" Measurement Systems: Application and Design

+D=FJAH "
Solutions

4.1
a
d
I
F xi I
RRpGH
P 1-
xt
JK Rm
+Rlin
+
eex b e
– Im
R p xi
e0 Rm
xt

f
c
Fig. 1 [Fig. 4.5(b)]

RP : Potentiometer resistance
xi : Position of the wiper from the zero position
xt : Total travel of the potentiometer
Figure 4.5 (b) is a modification of Fig. 4.5 (a) to improve the non linearity of the potentiometer.
e
Basically we expect the ratio 0 to vary in a linear manner for various positions of the wiper.
eex
Fig. 4.5 (a) of the text shows that, as the ratio Rp /Rm keeps on increasing, the nonlineality gets worse.
Adding a resistor Rm + Rlin in parallel does reduce the overall nonlinearity, as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b).
This can also be verified using MATLAB simulation.
The main objective of this problem is to derive an equation for the circuit of Fig. 4.5 (b) that is similar
to Eq. (4.1). To simplify the equation it is assumed here that Rlin = 0, so we have only Rm in the arm
‘de’
For any position ‘xi’ of the wiper, the resistance of the arm ‘bc’ is given by
R p xi
Rbc = (1)
xt
 Solutions Manual "!

The resistance of the arm ‘ab’ is given by

FG xi IJ
Rab = Rp 1 -
H xt K (2)

For the purpose of solving the above circuit of Fig. 4.5 (b), (a, d), (b, e), (c, f) are common points.
First step is to find the equivalent resistance for the entire circuit, determining the total current ‘I’,
current through the meter ‘Im’, which gives e0.

FG x IJ R
H xK
Rp 1 - i
m

F xI
eq t
R ab = (3)
R G1 - J + R
H xK
i
p m
t

xi
Rp Rm
xt
Rbeeq = (4)
x
R p i + Rm
xt
Equations (3) can be simplified as

FG
xi IJ
Rabeq =
Rm 1 -
H
xt K (5)
x R
1- i + m
xt R p

Equation (4) can be simplified as

xi
Rm
xt
Rbceq = (6)
xi Rm
+
xt R p

The total resistance of the circuit is given by

eq
R = Rab + Rbceq (7)
The total current supplied by the battery at the wiper position xi is given by
eex
I = (8)
R
The current ‘I’ splits into two and flows through the arms ‘ab’ and ‘de’ unites into I at the wiper
point and once again splits into two to flow through the arms ‘bc’ and ‘ef’
The current Im through the meter is given by
"" Measurement Systems: Application and Design

xi xi
Im = I R p Rm + R p (9)
xt xt
The output voltage is given by
e0 = Im Rm (10)
From Eq. (6) through (9), Eq. (10) becomes
xi FG R xi IJ
eex Rm Rp
xt H m + Rp
xt K
e0 =
FGxi x IJ (11)
Rm 1 -
Hxt
+
Rm i
xt K
x i Rm x i Rm
1- + +
x t Rp x t Rp
xi
Rm R p
xt
FR I
GH R JK
xi
Rp m
+
e0 p xt
eex
=
R| 1 - x xi U| (12)

|S x |V
i
xt
t
+
||1 - xx + RR ||
Rm
x i Rm
i m
+
T t p xt R p W
xi
xt
FR I
e0
GH R m

p
+
xi
xt JK
FG1 - x IJ FG x + R IJ + FG1 - x + R IJ x
= (13)
eex
H x KHx R K H x R K x
i i m i m i

t t p t p t

F1 - x + R I F x + R I
GH x R JK GH x R JK i

t
m

p
i

t
m

F I
GH JK
xi x R
1- i + m
e0 xt xt R p
FG IJ FG IJ
= 2 2
(14)
eex xi x R x R x x R x
xt
- i
xt H K + m - i m + i - i
R p x t R p xt xt H K + m i
R p xt
 Solutions Manual "#

F1 - x + R I
e0
GH x R JK i

t
m

eex
=
F x I R ×x
2 G1 - J +
(15)

H xK R x
i m t

t p i
A plot of Eq. (15) shows that nonlinearity has decreased by introducing a parallel resistor.
4.2

I
R
F xI
Rp G 1 - J i
P
H xK t
+
eex
– Im
xi I1
R
RpP e0 Rm
xt

Fig. 1 [Fig. 4.5(a)]

Objective : Derivation of Eq. (4.1)

eex : Input excitation voltage, V
Rp : Total potentiometer resistance, W
Rm : Meter resistance, W
xi : Position of the wiper w.r.t to zero e0 position, m
xt : Total length of travel of the wiper, m
x
Rp i : Resistance of the potentiometer upto wiper position, W
xt
FG xi IJ
H
Rp 1 -
xt K: Resistance of the potentiometer after the wiper position

The circuit of Fig. 1 can be simplified as

F xi I
Rp 1 -GH xt
JK
+
eex
–
Req

Fig. 2

Req of Fig. 2 is given by

"$ Measurement Systems: Application and Design

xi xi
Rp Rm Rm
xt xt
Req = = (1)
x xi Rm
R p i + Rm +
xt xt R p
The total resistance of the circuit shown in Fig. 2 is given by
xi
FG1 - x IJ xt
Rm

H xK
i
R = Rp + (2)
xi Rm
t +
xt R p

R| x R U|
|S FG1 - x IJ + x R
i m

|V
|| H x K xx + RR
i t p

||
R = Rp (3)
t i m

T t p W
Refer to Fig. 1. The total current I, at any wiper position, splits into I, and Im at the wiper. Im is the
current that flows through the meter
I is given by
eex
I = (4)
R
Im is given by
xi xi
I Rp I
xt xt
Im = = (5)
x xi Rm
R p i + Rm +
xt xt R p
The output voltage e0, indicated by the meter is given by
xi
I Rm
xt
e0 = Im Rm = (6)
xi Rm
+
xt R p
From Eqs (3), (4) and (6)
xi
Rm
eex xt
e0 =
R| x R U| ´ R|S x R U|V (7)

|SFG1 - x IJ + x R
i m

|V T| x + m
W|
i
Rp
||H x K xx + RR
i t p t

||
Rp
t i m

T t p W
 Solutions Manual "%

Rm x i
e0 R p xt
=
R|F x I F1 - x I + x U| (8)
S|GH x JK GH x JK x V| |R x
eex R Rm
+ m
|UV
i i i

T t Rp t t Rp W´S Rm
R|S x + R U|V |T x +
|W
i

t Rp
|T x R |W
i m

t p

Rm xi
e0 R p xt
eex
=
xi x FG
R R x IJ
R x
(9)

xt xt H K
1- i + m - m i + m i
R p R p xt R p xt

e0 1
eex
=
Rp x FG
x IJ [Eq. (4.1)] (10)

Rm xt H
1- i + t
xi K
4.3
Rm = 10000 W
Nonlinearity = 1%
P = 5W
Rp = 100, 200, 300 … 10000 WW
Rm
For minimizing nonlinearity = 15 (1)
Rp

