Network Technology Basics

Foreword

⚫ Network technologies are the basis for the interconnection of all platforms
and services. What exactly is a network? What are the basic principles of
network communication? And what are the common network
technologies? This course will answer these questions and more.

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 Objectives

⚫ Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:

 Understand the classification and subnetting of IP addresses.
 Understand the basic principles of network communication.
 Be familiar with the operating principles of switches and routers.
 Understand the technical principles and basic configuration methods of VLAN.

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 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

3. Switching Basics

4. Routing Basics

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 What Is an IP Address?
⚫ An IP address is a unique logical address used to identify a device that sends or receives data packets on a network.
⚫ The functions of an IP address are to:
 Identify a host or network device (identifying its network interface and indicating its location on the network).
 Implement network addressing

IP Address
IP 1 IP 5
An IP address is like a real-world
IP 4
address. It identifies a node on a
IP 2
network, and is used to find the
destination.
IP 3

Data

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• On an IP network, to connect a PC to the Internet, you need to apply an IP

address for the PC. An IP address is like a real-world address. It identifies a node
on a network, and is used to find the destination. Global network communication
is based on IP addresses.

• An IP address is an attribute of an interface on a network device, not an attribute

of the network device itself. To assign an IP address to a device is to assign an IP
address to an interface of the device actually. If a device has multiple interfaces,
each interface requires at least one IP address.

• Note: An interface that requires an IP address is usually the interface on a router

or a computer.
 IP Address Format
⚫ An IPv4 address has 32 bits.
⚫ An IPv4 address is usually represented in dotted decimal notation.

Dotted decimal Decimal digit 192 168 10 1 4 bytes

notation Binary digit 11000000 10101000 00001010 00000001 32 bits

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Power
Decimal-to-binary 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
conversion
Bit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

= 128 + 64 = 192
⚫ IPv4 address range: 0.0.0.0–255.255.255.255

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• IP address format:

▫ An IP address has 32 bits and consists of four bytes. For the convenience of
reading and writing, an IP address is usually in the format of dotted
decimal notation.

• Dotted decimal notation:

▫ This type of IP address format is commonly used because it is easy to

understand. However, a communication device uses binary digits to
calculate the IP address. Therefore, it is necessary to master the conversion
between decimal and binary digits.

• IPv4 address range:

▫ 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000–
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 in binary, and 0.0.0.0–
255.255.255.255 in decimal.
 IP Address Structure
⚫ Network portion: identifies a network segment.
⚫ Host portion: uniquely identifies a host on a network segment.
Host
Network portion
portion

• Subnet mask: specifies which portion of an address refers to the subnet and which portion refers to the
host.
192 168 10 1

192.168.10.1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 IP address

255.255.255.0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subnet mask

Network portion Host portion

Format
192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0 = 192.168.10.1/24

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• An IPv4 address consists of two parts:

▫ Network portion: identifies a network segment.
▪ IP addresses do not show any geographical information. The network
bits indicate the segment to which an IP address belongs.
▪ Network devices with same network bits are located on the same
network, regardless of their physical locations.
▫ Host portion: uniquely identifies a host on a network segment.
• A subnet mask is also called a netmask:
▫ Same as an IP address, a subnet mask consists of 32 bits, and is also
displayed in dotted decimal notation generally.
▫ A subnet mask is not an IP address. A subnet mask written in the binary
format consists of consecutive 1s and 0s.
▫ Generally, the number of 1s in a subnet mask is the length of the subnet
mask. For example, the length of the subnet mask 0.0.0.0 is 0, and that of
252.0.0.0 is 6.
▫ How to identify the network and host bits in an IP address: In a subnet
mask, bits with the value of 1 correspond to the network bits in an IP
address, while bits with the value of 0 correspond to the host bits. In other
words, the number of 1s in a subnet mask equals to the number of
network bits in an IP address, while the number of 0s equals to the
number of host bits.
 IP Address Classes (Classified Addressing)
⚫ IP addresses are classified into five classes to facilitate IP address management and networking.

