.

 Crackers:

o Crackers are specifically involved in illegal activities like software cracking, bypassing
protections like Digital Rights Management (DRM) to pirate software. They might
also engage in breaking encryption to gain unauthorized access to data.

 Methods of Attack:

o Phishing: Sending fraudulent emails that appear to come from legitimate sources to
steal sensitive information.

o Ransomware: Infecting systems with malware that locks or encrypts files until a
ransom is paid.
4. Biometric Security

 How it Works: Biometric systems rely on unique biological characteristics like fingerprints,
facial structure, iris patterns, or voice to authenticate users. These characteristics are nearly
impossible to replicate, making biometric security highly reliable.

 Common Uses:

o Smartphones: Fingerprint sensors and face recognition systems (like Apple’s Face
ID) are common in mobile devices for unlocking the phone or authorizing payments.

o Airports and Border Control: Iris and facial recognition are increasingly used to
verify identity during check-ins or at immigration counters.

 Challenges:

o Privacy Concerns: Storing biometric data (such as in a company’s database) poses

significant privacy risks. If the database is hacked, personal information like
fingerprints can’t be easily changed, unlike passwords.

o False Positives and Negatives: Biometric systems can occasionally fail, leading to
either denying access to legitimate users (false negatives) or allowing unauthorized
individuals (false positives).

5. Types of Printers

 Inkjet Printers:

o Functionality: Use liquid ink sprayed through microscopic nozzles onto paper. These
are commonly used for home printing and produce high-quality images and
documents.

o Advantages: High-quality colour prints and affordability.

o Disadvantages: Slower printing speeds, higher cost per page for ink.

 Laser Printers:

o Functionality: Use toner (powder) and a laser to produce prints. Best suited for high-
volume printing, especially for text-heavy documents.

o Advantages: Fast printing, low cost per page, ideal for large offices.

o Disadvantages: Higher upfront cost compared to inkjet printers.

 3D Printers:

o Functionality: Creates three-dimensional objects by layering materials like plastic or

resin. Used in industries like manufacturing, healthcare (prosthetics), and design.

o Advantages: Customizability and ability to produce prototypes.

o Disadvantages: Expensive and slower than traditional printers.

6. Open-Source Software
  Definition: Open-source software (OSS) is software whose source code is freely available to
the public to use, modify, and distribute.

 Examples:

o Linux: A popular open-source operating system used on servers and desktops.

o GIMP: A free, open-source image editor that rivals Adobe Photoshop.

o Mozilla Firefox: An open-source web browser.

 Advantages:

o Cost-Effective: Free to use and often highly customizable.

o Community Support: A large developer community continually improves and

supports the software.

 Disadvantages:

o Lack of Professional Support: Unlike proprietary software, open-source solutions

may lack formal customer support.

o Complexity: Customizing open-source software often requires advanced technical

knowledge.

7. Ergonomics

 Definition: Ergonomics is the study of how people interact with their environment and
designing workspaces or products to improve comfort, efficiency, and reduce injury.

 Workplace Ergonomics:

o Desk and Chair: Chairs should offer lumbar support and be adjustable in height.
Desks should accommodate a comfortable arm height when typing.

o Monitor Position: The monitor should be at eye level to prevent neck strain, with an
ideal distance of about 20-30 inches away from the eyes.

o Keyboard and Mouse: These should be positioned to avoid awkward wrist positions.
An ergonomic keyboard or mouse may reduce strain on the wrists and fingers.

 Benefits:

o Prevents long-term health problems like carpal tunnel syndrome, back pain, and
eye strain.

o Improves productivity by making workers more comfortable and less fatigued.

8. Software Piracy

 Forms of Software Piracy:

o Counterfeiting: Producing fake copies of software that look legitimate and selling
them as genuine.
 o Soft lifting: Sharing a copy of software with more users than the license allows. This
is common when a company installs a single-user software license on multiple
computers.

o Online Piracy: Illegally downloading and distributing software through file-sharing

platforms.

 Consequences:

o Legal Action: Companies that engage in piracy risk heavy fines, legal penalties, and
damage to their reputation.

o Security Risks: Pirated software often comes bundled with malware that can
compromise system security.

 Prevention:

o Use licensed software and avoid downloading programs from unverified sources.
Some software companies now offer software-as-a-service (SaaS) models where
users subscribe to avoid the temptation of piracy.