10000
Rp = = 667 W
15
So we can use either R p = 600 W or 700 W
Let us use R p = 600 W
Max eex = PR p = 5 ´ 600 = 54.7 V (2)

e0max
Since = 1, 54.7 V has to be distributed over 360°
eex

eex 54.7
Sensitivity = = = 0.152 V/degree (3)
360 360
Since the value of Rp is just an approximation, actual nonlinearity must be checked by plotting.
"& Measurement Systems: Application and Design

4.4 When the pot resistance changes, the excitation voltage is still the same, assuming a well regulated
voltage. Assuming that the potentiometer length does not change due to thermal expansion, the sensi-
tivity is still not affected. If the change in resistance due to thermal inputs is not uniform, then there
will be errors. In addition, the change in potentiometer resistance can change the nonlinearity of the
instrument. Since the change of resistance due to temperature is negligible, the overall effect is
negligible.
4.5
l = 250 mm eex = 100 V
eex 100 0.4 V 0.4 mV
= = =
l 250 mm mm
Resolution of the potentiometer = 25 mm
Irrespective of the sensitivity of the oscilloscope, the potentiometer cannot measure less than 25 mm.
Therefore, it cannot measure 2.5 mm.
4.6
f n 1 = 30 Hz for M + Mp
f n 2 = 25 Hz for M + Mp + Mp = M + 2Mp

1 K
f n1 = (1)
2p M + Mp

1 K
f n2 = (2)
2p M + 2 Mp

F K I F M +2M I
GH M + M JK GH K JK
f n1 p 30
= = (3)
f n2 p 25

R|F 30I U| R| F 30I U|

M SG J - 1V = M S2 - G J V
2 2

T|H 25K W| T| H 25K W|

p (4)

0.56
0.44M = 0.56Mp M = ¥ 0.01 (5)
0.44
M = 0.0127 kg.
K = (2p fn1) (M + Mp) = (2p 30)2 (0.01 + 0.0127) = 806.5 N/m
2
(6)
4.7 Objective: reducing cross sensitivity
From Eq. (4.12)
r d L (1 + 2 v ) Ldr
dR = + (1)
A A
 Solutions Manual "'

The change in resistance is therefore inversely proportional to the area section of the strain gage wire.
Since the strain gage elements in the direction of intended strain measurement have to be sensitive to
strain, those that run perpendicular to the intended strain direction must be insensitive.
Sensitive

Insensitive

Insensitive Direction of strain

Fig. 1

Therefore, as shown in Fig. 1, those elements that run parallel to the strain direction are thin, and
therefore sensitive to strain; those elements that run in a different direction to that of strain are very
thick and therefore insensitive to strain in any other direction. Thus, cross sensitivity is minimized.
4.8
Enoise,rms = 4k T R D f V (1) (4.22)
–23
k = 1.38 ¥ 10 J/K (Boltzmann’s constant)
T = 300 K
R = 120 W
Df = 10000 Hz (given)

Enoise, rms = . ´ 10- 23 ´ 120 ´ 10000 = 8.14 nanovolts (nV)

4 ´ 138 (2)

. ´ 10 - 6
013
For 7 kPa stress, signal to noise ratio = = 15.97 (3)
. ´ 10 - 9
814

4.9
R 1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 120 W
P = 0.25 W for each strain gage
At the null balance eex = I (R1 + R2) = I (R3 + R4) (1)
I is the current through R1, R2 or R3, R4
eex I = I 2 (R1 + R2) = I 2 (R3 + R4) = 2P (2)
P is the power dissipation capacity of each strain gage.
2P 2 ´ 0.25
From Eq. (2) I2 = = (3)
R1 + R2 120 + 120
I = 0.0456 A
2 ´ 0.25
From Eq. (2) eex = 2P/I = = 10.96 V (4)
0.0456
# Measurement Systems: Application and Design

4.10

1 2

e0
eex
4 3

Part of this problem has already been discussed in the example problem on page 172.
(a) E: Young’s modulus = 200 GPa
R1 is a strain gage mounted on a steel specimen; R2, R3, R4 are resistors; R = R1 = R2 = R3 =
R4 = 120 W
Imax : Maximum allowable current = 0.03 A
This current flows through, R1 and R2; R3 and R4
eex = Excitation voltage = Imax (R + R ) = 0.03 ¥ 2 ¥ 120 = 7.2 V
(b) s : Stress = 7 MPa

s 7 ´ 10 6
e : Strain= = = 35me
E 200 ´ 109
D R = (GF) ¥ e ¥ R (1) (4.17)
GF: Gage factor = 2
D R = 2 ¥ 35 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 120 = 8.4 m W
1
e0 = eex DR (2) (4.18)
4R
(Since there is only one active strain gage, bridge factor = 1)
7.2 ´ 8.4 ´ 10 - 3
e0 = = 0.126 mV for 7 MPa (3)
4 ´ 120
(c) DT = 55°C: Temperature difference between the strain gage and other resistors
a steel = 12 ¥ 10–6 mm/mm°C
a Advance alloy = 27 ¥ 10–6 mm/mm°C
e T1 (differential expansion) = DT (a steel – a advance)
e T1 (differential expansion) = 55(12 ¥ 10–6 – 27 ¥ 10–6) (4)
= – 825me
D R T 1 = GF ¥ e T1 ¥ R
= 2 ¥ (– 825 ¥ 10–6) ¥ 120 = – 0.198 W (5)
DRT2: Due to increase in temp = DT ¥ R ¥ radv
 Solutions Manual #

r adv = Temperature coeffcient of resistance of the strain gage material = 11 ¥ 10–6 W/W°C
DRT 2 = 55 ¥ 120 ¥ 11 ¥ 10–6 = 0.0726 W (6)
Net change of resistance due to the effect of temperature, DRT = DRT1 + DRT2 = – 0.198 +
0.0726
= – 0.1254 W
From Eq. 4.17, the equivalent strain due to temperature change DT = 55°C is given by
D RT - 01254
.
eT = = = 522.5me (7)
GF ´ R 2 ´ 120
Equivalent stress sT = Ee T = 200 ¥ 109 ¥ 522.5 ¥10–6 (8)
= 104.5 MPa
Therefore, when only one strain gage is used without temperature compensation, significant
errors are introduced.
(d) Shunt resistance to obtain a resistance change equivalent to 70 MPa
70 ´ 106
e= = 350 me
200 ´ 109
D R = 2 ¥ 350 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 120 (eq. 4.17)
= 0.084 W
R

DR = R
RC

R Rc R 2 + R Rc - R Rc
DR = R – =
R + Rc R + Rc

R2 R2 - D R ´ R 1202 - 0.084 ´ 120

DR = ; Rc = =
R + Rc DR 0.084
Rc = 171309 W
4.11
e0 Rm ( M 2 - M 1 ) D
(D) = (4.31)
ei ( M 1 - M 2 ) + L p L s D + L p ( R s + Rm ) + L s R p D + ( R s + Rm ) R p
2 2

Let (M1 – M2)2 + Lp Ls = M (1)

Lp + (Rs + Rm) + Rp = C (2)
(Rs + Rm) Rp = K (3)
# Measurement Systems: Application and Design

From Eq. (1), (2), (3), Eq. (4.31) can be written as

e0 R ( M - M1 ) D
(D) = m 2 2 (4)
ei MD + CD + K
Since D = jw, the numerator of Eq. (4) always has a phase angle of + 90°.