Class A 0NNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255

Assigned to
Class B 10NNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255
hosts

Class C 110NNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 192.0.0.0–223.255.255.255

Used for
Class D 1110NNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 224.0.0.0–239.255.255.255 multicast
Used for
Class E 1111NNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 240.0.0.0–255.255.255.255
research

• Default subnet masks:

▫ Class A: 8 bits, 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255/8
Network portion
▫ Class B: 16 bits, 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255/16
Host portion
▫ Class C: 24 bits, 192.0.0.0–223.255.255.255/24

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• IP addresses are classified into five classes to facilitate IP address management

and networking:
▫ The easiest way to determine the class of an IP address is to check the first
bits in its network bits. The class fields of class A, class B, class C, class D,
and class E are binary numbers 0, 10, 110, 1110, and 1111, respectively.
▫ Class A, B, and C addresses are unicast IP addresses (except some special
addresses). Only these three types of addresses can be assigned to hosts.
▫ Class D addresses are multicast IP addresses.
▫ Class E addresses are used for special experimental purposes.
▫ This section focuses only on class A, B, and C addresses.
• Comparison between class A, B, and C addresses:
▫ Networks using class A addresses are called class A networks. Networks
using class B addresses are called class B networks. Networks using class C
addresses are called class C networks.
▫ The number of network bits of a class A network is 8. The number of
network bits is small, so the number of addresses that can be assigned to
the hosts is large. The first bit in the network bits of a class A network is
always 0. The address range is 0.0.0.0-127.255.255.255.
▫ The number of network bits of a class B network is 16, and the first two bits
are always 10. The address range is 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255.
 ▫ The number of network bits of a class C network is 24. The number of
network bits is large, so the number of addresses that can be assigned to
the hosts is small. The first three bits in the network bits of a class C
network are always 110. The address range is 192.0.0.0-223.255.255.255.
• Note:
▫ A host refers to a router or a computer, and the IP address of an interface
on a host refers to the host IP address.
▫ Multicast address: Multicast refers to one-to-many message transmission.
 Public and Private IP Addresses
⚫ Public IP address
 Public IP addresses are assigned by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) to ensure that each IP
address is unique on the Internet. Public IP addresses can be used for accessing the Internet.

⚫ Private IP address
 Some networks do not need to connect to the Internet, for example, a network in a closed lab of a university. However, the IP
addresses of network devices in the lab network still need to be unique to avoid conflicts. Some IP addresses of classes A, B, and
C are reserved for this kind of situation. These IP addresses are called private IP addresses.
◼ Class A: 10.0.0.0–10.255.255.255
192.168.1.0/24
◼ Class B: 172.16.0.0–172.31.255.255 10.0.0.0/8
◼ Class C: 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255

Internet NAT

10.0.0.0/8 192.168.1.0/24

NAT is used to connect a private

network to the Internet
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• Private IP addresses are used to resolve IP address shortage. They are used for
internal networks or hosts, and cannot be used for public networks.

▫ Public IP address: Network devices connected to the Internet must have

public IP addresses assigned by ICANN.

▫ Private IP address: increases the number of available IP addresses. A private

IP address can be repeatedly used on different private networks.

• Connecting a private network to the Internet: A private network is not allowed to

directly connect to the Internet because it uses a private IP address. Due to actual
requirements, many private networks also want to be connected to the Internet
to communicate with the Internet or other private networks through the Internet.
The interconnection between a private network and the Internet is implemented
through the network address translation (NAT) technology.

• Note:

▫ NAT is used to translate private IP addresses into public IP addresses.

▫ ICANN is a standards organization that oversees global IP address
allocation.
 Special IP Addresses
⚫ There are some special IP addresses that have special meanings and functions.

Special IP Address IP Address Range Function

Packets that use this address as the destination address
Limited broadcast address 255.255.255.255 will be sent to all hosts on the same network segment.
(The destination range is limited by the gateway.)
This address is the network address of any network, or the
Any address 0.0.0.0
IP address of an interface on a network.
This address is used to test the software system of a
Loopback address 127.0.0.0/8
device.
When a host fails to obtain an IP address automatically,
Link-local address 169.254.0.0/24 the host can use a link-local address for temporary
communication.

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• 255.255.255.255
▫ This address is called a limited broadcast address and can be used as the
destination IP address of an IP packet.
▫ After receiving an IP packet whose destination IP address is a limited
broadcast address, a router stops forwarding the IP packet.
• 0.0.0.0
▫ If this address is used as a network address, it refers to the network address
of any network. If this address is used as a host address, it refers to an
interface IP address of a host on the network.
▫ For example, when a host does not obtain an IP address during startup, it
can send a DHCP Request packet with the source IP address being 0.0.0.0
and the destination IP address being a limited broadcast address to the
network. The DHCP server will assign an available IP address to the host
after receiving the DHCP Request packet.
• 127.0.0.0/8
▫ This address is a loopback address that can be used as the destination IP
address of an IP packet. It is used to test the software system of the device.
▫ An IP packets whose destination IP address is a loopback address cannot
leave the device which sends the packet.
• 169.254.0.0/16
▫ If a network device is configured to automatically obtain an IP address but
does not find an available DHCP server on the network, the device uses an
IP address on the 169.254.0.0/16 network segment for temporary
communication.
• Note: DHCP is used to dynamically allocate network configuration parameters,
such as IP addresses.
 Subnet Mask and Available Host Address
⚫ Generally, the network range defined by a network ID is called a network segment.
⚫ Subnet mask: Used to calculate the network ID (network address) and host ID (host address) in an IP address.
Example: 192.168.10.0/24