K
The denominator of Eq. (4) is CD at the undamped natural frequency wn =
M
Therefore Eq. (4) has a zero phase shift at the undamped natural frequency

K ( Rs + Rm ) R p
wn = = (5)
M ( M 1 - M 2 ) 2 + L p Ls

4.12 First let us derive Eq. (4.31) using Eq. (4.29) and (4.30)
Rearranging Eq. (4.29)
(Rp + Lp D)ip – (M1 – M2) Dis = eex (1)
(M1 – M2) D ip + (Rs + Rm + Ls D)is = 0 (2)
LM R + L D - ( M - M ) DOP RSi UV = RSe UV
p p 1 2 p ex

N( M - M ) D R + R + L D Q T i W T 0 W
(3)
1 2 s m s s

RSi UV = 1 LM R + R + L D ( M - M ) DOP RSe UV

p s m s 1 2 ex

Ti W det N- ( M - M ) D R + L D Q T 0 W
(4)
s 1 2 p p

det = (Rp + Lp D)(Rs + Rm + Ls D) + (M1 – M2)2D2 (5)

is =
bM 2 - M1 D ´ eexg (6)
det

is

e0 Rm

Fig. 1

The output voltage e0 is given by is Rm

e0 Rm ( M 2 - M 1 ) D
bM g b g b g
= 2
(7)
eex 1 - M2 D + L p R s + Rm + L s R p D + R s + R m R p
2

Equation (7) is same as Eq. 4.31.

Now, let us come back to the modifications required for this problem
(a) Introducing a parallel resistance to Rm
 Solutions Manual #!

is

R e0 Rm

Fig. 2

R Rm
This is one of the easiest modifications. The new resistance Req = (8)
R + Rm
Replacing Rm by Req of Eq. (8) in Eq. (7) will directly give e0/eex for the above change
e0 Req ( M 2 - M 1 ) D
= (9)
eex ( M 1 - M 2 ) D + L p ( Rs + Req ) + Ls R p D + ( Rs + Req ) R p
2 2

The effect of adding ‘R’ would be equivalent to reducing Rm of Fig. 1.

(b) Introducing a resistance and capacitance as shown in Fig. 4.19 (b)
R
is
i1 im
C Rm e0

Fig. 3

The new impedance due to ‘R’ and ‘C’ is given by

Rm
Z(D) = R + (10)
Rm CD + 1
By replacing Rm by Z(D) in Eq. (5)
FG Rm IJ
det = (Rp + Lp D) Rs + R +
H Rm CD + 1
+ Ls D
K + (M1 – M2)2 D 2 (11)

( M 2 - M1 ) D
is = ¥ eex (12)
det
1
is
CD is
im = = (13)
1
+ Rm 1 + Rm CD
CD
e0 = im Rm (14)
From Eq. (11) through (14)
e0 Rm ( M 2 - M 1 ) D
eex
=
L
CD) M( M
F
D) G R + R +
Rm IJ OP (15)
(1 + Rm
MN - M 2 ) D + (Rp + Lp
H + Ls D
K PQ
2 2
1 s
R m CD +1
#" Measurement Systems: Application and Design

(c) Introducing a resistance and capacitance as shown in Fig. 4.19 (c).

C
is im
R Rm e0

Fig. 4

The new impedance due to ‘R’ and ‘C’ shown in Fig. 4 is given by
1 R Rm
Z(D) = + (16)
CD R + Rm
By replacing Rm by Z(D) (eq. (16)) in Eq. 5
FG 1 R Rm IJ
det = (Rp + Lp D) Rs +
H +
CD R + Rm
+ Ls D
K + (M1 – M2)2D 2 (17)

( M 2 - M1 ) D
is = ´ eex (18)
det
is R
im = (19)
R + Rm
e0 = im Rm (20)
From Eq. (17) through (20)

e0 FG R R IJ ( M 2 - M1 ) D
HR+ R K LM( R OP
m
eex
=
m F
D) G R
1 R Rm IJ (21)

MN p + Lp
H s + +
CD R + Rm K
+ Ls D + ( M 1 - M 2 ) 2 D 2
PQ
(d) By introducing a series resistance R in the primary circuit as shown in Fig. 4.19 (d)
The only change is Rp replaced by R + Rp in Eq. (7)
e0 Rm ( M 2 - M 1 ) D
= (22)
eex ( M 1 - M 2 ) D + L p ( R s + Rm ) + L s ( R p + R ) D + ( R s + Rm ) ( R p + R )
2 2

4.13
fex = 10000 Hz excitation frequency
f i max = 500 Hz Maximum input frequency
fripple = 2 fex ± f imax = 20000 ± 500
= 19500 Hz & 20500 Hz
For the galvanometer z= 0.65
 Solutions Manual ##

1
|H| = ; fn = 1000 Hz (1)
(1 - r 2 ) 2 + (2 z r ) 2
f imax 500
r= = = 0.5 (2)
fn 1000
1
|H|r =0.5 = = 1.0076 (3)
(1 - 0.52 ) 2 + ( 2 ´ 0.65 ´ 0.5) 2
f ripple min 19500
for r= = = 19.5 (4)
fn 1000
1
|H| r =19.5 = = 0.0026 (5)
2 2
1 - (19.5) + (2 ´ 0.65 ´ 19.5) 2

Therefore, the Galvanometer has a flat response upto the maximum input frequency of 500 Hz and
does not respond to the ripple frequency at all. The phase is also linear from 0-500 Hz.
4.14
Error = 5% fl = 20 Hz
wl = 2p 20 = 125.66 rad/s
A = 3 cm2 = 300 mm2 (area of the capacitor)
x0 = 125 mm = 0.125 mm (distance between the plates)
From Eq. (4.33)
0.00885 A
C= (1) (4.33)
x0
C : Capacitance in pF
A: Area, mm2
x0: Distance between plates mm
0.00885 ´ 300
C= = 21.24 pF (2)
0.125
From Eq. (4.38),

e0 twl
( D) = = 0.95 (3)
xi K 1 + (t w l ) 2
0.95 3.04 3.04
t wl = = 3.04; t = = = 0.024s (4)
1 - 0.952 wl 125.66

t = RC
t 0.024
R = = = 1130 M W (5)
C 21.24 ´ 10 -12
#$ Measurement Systems: Application and Design