192 168 10 00000000

Note
⚫ Broadcast address: Used as a special destination address to
• Network addresses and broadcast addresses
send data to all hosts on the network.
cannot be used as the address of nodes or
Example: 192.168.10.255/24 network devices.
192 168 10 11111111 • The number of available IP addresses on a
network segment is 2ⁿ - 2 (n is the number
⚫ Available address: Assigned to a node or an interface of
of host bits).
a device on a network.
Example: 192.168.10.1/24

192 168 10 00000001

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• Broadcast address

▫ Each bit of the host ID is 1.

▫ It cannot be allocated to a specific interface on a host.

• Available address

▫ It is also called a host address and can be allocated to a specific interface

on a host.

• Calculation of the number of available IP addresses on a network segment

▫ If the number of host bits of a network segment is n, the number of IP

addresses on the network segment is 2ⁿ, and the number of available host
addresses is 2ⁿ - 2 (subtracting the network address and broadcast address).
 IP Address Calculation
⚫ Calculate the network address, broadcast address, and number of available addresses of the class B
address 172.16.10.1/16.
172 16 00001010 00000001

IP address 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Subnet mask 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Change all host bits to 0,

and the network address is
obtained.
Network address 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 172.16.0.0
Change all host bits to 1,
and the broadcast address
Broadcast
address
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 is obtained.
172.16.255.255

Number of IP Extra Practice

addresses 216=65536
Calculate the network address, broadcast
Number of available
IP addresses 216-2=65534 address, and number of available
addresses of the class A address
Range of available
IP addresses 172.16.0.1-172.16.255.254 10.128.20.10/8.

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• Network address: Change all host bits of an IP address to 0, and the result is the
network address of the network to which the IP address belongs.

• Broadcast address: Change all host bits of an IP address to 1, and the result is
the broadcast address of the network to which the IP address belongs.

• Number of IP addresses: 2ⁿ, where n indicates the number of host bits.

• Number of available IP addresses: 2ⁿ - 2, where n indicates the number of host

bits.

• Answer to the practice:

▫ Network address: 10.0.0.0

▫ Broadcast address: 10.255.255.255

▫ Number of IP addresses: 224

▫ Number of available IP addresses: 222 (224 - 2)

▫ Range of available IP addresses: 10.0.0.1-10.255.255.254

 Subnetting
⚫ Why do we need subnetting?
⚫ The variable length subnet mask (VLSM) technology is used in subnetting.
 VLSM allows an organization to divide a network into multiple subnets based on the network scale
for different departments to use.
⚫ For example, a company is assigned a class C IP address 201.222.5.0. Assume that 20 subnets are
required and each subnet contains five hosts. How should we divide the subnets?

Subnet Address Available Host Addresses

201.222.5.8/29 201.222.5.9-201.222.5.14
201.222.5.16/29 201.222.5.17-201.222.5.22
... ...
201.222.5.232/29 201.222.5.233-201.222.5.238
201.222.5.240/29 201.222.5.241-201.222.5.246

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• Why do we need subnetting?

• In practice, if a class A network is assigned to an organization but the number of
hosts in the organization is less than 16777214, a large number of IP addresses
will be idle and wasted. Therefore, a more flexible method is required to divide
the network based on the network scale. The idea is to divide a network into
multiple subnets for different organizations to use through VLSM. VLSM can be
used on both public networks and enterprise networks.
• In the preceding example, 201.222.5.0 is a class C address, whose default subnet
mask is 24. Assume that 20 subnets are required and each subnet contains five
hosts. The last byte (8 bits) of 201.222.5.0 should be divided into subnet bits and
host bits.
• The number of subnet bits determines the number of subnets. As this address is
a class C address, the total number for subnet bits and host bits is 8. Because the
value 20 is in the range of 24 (16) to 25 (32), 5 bits should be reserved for subnet
bits. The 5-bit subnet part allows a maximum of 32 subnets. The 3 bits left are
host bits, which means that there are a maximum of 23 (8) IP addresses. Except
for one network address and one broadcast address, six addresses can be used by
hosts.
• The network segments are:
▫ 201.222.5.0-201.222.5.7
▫ 201.222.5.8-201.222.5.15
▫ 201.222.5.16-201.222.5.23
▫ ...
▫ 201.222.5.232-201.222.5.239
▫ 201.222.5.240-201.222.5.247
▫ 201.222.5.248-201.222.5.255
 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

◼ Network Basics
 Common Network Devices
 Introduction to Common Protocols

3. Switching Basics

4. Routing Basics

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 Concept of Network Communication
⚫ Communication refers to the information transfer and exchange between people, between people and things, and
between things through a certain medium and action.
⚫ Network communication refers to communication between terminal devices through a computer network.
⚫ Examples of network communication:
Data
Router

A. Files are transferred between two computers

(terminals) through a network cable. Data

...
Data
B. Files are transferred among multiple computers
(terminals) through a router.

C. A computer (terminal) downloads

files through the Internet.

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• Examples of network communication:

▫ A: Two computers are connected through a network cable to form a simple

network.

▫ B: A router (or switch) and multiple computers form a small-scale network.

In such a network, files can be freely transferred between every two
computers through a router.

▫ C. If a computer wants to download files from a website, it must access the

Internet first.

• The Internet is the largest computer network in the world. Its predecessor,
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), was born in 1969. The
wide popularization and application of Internet is one of the signs of entering
the information age.
 Information Transfer Process
⚫ Virtual information transfer is similar to real object transfer.

Item Package Distribution center Sky Distribution center Package Item

Packet Packet
Data Data Data Data

Computer Gateway router Internet Gateway router Computer

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• Comparison between the express delivery process and network communication

process:
• Items to be delivered:
▫ The information (or data) generated by the application
• The item is packed into a package and pasted with a package label containing
the receiver's name and address.
▫ The application packs the data into an original data payload and adds a
header and a tail to form a packet. The important information in the
packet is the address of the receiver, that is, the destination address.
▫ Encapsulation is a process in which new information segments are added to
an information unit, forming a new information unit.
• The package is delivered to a distribution center in which packages are sorted
based on the destination addresses. The packages destined for the same city are
placed in the same plane for airlift.
▫ The packet reaches the gateway through a network cable. After receiving
the packet, the gateway decapsulates the packet, obtains the destination
address, re-encapsulates the packet, and sends the packet to different
 routers based on the destination address. The packet is transmitted
through the gateway and router, leaves the local network, and is
transmitted through the Internet.
▫ The network cable is the medium for information transmission, and plays
the same role as the highway for item transmission.
• After the plane arrives at the destination airport, the packages are taken out for
sorting, and the packages destined for the same area are sent to the same
distribution center.

▫ The packet is transmitted through the Internet and reaches the local
network where the destination address resides. The gateway or router of
the local network decapsulates and encapsulates the packet, and then
determines the next-hop router according to the destination address. Finally,
the packet reaches the gateway of the network where the destination
computer resides.

• The distribution center sorts the packages according to the destination addresses
on the packages. The courier delivers the packages to the receiver. The receiver
unpacks the package, confirms that the items are intact, and signs for the
package. The entire express delivery process is complete.

▫ After the packet reaches the gateway of the network where the destination
computer resides, the gateway decapsulates and encapsulates the packet,
and then sends the packet to the corresponding computer according to the
destination address. After receiving the packet, the computer verifies the
packet. If the packet passes verification, the computer accepts the packet
and sends the data payload to the corresponding application program for
processing. A complete network communication process is complete.
 What Is a Gateway?

• Default next hop of the

host
192.168.1.X/24 192.168.2.X/24

PC1 PC2

Gateway: 192.168.1.1 Gateway: 192.168.2.1

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• A gateway is also called an inter-network connector or a protocol converter. By

default, a gateway implements network interconnection above the network layer.

• Just like you must walk through a door when entering a room, information sent
from one network or network segment to another must pass through a gateway.
We can say the gateway is the door to another network.

• Functions of a gateway — A gateway plays significant roles in not only its role
but also its configuration:

▫ When a host (such as a PC, server, router, or firewall) wants to access

another network segment, the gateway is responsible for sending ARP
packets, and receiving and forwarding subsequent data packets.

▫ After the gateway is configured, the default route is generated on the host,
with the next hop being the gateway.
 Basic Architecture of a Communication Network
Internet

⚫ Communication network Core equipment room

Log system
A communication network Controller
NMS
consists of routers, switches, Application
server
firewalls, PCs, network printers,
servers, and more.