4.15 This problem is same as the example on page 237

Assumptions
(1) Rcr >> Ramp \ Req ª Ramp
(2) Cb >> Ccr + Ccable + Camp
Ceq = Ccr + Ccable + Camp (1)
(3) The piezoelectric transducer is considered as a second stage element with relative displacement
as the input from the first stage seismic pickup that is assumed to be in the flat response region.
Ccr = 1000 pF Ccable = 300 pF Camp = 50 pF
Ramp = 1 M W
k q = 0.4 mc/mm
(a) Sensitivity of the transducer alone
Kq 0.4 ´ 10 - 6
Ktran = = = 400 V/mm (2)
Ccr 1000 ´ 10-12
(b) High frequency sensitivity
Kq 0.4 ´ 10 - 6 0.4
Ktot = = = (3)
Ceq (1000 + 300 + 50) ´ 10 -12
1350 ´ 10 - 6
= 296 V/mm
Please note that the movement of the crystal is in the order of nano and micrometer. So we
can expect output voltage of the order of mV only.
(c) Lowest frequency for an amplitude error of 5%
e0 tw
= = 0.95 (4)
x0 1 + (t w ) 2
(t wl)2 {1 – 0.952} = 0.952
0.95
t wl = = 3.04 (5)
1 - 0.952
t = Req Ceq = 1 ¥ 106 ¥ 1350 ¥ 10–12 (6)
= 0.00135s
3.04
wl = = 2252 rad/s (358 Hz) (7)
0.00135
(d) To reduce fl to 10 Hz or wl to 62.83 rad/s
t ¢w l = 3.04 From part (e)
3.04 3.04
t¢ = = = 0.048s (8)
wl 62.83
 Solutions Manual #%

t 0.048
¢ =
C eq = = 48000 pF (9)
Req 1 ´ 106
48000 = Ccr + Ccable + Camp + Cadd (10)
48000 = 1000 + 300 + 50 + Cadd ; Cadd = 46650 pF (11)
Therefore, by adding a very high value of capacitance in parallel, the low frequency limit can
be reduced to 10 Hz (62.83 rad/s)
¢
(e) High frequency sensitivity with revised C eq
Kq 0.4 ´ 10- 6
Ktot = = = 8.33 V/mm (12)
¢
Ceq 48000 ´ 10 -12
Therefore, sensitivity has decreased by a factor of 37, for widening the low frequency limit
PS: This example is a practical problem encountered in the design of dynamic transducers wherein
frequency range and sensitivity will have to be compromised.
4.16
RS At 0£ t <T
T0
xi = (1)
T <t <¥

xi(t) AT

T t
Fig. 1

(tD + 1)e0 = (Kt D)xi (4.63)

t : Time constant of the piezoelectric transducer
K : Static sensitivity
e0 : Voltage output
xi : Displacement input
From Eq. (1)
(t D + 1)e0 = Kt A (0 £ t < T )
P.s. (Particular solution) = KtA
C.s. (Complementary solution) = Ce–t/t
e0 = Ce–t/t + ktA 0£t<T (2)
e0(0) = 0 = C + Kt A fi C = –Kt A
e0 = Kt A (1 – e–t/t ) 0£t<T (3)
R| LM FG IJ OPU|
S| PQVW|
2
t 1 t
e0approx = Kt A 1 - 1 -
T MN
+
t 2 tH K (4)

Equations (1), (3) and (4) are plotted on the next page
#& Measurement Systems: Application and Design

0.9
A=1
0.8
t=1
Eq 1
0.7
T=1
Displacement, voltage

0.6
Eq 3
0.5
Eq 4
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time, sec
Fig. 2
0.25

0.2

e0 – eapprox
0.15 e0
Error %

0.1

5%
0.05

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time, sec
t = 0.515 s
Fig. 3
 Solutions Manual #'

From Fig. 3, there is a 5% error in the output voltage calculation due to truncation at
t = 0.515s; t=1
–t/t –0.515
e | t=0.515 = e = 0.5975 (5)

t 1 t FG IJ 2
1– +
t 2 t HK t = 0.515
= 1 – 0.515 + 0.5 ¥ (0.515)2 (6)

= 0.6176
0.5975 - 0.6176
Error due to truncation = = – 3.36% (7)
0.5975

4.17 Nozzle-flapper devices have been removed for this edition. However, we shall discuss a single-
flapper device first, followed by a double-flapper device

xi
dn ds ps

Gn Gs

p0

Fig. 1

Gs : Mass flow rate through supply orifice

Cd p d s2
Gs = 2 r ( ps - p0 ) (1)
4
Gn : Mass flow rate through discharge orifice

Gn = Cd p dn xi 2 r ( p0 - pambient ) (2)

The flow area = p dn xi (peripheral area of the cylinder surrounding the nozzle)
For steady-state incompressible flow
Gs = Gn, pambient = 0 (gage)
ps
p0 = (3)
d 2 x2
1 + 16 n 4 i
ds

d p0
The sensitivity varies with xi
d xi
$ Measurement Systems: Application and Design

R| p s U| 32 d x
L O
S| M1 + 16 d x P V| d
2
d p0 2
= - 2
n
2
i
n i
(4)
TN d Q W
4
d xi 4 s
s

R|F 16 d x I L 16 d 2
OP ´ 32 d U|
p SG 1 + - 2 x M1 + V|
- 32 d 2 2 2 2
x i2 2

J
n n i n n xi

d 2 p0 d4
s |TH d K
s
s
4
MN d i 4
s PQ d 4
s
W
LM1 + 16 d x OP
= 4
(5)
d xi 2 2
n i

MN d PQ s
4

d 2 p0 1 d s2 . d s2
014
= 0 at xim = = (6)
d xi 48 d n dn

position of maximum sensitivity

For a differential nozzle flopper shown in Fig. P 4.2
ps ps
Dp = - (7)
1 + k ( x0 - x ) 2
1 + k ( x0 + x ) 2

16 d n2
Where k = (8)
d s4
For a single flapper
d p0 2 ps k ( x0 - x )
o t
= 2 Where xi = x0 – x (9)
d xi 1 + k ( x0 - x ) 2

(From Eqs (4) and (8))

For a double–nozzle flapper (from Eq. 7)

d D p0 2 ps k ( x0 - x) 2 p s k ( x 0 + x)
= + (10)
d xi
o
1 + k ( x 0 - x) 2 t o 2
1 + k ( x 0 - x) 2 t 2

(where xi = x0 – x or x0 + x)
Let ps = 200 kPa
ds = 1 mm d n = 1 mm
Equations for pressure and sensitivity are plotted for single and double flapper systems. The double
flapper system has higher sensitivity. They are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
 Solutions Manual $

150
Linear double

100
Double

Linear (Single)
50

Single
Pressure, kPa

–50

–100

–150
–0.2 –0.15 –0.1 –0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Displacement, mm
Fig. 2

1200

1000

800
Sensitivity, kPa/mm

600

Double

400

200
Single

0
–0.2 –0.15 –0.1 –0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Displacement, mm
Fig. 3
$ Measurement Systems: Application and Design