⚫ Function
The basic function of a
communication network is to
implement data communication. ...
... ...
Office area 1 Office area 2 Office area 3

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• Take the enterprise data center network (DCN) as an example. The major
requirements of an enterprise for the DCN include service operation and
computing, data storage, and service access.
• The DCN thereby needs to enable device-device and device-user interconnection
and provide external access capabilities for services. Devices on such a network
collaborate with each other to implement communication:

▫ Access switches connect to user hosts in office areas.

▫ Aggregation switches aggregate traffic from access switches.

▫ Routers forward traffic between different office areas and between internal
and external networks.

▫ Firewalls implement access control for areas of different security levels and
between internal and external networks to ensure secure access.
 Network Device - Switch
⚫ As the device closest to end users, a switch connects end users to a network and forwards
data frames. A switch can:
 Connect terminals (such as PCs and servers) to the network.
 Isolate collision domains.
 Broadcast unknown packets.
Switch
 Learn MAC addresses and maintain the MAC address table.
 Forward packets based on the MAC address table.

Broadcast domain

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• Switch:

▫ Generally, on a campus network, switches are closest to end users, and

Layer 2 switches (also known as Ethernet switches) are deployed at the
access layer. Layer 2 refers to the data link layer of the TCP/IP model.

▫ An Ethernet switch can implement the following functions: data frame

switching, access of end users, basic access security, and Layer 2 link
redundancy.

▫ Broadcast domain: a group of nodes, among which a broadcast packet

from one node can reach all the other nodes.

▫ Collision domain: an area where a collision occurs when two devices on the
same network send packets at the same time.

▫ Media Access Control (MAC) address: uniquely identifies a network

interface card (NIC) on a network. Each NIC requires and has a unique
MAC address.
▫ MAC address table: exists on each switch and stores the mappings
between MAC addresses and switch interfaces.
 Network Device - Router
⚫ Working at the network layer, a router forwards data packets on the Internet. Based on the destination
address in a received packet, a router selects a path to send the packet to the next router or
destination. The last router on the path is responsible for sending the packet to the destination host. A
router can:
 Implement communication between networks of the

same type or different types.

 Isolate broadcast domains.
 Maintain the routing table and run routing protocols. Router

 Select routes and forward IP packets.

 Implement WAN access and network address translation (NAT).
 Connect Layer 2 networks built through switches.

Broadcast domain A Broadcast domain B

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• Router:

▫ A router works at the network layer of the TCP/IP model.

▫ A router can maintain the routing table and routing entries, discover
routes, select paths, forward data, isolate broadcast domains, implement
WAN access, translate network addresses, and provide specific security
functions.
Discussion
⚫ What are the differences between a Layer 2 switch and a router that are both used for
network connection?
⚫ What are their application scenarios?

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 Network Device - Firewall
⚫ As a network security device, a firewall is used to ensure secure communication between two
networks. It monitors, restricts, and modifies data flows passing through it to shield the information,
structure, and running status of internal networks from the public network. A firewall can:
 Isolate networks of different security levels. Untrust zone

 Implement access control (using security policies) between Internet

networks of different security levels.

DMZ
 Perform user identity authentication. Firewall

 Implement remote access.

 Encrypt data and provide virtual private network (VPN) services. Trust zone
 Implement NAT.
 Provide other security functions.

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• Firewall:

▫ Located between two networks of different trust levels (for example, an

enterprise intranet and the Internet), a firewall controls the communication
between the two networks and forcibly implements unified security policies
to prevent unauthorized access to key information resources, ensuring
system security.
 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

 Network Basics
◼ Network Reference Model and Data Encapsulation
 Introduction to Common Protocols

3. Switching Basics

4. Routing Basics

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 OSI Reference Model
⚫ To achieve compatibility between networks and help vendors produce compatible network devices, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) launched the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model in 1984. It was quickly adopted as the basic model for computer network
communication.

7. Application layer Provides interfaces for applications.

Converts data formats to ensure the application layer of one system can identify and understand
6. Presentation layer
the data generated by the application layer of another system.

5. Session layer Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two parties.

Establishes, maintains, and cancels one-time end-to-end data transmission processes, controls
4. Transport layer
transmission speeds, and adjusts data sequencing.

3. Network layer Defines logical addresses and transfers data from sources to destinations.

Encapsulates packets into frames, transmits frames in P2P or P2MP mode, and implements error
2. Data link layer
checking.