4.18 To derive Eq. 4.73

r1 r2
n= (4.73)
r1 - r2
n: Speed of the machine RPM
r1: No. of flashes per minute FPM at j th submultiple of speed
r2: No. of flashes per minute, FPM at ( j + 1) submultiple of speed
r2 < r1
1
r1 = n (1)
j
1
r2 = n (2)
j +1
(Because r1, r2 … are integral submultiples of the speed
RS 1 - 1 UV = n
T j j + 1W
r1 – r2 = n (3)
j ( j + 1)
From Eqs. (1), (2) and (3)
r1 r2
r1 – r2 = n/ ´
n/ n
r1 r2
n= (4)
r1 - r2
Equation (4) is same as Eq. 4.73
To derive Eq. 4.74
r1 rN ( N - 1)
n= (4.74)
r1 - rN
At very high speeds, r1 and r2 are very close is each other. Therefore the flashes are reduced below r2
n
r1 = (1)
j
n
r2 = (2)
j +1
n
r3 = (3)
j+2
n
rN = (4)
j + N -1
From Eq. (1) and (4)
RS 1 - 1 UV
T j j + N - 1W
r1 – rN = n
 Solutions Manual $!

n ( N - 1)
r1 – rN = (5)
j ( j + N - 1)
Once again using Eqs. (1), (4) and (5)
rN
r1 – rN = n (N – 1) ¥ r1
n
r1 rN
n= (N – 1) (6) (4.74)
r1 - rN
4.19

C
Eb

Fig. 1

q = Ce (1)
Where C is the capacitance, q charge and e voltage
The capacitance is given by
0.00885 A
C= (2)
x
C in pF, A = area (mm2), x = distance (mm)
A = Kq q (3)
dq de dc
i = =c +e (4)
dt dt dt
de
For the present problem, Eb is constant \ =0
dt
Eb 0.00885 ´ 10-12 dq
i = Kq (5)
x dt
In order to measure the above current in terms of voltage, a slight modification is required in the
circuit, as shown in Fig. 2

Eb i

C e

e0 R

Fig. 2
$" Measurement Systems: Application and Design

The voltage across the capacitor is now

e = Eb – iR (6)
Since i is a variable, e is also variable
From Eqs. (3), (4) and (6)
0.00885 Kq q ´ 10 - 12
´
- di RS
R + ( E b - i R)
UV
0.00885 ´ 10 - 12 dq
i=
x dt T W x
Kq
dt
(7)

0.00885 ´ 10 - 12 K q
Let C1 =
x

i = C1 - q
di RS dq UV
dt
R + ( E b - i R)
T dt W
RS
i 1 + C1 R
dq UV + C di dq
T dt W 1 qR
dt
= C1 Eb
dt
(8)

Even for a linear time variation of q, the above equation is a linear differential equation with varying
coefficients, that can only be solved through simulation.
4.20
LT (inductance) = 20 mH
RT (resistance) = 10 W, RM = 900 W
Sv = 1000 mV|m|s (Sensitivity of LVT)
fn : Natural frequency of the first stage element = 5 Hz
z : Damping factor of the first stage = 0.1

. Sv R M 1
v(t) r2 z(t) ´ E0(t)
R M + RT
FwI 2

e1 - r j + b2 - zrSr g 1+ G J
2 2
2
Hw K c

I Stage (Seismic) II Stage LVT

Fig. 1

0 dB
Flat response of
II stage
20 log10 –1
R| U| Actual response
| |
S| 1
V
|| 1
FG IJ || 2 w1/wC

T H K |W
C
w
wC
Fig. 2
 Solutions Manual $#

1
20 log10 = –1 (1)
Fw I
1+ G J
2

Hw K
1

w 1 = wc 100.1 - 1 = 0.509 wc (2)

R M + RT 1000
wc = = -3
= 5 ¥ 104 rad/s (7958 Hz)
LT 20 ´ 10
From Eq. (2)
w 1 = 0.509 ¥ 5 ¥ 104 = 25450 rad/s (4051 Hz) (3)

r2 Sv R M 1
(b) E0 = × ´ (4)
(1 - r ) + ( 2 z r )
2 2 2 ( R M + RT )
FwI
1+ G J
2

Hw K c

Static sensitivity of I stage = 1

Sv R M
Static sensitivity of II stage =
R M + RT
At f = 600 Hz i.e. w = 3770 rad/s
600
r= = 120
5

R| U|
dBerror (Stage I) = 20 log10 S| 1202
V| (5)
T (1 - 1202 ) 2 + (2 ´ 01
. ´ 120) 2 W
= 5.9 ¥ 10–4 dB (6)

1
dBerror (Stage II) = 20 log10 = – 0.0246 dB (7)
F 3770 I 2

1+ GH 5 ´ 10 JK
4

Total error = 5.9 ¥ 10–4 – 0.0246 = – 0.0240 dB

4.21 From Eq. (4.79)

x0 ( jw ) 2 /w 2n
FG jw IJ
( jw) = 2
(1) (4.79)
xi
Hw K
n
+ 2z jw /w n + 1
$$ Measurement Systems: Application and Design

Given z = 0.3 fn = 10 Hz
For the above values of z and fn, Eq. (4.79) is used to compute the magnitude of the above transfer
function in dB, Let fmax = 100 Hz
x0
dB = 20 log10 (jw) (2)
xi
Equation (2) is plotted on the next page. Only the portion of the graph between 0 – 1 dB is displayed.
Since we know that only the portion 2 times the natural frequency is the useful range of flat
response, it can be seen that 27-100 Hz magnitude is within 1 dB of the flat response.
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Magnitude, dB

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency, Hz
27.05 Hz
27 – 100 Hz within 1 dB

4.22
Modifying Interfering Effect
a. eex gives different e0 for same xi
temperature thermal expansion relative motion of wiper
and resistance element
vibration causes “jitter” in e0
meter resistance change changes the loading effect
 Solutions Manual $%

b. eex gives different e0 for same xi

temperature temperature temperature coefficient of R
differential thermal expansion
c. eex amplitude gives different e0 for same xi
eex frequency gives different e0 for same xi
radial motion radial motion changes the sensitivity to axial motion
causes an output voltage with no change in
axial motion
temperature temperature changes resistance, changes dimensions,
changes iron magnetic properties
d. temperature temperature changes dimensions, changes dielectric properties
of air, changes resistance
humidity changes dielectric properties of air
battery voltage changes sensitivity
e. temperature temperature changes piezoelectric properties, pyroelectric effect
gives an output voltage when temperature changes,
changes resistance and capacitance
cable motion triboelectric effect generates electric charge when
cable flexes
base strain strain of surface on which sensor is mounted causes
output unrelated to desired input
temperature random noise in resistances
vibration for a force, or pressure sensor
acoustic noise for force, pressure, or acceleration sensors
off-axis motion motion in axes other than that intended causes
output (“cross-talk”)
f. temperature temperature changes air properties, changes dimensions
supply pressure changes sensitivity
g. superimpose the effects
of parts c and f
h. temperature temperature changes the spring constant, changes dimensions,
changes damping
vibration changes frictional effects, introduces inertial forces
i. temperature temperature changes dimensions, changes coil resistance,
changes magnetic properties
time (“ageing”) changes magnetic properties
j. temperature temperature changes dimensions, changes magnetic properties,
changes cup resistance, changes spring stiffness
angular vibration introduces inertial torques
k. temperature temperature changes dimensions, changes magnetic properties,
changes resistance, changes damping, changes
spring stiffness, various effects on the motion pickup,
amplifier and filter
amplifier supply voltage changes amplifier gain
motion pickup supply voltage changes motion pickup sensitivity
off-axis motion causes “cross-talk”
l. temperature temperature changes spring stiffness, damping, changes
dimensions
wheel speed changes gyro sensitivity
off-axis motion various subtle effects (discussed in gyro sources
referenced in the text)
$& Measurement Systems: Application and Design

q0
4.23 Derive (D) for Fig. 4.54b
qi
Assume that the spring and dampers are attached at a radius R.
Since the ends of the springs and dampers undergo the same amount of deflection, they are
equivalent to be connected in parallel. So, they add up.
S moments = J (q i - q 0 ) (1)
J is the moment of inertia of the inner mass.
(2KsR) Rq0 + (2BR) Rq0 = J (q i - q 0 ) (2)

q0: Relative angular motion between inner and outer rings. (q i - q 0 ) is the absolute acceleration of
the inner ring
(J D2 + 2BR2 D + 2 Ks R2) q0 = JD2 qi

q0 J D2
(D) = (3)
qi ( J D 2 + 2 BR 2 D + 2 K s R 2 )

J
2
D2
2 Ks R
= (4)
J B
2
D2 + D +1
2 Ks R Ks

Equation (4) has characteristics similar to a linear displacement pickup

4.24
Kq
= 0.04 V/m/s2
Cw 2
n

E tw
= for z = 0 (1)
Kq (1 + (tw ) 2 ) (1 - r 2 )
Cw n2
t = 0.1
f n = 10000 Hz
Equation (1) is plotted for various values of w(0 – 0.4 w n). The static sensitivity 0.04 V/m/s2 does
not play any role in this problem. The plot is shown in Fig. 1. Depending on the desired accuracy, the
flat response region can be figured out.
Regarding shock pulse measurements, t should be greater than 7T. For the present problem T = 0.05
for the half-sine pulse.
\ t = 7T, 0.05 = 0.35s (from Fig. 4.61) (2)
 Solutions Manual $'

This will help measure the peak of the shock pulse accurately, and in addition, can extend the lower
frequency limit of flat response for steady excitation. A satisfactory value of t for measuring half-sine
pulse can also be verified through direct simulation.
1

0.8
Normalized dynamic response

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
10–1 100 101 102 103 104
Frequency, Hz
Fig. 1

4.25 The system shown in Fig. 4.62 can be adapted to measure angular acceleration by adding a torque
coil and amplifier.
4.26 In the Fig. of 4.62, damping and stiffness are made zero.
The first block after the summing point has stiffness and damping. It can be rewritten as:
1
R| D
K S
U| (1)
2z D
V|
2
+ 1 +1
s
|T w 2
n ,1 w n ,1 W
D2
=
Ks D 2 J
= J D2
U|
||
Ks
w n ,1
2
Ks

D = BD = 0 V
Ks 2z 1 D Ks K J 2B
||
s
= ´ 2z 1 D= ´ (2)
w n ,1 Ks K 2 K J s s

Ks = 0
J |W
From Eqs. (1) and (2), the block becomes
1
(3)
JD 2
% Measurement Systems: Application and Design

.. Ti Tn ia eo
xi + KpKa
Mr 2
R
– JD
Tc

Kc

Fig. 1

K p Ka
ia
( D) = JD 2 =
1
(4)
K c K p Ka 2
Ti JD
1+ + Kc
JD 2 K p Ka

d 2 xi
Ti = Mr (5)
dt 2
e0 = ia R (6)
From Eqs. (4), (5) and (6)

d 2 xi d 2 xi
R ´ Mr Mr
e0 = dt 2 = dt 2 (7)
JD 2 JD 2 K
+ Kc + c
K p Ka R Kp Ka R

F JD 2 I d 2 xi
GH R K K
p a
+
Kc
R JK
e0 = Mr
dt 2
(8)

The defect in the above system is that since it has no damping, the roots of the characteristic equation
are purely imaginary. The system is therefore marginally stable and the closed loop response is purely
oscillatory.
The above defect can be fixed by adding a lead-lag system of Fig. P 4.4. This is shown in Fig. 2.
.. Ti Tn ia eo
xi + KpKa t1D + 1
Mr R
JD 2 t 2D + 1
–
t1 > t2

Kc

Fig. 2
 Solutions Manual %

K p Ka t 1 D + 1
×
ia JD 2 t 2 D + 1 K p K a (t 1 D + 1)
( D) = = (9)
Ti Kc K p Ka t 1 D + 1 JD (t 2 D + 1) + K c K p K a (t 1 D + 1)
2
1+ ×
JD 2 t2D +1
Ti = Mr D2 xi (10)
e0 = ia R (11)
From Eqs. (9), (10) and (11)

( Mr D 2 xi ) K p Ka (t 1 D + 1) R
e0 =
JD2 (t 2 D + 1) + Kc K p Ka (t 1 D + 1)

FG Jt J 2 Kc K p Ka t 1 Kc K p Ka IJ
HR D3 + D + D+
K e0 = Mr KP Ka (t1 D + 1)D2 xi
2
(12)
R R R
Since the characteristic equation is now cubic its terms can be adjusted to give satisfactory response.
However, t1 must be greater than t2.
4.27 For a seismic pickup, in the accurate frequency range of flat response, the seismic mass is
stationary. Thus the relative displacement measures the desired displacement. Under such conditions,
the loading effect on the object whose displacement is being measured is the instruments housing mass,
together with the spring and damper connected between the moving object and the seismic mass.
4.28 Jerkmeter (Fig. 4.64)

.. fi 1 / Ks eoj
xi + Tn 2
M r D 2 1D Kp Kae
Ti 2
+ + 1r
– n n1
Tc

Ki
D
eoa
Kce

Fig. 1 [Fig. 4.64]

K p Kae K p Kae
Let G (D) =
FD
K G
2z D I =
JD + BD + K s
2
(1)
JK
2
+ 1 +1
Hws 2
n1 w n1

Kce Ki
H(D) = (2)
D
% Measurement Systems: Application and Design

K p K ae
e0 j G ( D) D + BD + K s
2
( D) = = (3)
Ti 1 + G ( D) H ( D) K p K ae K ce K i
1+
JD 3 + BD 2 + K s D

e0 j D K p K ae
(D) = (4)
Ti ( JD + BD + K s D + K p K ae K ce K i )
3 2

e0 j D 1
(D) =
F JD + BD + K D + 1I (5)
GH K K K K JK
Ti Kce Ki 3 2
s

p ae ce i

D2 xi Mr = Ti (6)
From Eqs. (5) and (6)

F JD 3 BD 2 I
GH K JK
Ks D Mr
+ + + 1 e0 j = D 3 xi (7)
p K ae K ce Ki K p K ae K ce K i K p K ae K ce K i Kce Ki
(a) B and ks = 0 J = Mr2

F Mr D + 1I e
2 3

GH K K K K JK
Mr
0j = D3 x i (8)
p ae ce i Kce Ki
Let D = jw for LHS
Mr
e0 j Kce Ki
= (9)
D3 xi j Mr 2 w 3
1-
K p Kae Kce Ki

Mr
e0 j Kce Ki
= (10)
D 3 xi F Mr w I
1+ G
2 3
2

H K K K K JK
p ae ce i

Mr
Given = 0.16 V/m/s2
Ki Kce

e0 j 016
.
= (11)
3
D xi F r w ´ 016 I 2

GH K K . JK
3
1+
p ae
 Solutions Manual %!