1. Physical layer Transmits bit streams over transmission media and defines electrical and physical specifications.

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• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was included in the ISO 7489
standard and released in 1984. ISO stands for International Organization for
Standardization.
• The OSI reference model is also called the seven-layer model. The seven layers
from bottom to top are as follows:
▫ Physical layer: transmits bit streams between devices and defines physical
specifications such as electrical levels, speeds, and cable pins.
▫ Data link layer: encapsulates bits into octets and octets into frames, uses
link layer addresses (MAC addresses in Ethernet) to access media, and
implements error checking.
▫ Network layer: defines logical addresses for routers to determine paths and
transmits data from source networks to destination networks.
▫ Transport layer: implements connection-oriented and non-connection-
oriented data transmission, as well as error checking before retransmission.
▫ Session layer: establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between
entities at the presentation layer. Communication at this layer is
implemented through service requests and responses transmitted between
 applications on different devices.
▫ Presentation layer: provides data encoding and conversion functions so
that data sent by the application layer of one system can be identified by
the application layer of another system.
▫ Application layer: provides network services for applications and is closest
to users.
 TCP/IP Reference Model
⚫ The TCP/IP reference model has become the mainstream reference model of the Internet
because the TCP and IP protocols are widely used and the OSI model is too complex.

Application layer

Application layer Presentation layer Application layer

Session layer

Transport layer Transport layer Transport layer

Network layer Network layer Network layer

Data link layer Data link layer

Data link layer
Physical layer Physical layer

Standard TCP/IP model OSI model Equivalent TCP/IP model

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• Similar to the OSI model, the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

(TCP/IP) model adopts a hierarchical architecture, and adjacent layers are closely
related.
• The standard TCP/IP model combines the data link layer and physical layer in the
OSI model into the network access layer. This division mode is contrary to the
actual protocol formulation. Therefore, the equivalent TCP/IP model that
integrates the standard TCP/IP model and the OSI model is proposed. Contents in
the following slides are based on the equivalent TCP/IP model.
• TCP/IP was originated from a packet switched network research project funded
by the US government in the late 1960s. Since the 1990s, the TCP/IP model has
become the most commonly used networking model for computer networks. It is
a truly open system, because the definition of the protocol suite and its multiple
implementations can be easily obtained at little or even no cost. It thereby
became the basis of the Internet.
• Like the OSI reference model, the TCP/IP model is developed in different layers,
each of which is responsible for different communication functions. The
difference is, the TCP/IP model has a simplified hierarchical structure that
consists of only five layers: application layer, transport layer, network layer, data
 link layer, and physical layer. As shown in the figure, the TCP/IP protocol stack
corresponds to the OSI reference model and covers all layers in the OSI
reference model. The application layer contains all upper-layer protocols in the
OSI reference model.
• The TCP/IP protocol stack supports all standard physical-layer and data-link-
layer protocols. The protocols and standards at the two layers will be further
discussed in following chapters.
• Comparison between the OSI reference model and TCP/IP protocol stack:
▫ Similarities
▪ They are both hierarchical and both require close collaboration
between layers.
▪ They both have the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer, and physical layer. (Note: The TCP/IP protocol stack is
divided into five layers here to facilitate comparison. In many
documents, the data link layer and physical layer of TCP/IP are
combined into the data link layer, which is also called network access
layer.)
▪ They both use the packet switching technology.
▪ Network engineers must understand both models.
▫ Differences
▪ TCP/IP includes the presentation layer and session layer into the
application layer.
▪ TCP/IP has a simpler structure with fewer layers.
▪ TCP/IP standards are established based on practices during the
Internet development and are thereby highly trusted. In comparison,
the OSI reference model is based on theory and serves as a guide.
 Data Encapsulation on the Sender