For 5% error at 5 Hz
e0 j 1 1
´ = = 1 ± 0.05 (12)
D xi3
.
016
F r w ´ 016 I 2

GH K K . JK
3
1+
p ae

since G
F r w I > 1, 1 – 0.05 is relevant
3
2

H K K JKp ae
(13)

Y = G
F r ´ 016
. I
Let
H K K JK
p ae
(14)

1
0.95 = (15)
1 + Y2w 6
0.952(1 + Y 2 w 6) = 1 (16)
1
1 + Y2w 6 = (17)
0.952
1
w 6Y 2 = – 11 (18)
0.952
1 RS 1 - 1UV = 1 1
-1
RS UV
Y=
w6 T 0.95 W2
p
( 2 5) 0.952
6
T W = 1.06 ¥ 10–5 (19)

1 K p K ae 1 K p K ae
= fi -
= (20)
Y 0.16 r 1.06 ´ 10 5
0.16 r
K p Kae
= 1.5094 ¥ 104 (21)
r
(b) If r = 30 mm Kp = 57.3 V/rad, Kae = ?
K p Kae
= 1.5094 ¥ 104 (22)
r
57.3
´ Kae = 1.5094 ¥ 104 (23)
30 ´ 10 - 3
Kae = 7.902 m/V/rad
(c) M = 0.005 kg
Mr
Given = 0.16 (24)
Ki Kce
0.005 ´ 30 ´ 10 - 3
= 0.16 (25)
Ki Kce
%" Measurement Systems: Application and Design

Ki Kce = 9.375 ¥ 10–4

(d) If B and KS are not zero
From (a) through (c), Kp Kae Kce Ki = 57.3 ¥ 7.902 ¥ 9.375 ¥ 10–4 = 0.424
Equation (7) now becomes,
2.355 JD3 + 2.355 BD2 + 2.355 KsD + 1 = 0
From here on, it needs knowledge of controls.
So, we shall stop here.
4.29
Hs
(Ix Iy D2 + B Ix D + H s2 + Ix Ks)f = – Ty (1) (4.101)
D
If B = Ks = 0, Eq. (1) becomes
Hs
(Ix Iy D2 + Hs2)f = – Ty (2)
D
Taking Laplace transform on both sides
Hs 
(Ix Iy s2 + Hs2)F(s) = – Ty (s) (3)
s
If Ty (t) = d (t), Ty (s) = 1

- Hs
F(s) = (4)
s ( Ix Iy s2 + Hs2 )

- Hs Hs2
Let C= , w2 = (5)
Ix I y Ix Iy
From Eq. (5), Eq. (4) becomes
C D Es + F D ( s2 + w 2 ) + Es2 + Fs
F(s) = = + 2 = (6)
s (s2 + w 2 ) s s + w2 s ( s2 + w 2)
Ds2 + Dw 2 + Es2 + Fs = C (7)
Comparing terms on both sides
C -C
D= E= F=0
w2 w2
C RS 1 - s UV
Ts s W
F(s) = (8)
w2 2
+w2
C
z -1{F (s)} = f (t) = {1 – cos wt}
w2
 Solutions Manual %#

R| U|
f (t) =
1
S|
1 - cos
Hs
t V| (9)
Hs
T Ix I y W
q Ix
(D) = (10) (4.103)
Ty I x I y D + BIx D + H s2 + I x Ks
2

B = 0 = Ks, Ty (t) = d (t)

Ix
Q (s) =
Ix Iy s2 + Hs2

1 1
Q (s) = (11)
w Iy ( s + w 2 )
2

H s2
where w2 =
Ix I y

1
q (t) = z –1{Q (s)} = sin wt
w Iy

Ix 1 Hs
q (t) = sin (12)
I y Hs Ix I y
The composite motion of Eqs. (9) and (12) describe a conical motion in space known as nutation.
4.30 0.1° oscillations at 50 Hz (slope of the gyro location)
Rigid body
rotation 10 rad/s
p
q = 0.1° = 0.1 ¥ = 1.745 ¥ 10–3 rad (1)
180
w = 2p ¥ 50 rad/s (2)
Equation for angular motion
Q – q = (sin 314 t) 1.745 ¥ 10–3 {Rotation of the gyro}
dq
w= = 1.745 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 314 cos 314 t (3)
dt
|w| = 1.745 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 314 = 0.548 rad/s is the peak angular velocity of the missile
Rigid body rotation = 10 rad/s
0.548
% of gyro signal due to rotation = (4)
10
%$ Measurement Systems: Application and Design

= 5.48%

q
Gyro
Base
q = 1.745 ¥ 10–3 sin 2p 50t

gyro and the base rotate with a peak amplitude of 0.1°.

To solve the bending vibration problem the gyro should be located at a node point. If the rigid body
motions are of very low frequency, a low pass filter can be used that would filter the bending vibrations.
4.31 For linearizing Eq. 4.96 it was assumed that cos q = 1 If cos q = 0.99, non-linearity will be 1%
(a) cos q = 0.99 q = cos–1 0.99 = 8.1096° = 0.142 rad (1)
(b) w n = 100 rad/s
Iy = 0.00015 kg-m2
Ks
wn2 = (2)
Iy
Ks = 1002 ¥ 0.00015 = 1.5 N-m/rad
(c) f = 10 rad/s

0.142 rad
Sensitivity K= = 0.0142 rad/rad/s (3)
10 rad/s

RS3 q = K (from 4.104)UV

T Df W
Hs
K= (4) (4.106)
Ks
HS = K Ks = 0.0142 ¥ 1.5 = 0.0213 kg-m2 – rad/s
24000
(d) w = ¥ 2p = 2513 rad/s
60
Hs 0.0213
Hs = Is w, Is = = = 8.475 ¥ 10–6 kg – m2 – rad/s (5)
w 2513

FI I
fiR= G J
1/5

H pr K
5 s
Is = p rR = (8.475 ¥ 10–6/p ¥ 2800)1/5 = 16 mm (6)

4.32
x0 : Position of the centre of gravity of the float at equilibrium, it coincides with the water surface.
x0 is measured by a potentiometer
hi : Height of the wave which pulls up the float. It acts like an input to the system
 Solutions Manual %%

pw : Density of water
A: Area of cross section of the float
B: Damping coefficient of the external damper
Bw : Damping provided by water
M: Mass of the float
r w g A (hi – x0) – B x0 – Bw ( x 0 - hi ) = M x0 (1)
2
[MD + (B + Bw) D + rw g A] x0 = Bw D hi + r w g A hi
x0 ( Bw D + r w g A)
(D) = (2)
hi MD + ( B + Bw ) D + r w g A
2