Data Application layer Data

www.huawei.com

TCP header Data Transport layer Segment

Network layer Packet

IP header Payload

Data link layer Frame

Ethernet header Payload FCS

... Physical layer Bit

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ... Transmission
Transmission medium
medium
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• Assume that you are using a web browser to access Huawei's official website.
After you enter the website address and press Enter, the following events occur
on your computer:
▫ Internet Explorer (application) invokes HTTP (application-layer protocol) to
encapsulate the application-layer data. (Data in the figure should also
include the HTTP header, which is not shown here.)
▫ HTTP uses TCP to ensure reliable data transmission and thereby transmits
the encapsulated data to the TCP module.
▫ The TCP module adds the corresponding TCP header information (such as
the source and destination port numbers) to the data transmitted from the
application layer. The protocol data unit (PDU) is called a segment.
▫ On an IPv4 network, the TCP module sends the encapsulated segment to
the IPv4 module at the network layer. (On an IPv6 network, the segment is
sent to the IPv6 module for processing.)
▫ After receiving the segment from the TCP module, the IPv4 module
encapsulates the IPv4 header. Here, the PDU is called a packet.
▫ Ethernet is used as the data link layer protocol. Therefore, after the IPv4
module completes encapsulation, it sends the packet to the Ethernet
module (such as the Ethernet adapter) at the data link layer for processing.
▫ After receiving the packet from the IPv4 module, the Ethernet module adds
 the corresponding Ethernet header and FCS frame trailer to the packet.
Now, the PDU is called a frame.
▫ After the Ethernet module completes encapsulation, it sends the data to
the physical layer.
▫ Based on the physical media, the physical layer converts digital signals
into electrical signals, optical signals, or electromagnetic (wireless) signals.
▫ The converted signals are then transmitted on the network.
 Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network
⚫ Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.

Data

Data

Application layer Application layer

Transport layer Transport layer
Network layer Network layer Network layer
Data link layer Data link layer Data link layer Data link layer
Physical layer Physical layer Physical layer Physical layer

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• In most cases:

▫ A Layer 2 device (such as an Ethernet switch) only decapsulates the Layer 2

header of the data and performs the corresponding switching operation
based on the Layer 2 header information.

▫ A Layer 3 device (such as a router) only decapsulates the Layer 3 header

and performs the corresponding routing operation based on the Layer 3
header information.

▫ Note: The details and principles of switching and routing will be described
in the following chapters.
 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver

Web server
Application layer Data Data

Transport layer Data Segment

Network layer Payload Packet

Data link layer Payload Frame

Physical layer ... Bit

Transmission 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
medium

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• After being transmitted over the intermediate network, the data finally reaches
the destination server. Based on the information in different protocol headers,
the data is decapsulated layer by layer, processed, transmitted, and finally sent to
the application on the web server for processing.
 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

 Network Basics
 Network Reference Model and Data Encapsulation
◼ Introduction to Common Protocols

3. Switching Basics

4. Routing Basics

31 Huawei Confidential
 Common TCP/IP Protocols
⚫ The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a set of standard protocols.

Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport layer TCP UDP
ICMP IGMP
Network layer
IP
PPPoE
Data link layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical layer ...

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• Overview of protocols:
▫ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): used to access various pages on web
servers.

▫ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): used to transfer data from one host to another.

▫ Domain Name Service (DNS): translates domain names of hosts into IP

addresses.

▫ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): provides reliable and connection-

oriented communication services for applications. Currently, TCP is used by
many popular applications.

▫ User Datagram Protocol (UDP): provides connectionless communication

services, without guaranteeing the reliability of packet transmission.

▫ Internet Protocol (IP): encapsulates transport-layer data into data packets

and forwards packets from source sites to destination sites. IP provides a
connectionless and unreliable service.
Common TCP/IP Protocols
⚫ The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a set of standard protocols.

Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport layer TCP UDP
ICMP IGMP
Network layer
IP
PPPoE
Data link layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical layer ...

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▫ Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): manages multicast group

memberships. Specifically, IGMP sets up and maintains memberships
between IP hosts and their directly connected multicast routers.

▫ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): sends control messages based

on the IP protocol and provides information about various problems that
may exist in the communication environment. Such information helps
administrators diagnose problems and take proper measures to resolve the
problems.

▫ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): a TCP/IP protocol that discovers the

data link layer address associated with a given IP address. It maps IP
addresses to MAC addresses, maintains the ARP table that caches the
mappings between IP addresses and MAC addresses, and detects IP address
conflicts on a network segment.
 TCP
⚫ TCP provides connection-oriented and reliable services for applications.
⚫ Reliability of TCP
 Connection-oriented transmission
 Maximum segment size (MSS)

 Transmission acknowledgment mechanism

 Checksum of the header and data Source port (16) Destination port (16)
Sequence number (32)
 Flow control Acknowledgment number (32) TCP header
20 bytes
Header Reserved Control Window
length (4) (6) bits (6) (16)
Checksum (16) Urgent (16)
Options
Data (varies)

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• TCP provides reliable and connection-oriented services for applications.

• TCP provides reliability in the following aspects:

▫ Connection-oriented transmission: A connection must be established before

either side sends data.

▫ MSS: limits the maximum length of a TCP packet sent to the receiver.
When a connection is established, both parties of the connection advertise
their MSSs to make full use of bandwidth resources.

▫ Transmission acknowledgment mechanism: After the sender sends a data

segment, it starts a timer and waits for an acknowledgment from the
receiver. If no acknowledgment is received when the timer expires, the
sender resends the data segment.