FG B D + 1IJ
Hr gA K
w
x0
F B + B IJ D + 1
w
(D) = (3)
D +G
hi M
H r gAK
2 w
r gA
w w

rw g A
wn = (4)
M
2z B + Bw ( B + Bw ) w n
= z=
wn rw g A 2rw g A

B + Bw rw g A B + Bw
z= = (5)
2rw g A M 2 rw g AM
Bw
t= (6)
rw g A
x0 (t D + 1)
(D) = 2 (7)
hi D 2z D
+ +1
wn2
wn
Assumptions Bw << B tª0
x0 1
(D) = 2 (8)
hi D 2z D
+ +1
wn2
wn
Let z = 0.65 wmax = 0.2 wn {Flat response region for 95% accuracy}
wmax = 0.2 ¥ 5 ¥ 2p
w max 0.2 ´ 5 ´ 2 p rw g A
wn = = = 8.975 rad/s =
0.7 0.7 M max
%& Measurement Systems: Application and Design

rw g A
Mmax =
80.6
4.33 If the vehicle rotates in both yaw and roll, and we use gyros to measure the roll motion, the output
angle pick-off will incur an error due to the yaw motion. Equation 4.98 needs to be modified as follows
Ty – B(D qg – Dq f) – Ks (q g – q f) = – Hs D f + Iy D2 q g
= – Hs D f + Iy D2 (q0 + q f) (1)
q0 is the pick-off output angle = (qg – q f) (2)
2 2
(Iy D + BD + Ks)q0 = Hs D f – Iy D qf (3)

q0 - Iy D 2
(D) = (4)
qf Iy D + BD + K s
2

Because of the presence of D 2 in the numerator, the above equation acts like a “high-pass” filter.
Therefore, very slow variation of yaw angle will not affect the gyro.
4.34
Mg – FC = M y
M : Mass of the stylus
FC : Contact force
If V is very large, the stylus will bounce off at which FC = 0
Mg – 0 = M y
M ( y - g ) = 0, y = g (1)
2 pV t
y = A sin (2)
L
L: Surface wavelength 2.5 ¥ 10–2 cm
A = 2.5 ¥ 10–4 cm
2 pV 2 pV t
y = A cos (3)
L L

FG 2 pV IJ sin 2 pV t
2
y = – A
H LK L
(4)

F 2 pV IJ = g
= AG
2
y
H LK (5)

A 4p 2 V 2
=g (6)
L2
g L2 L g L g
V2 = V= = (7)
4 Ap 2
p 4A p 4A
 Solutions Manual %'

2.5 ´ 10 - 2 981
V = = 7.88 cm/s (8)
p 4 ´ 2.5 ´ 10- 4

4.35
(a) There would not be any error, because the line of action of the y-axis inertia force would be
exactly through the axis of rotation and thus not produce any torque.
(b) Now there will be an error because the system as shown does have a small deflection when
experiencing a steady x acceleration. A simultaneous y acceleration then causes an inertia torque
and an error. We need to calculate the deflection for a given x acceleration and then multiply this
by r sin q.
Refer to Fig. 4.62(a)
Let us assume that the rotary spring, mass and dashpot system is replaced by a unity amplifier
D2 xi Mr – q Kp Ka Kc = 0
D 2 xi Mr
q= (1)
K p Ka Kc
The spurious inertia torque is given by
Td = Mr q D2 yi (2)
R
ed = Mr q D2 yi (3)
Kc
Equation (3) represents the error
(c)  yi = 0 q f
xi = 
qJ = Absolute angle of the pivoted arm
qf = Absolute angle of the instrument frame
q = qJ – qf: Angle measured by the sensor
– Tc – Ks q – BDq = JD2 qf = JD2 q + JD2 q f (4)
Kc
Tc = + e 0 (5)
R
e0
q= (6)
K p Ka R

O + q eo
1 Kp Ka R
–

Kc
R

Fig. 1 (Modified 4.62 with 

xi = 0 and pushing R inside).
& Measurement Systems: Application and Design

From Eqs. (4), (5) and (6)

e0 Kc e0 e0 e0
– – KS – BD = JD2 + JD2 qf
R K p Ka R K p Ka R K p Ka R

e0 JD 2
qf
(D) =
F JD + BD + K + K I
-G
(7)

H K K R K K R K K R R JK
2
S c

p a p a p a

4.36 In Fig. 4.15, the two horizontal members are treated as rigid and the vertical strain-gaged member
is very flexible. When the specimen is loaded and the two knife edges move apart by the total full stroke
Xfs, each horizontal member will move an amount Xfs/2. This causes the flexible member to undergo
Xf
a rotation q, given by (for small angles). By symmetry, we treat the strain gaged member as two
2 Lm
cantilever beams and calculate for one of them.
The force exerted by the specimen, on the beam, is called F and this force creates a pure moment
F LM
M = (Because we have two beams) (1)
2
For a cantilever with pure moment
M LB
q= (2)
2E I

MC F LM t
s= = 3 c = t/2 (3)
I 4I

s F Lmt
edes = = (4)
E 4E I

4E I e des 2 LB L M e des
3
RS
2 E I Xf s
=F
UV
T W
t= = (5) (4.15)
F Lm Xf s LB L M2
Let 2LB = 25 mm edes = 1500 ms (given)
LM = 50 mm Xf s = 0.5 mm (given)
25 ´ 50
t= ¥ 1500 ¥ 10–6 = 3.75 mm (6)
0.5
Let b = 8 mm
bt 3 (8 ´ 10 - 3 ) (3.75 ´ 10- 3 ) 3
I= = , E = 200 GPa for steel (7)
12 12
= 3.5 ¥ 10–11 m4
 Solutions Manual &

. ´ 10 -11 ´ 0.5 ´ 10 - 3
2 ´ 200 ´ 109 ´ 35
F = = 112.0 N (8)
0.025 ´ 0.0502

4.37
q = Cec (1)
dq d ec dc
i= =C + ec (2)
dt dt dt
0.00885 A
C= (3)
x 0 - xi

dc 0.00885 A d xi
= (4)
dt ( x 0 - xi ) 2 dt

RS 1 d ec
+
ec d xi UV
Tx - x W
i = 0.00885 A (5)
0 i dt ( x0 - xi ) dt
2

ec = Eb – iR (6)
d ec di
=–R (7)
dt dt

RS 1 d e + ( E - i R) d x UV
c b i

T x - x dt ( x - x ) dt W
i = 0.00885 A 2
(8)
0 i 0 i

i = 0.00885 A S
R 1 FG - R di IJ + E - i R d x UV
T x - x H dt K ( x - x ) dt W
b i
2
(9)
0 i 0 i

Equation (9) can only be solved through simulation