▫ Checksum of the header and data: TCP maintains the checksum of the
header and data, implementing end-to-end check to verify whether the
data changes during transmission. If the checksum of a received segment is
incorrect, TCP discards the segment and does not acknowledge the receipt
 of the segment. In this case, TCP starts the retransmission mechanism.

▫ Flow control: Each party of a TCP connection has a buffer with a fixed size.
The receiver allows the sender to send only the data that can be stored in
the receive buffer, which prevents buffer overflow caused by the high
transmission rate of the sender.
 UDP
⚫ UDP provides connectionless services for applications. Before data transmission, no

connection is established between the source and destination ends.

⚫ UDP does not maintain connection states or sending and receiving states. Therefore, a server

can transmit the same message to multiple clients at the same time.

⚫ UDP applies to applications that require high transmission efficiency.

Source port (16) Destination port (16) UDP header

Length (16) Checksum (16) 8 bytes
Data (if any)

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• UDP provides connectionless services for applications. That is, no connection

needs to be established between the source and destination ends before data
transmission. UDP does not maintain connection states or sending and receiving
states. Therefore, a server can transmit the same message to multiple clients at
the same time.

• UDP applies to applications that require high transmission efficiency or have the
reliability guaranteed at the application layer. For example, the Remote
Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) protocol used for authentication
and accounting and Routing Information Protocol (RIP) are based on UDP.
 TCP vs. UDP

TCP UDP

• Connection-oriented • Connectionless
• Reliable transmission with flow and • Unreliable transmission, with
congestion control packet reliability guaranteed by
• Header length: 20–60 bytes upper-layer applications
• Applies to applications that require • Short header length of 8 bytes
reliable transmission, such as file • Applies to real-time applications,
transfer such as video conferencing

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• TCP is reliable, but its reliability mechanism leads to low packet transmission
efficiency and high encapsulation overhead.

• UDP is connectionless and unreliable, but its transmission efficiency is higher.

 Telnet
⚫ Telnet provides remote login services on data networks. It allows users to remotely log in to
a device from a local PC. Telnet data is transmitted in plaintext.

⚫ A user connects to a Telnet server through Telnet server

a Telnet client program. The commands

Telnet connection
entered on the Telnet client are executed AP Router

on the server, as if the commands were

LAN
entered on the console of the server. Switch Firewall
Telnet client
...

Server

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• Telnet enables network administrators to remotely log in to network devices for

configuration and management.

• However, Telnet has the following disadvantages:

▫ Data is transmitted in plaintext, which does not ensure confidentiality.

▫ The authentication mechanism is weak. Users' authentication information is

transmitted in plaintext and may be eavesdropped. Telnet supports only the
traditional password authentication mode and is vulnerable to attacks.

▫ A client cannot truly identify the server. As a result, attackers can use a
bogus server to launch attacks.

SSH was designed to resolve the preceding issues.

 SSH
⚫ SSH is a network security protocol that employs encryption and authentication mechanisms
to implement services such as secure remote access and file transfer.

⚫ SSH was developed to resolve security SSH server

issues that Telnet may bring, ensuring
secure remote access to network devices. SSH connection
AP Router
⚫ SSH uses the client/server architecture and
Network
involves three layers: transport layer,
Switch Firewall
SSH client
authentication layer, and connection layer. ...

Server

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• SSH protocol layers:

▫ Transport layer: establishes a secure encryption channel between a client
and a server to provide sufficient confidentiality protection for phases that
require high data transmission security, such as user authentication and
data exchange.

▫ Authentication layer: runs over transport-layer protocols and helps a server

authenticate login users.

▫ Connection layer: divides an encryption channel into several logical

channels to run different applications. It runs over authentication-layer
protocols and provides services such as session interaction and remote
command execution.

• SSH packet exchange consists of the following phases:

▫ Connection setup

▫ Version negotiation
▫ Algorithm negotiation

▫ Key exchange

▫ User authentication

▫ Service request

▫ Data transmission and connection shutdown

 Telnet vs. SSH
Telnet SSH
• Data is transmitted in ciphertext.
• User authentication information is transmitted in
ciphertext.
• Data is transmitted in plaintext.
• In addition to password authentication, SSH servers
• Weak authentication mechanism: User authentication
support multiple user authentication modes, such as
information is transmitted in plaintext.
public key authentication that has higher security.
• Only traditional password authentication is available.
• Encryption and decryption keys are dynamically
• A client cannot truly identify a server.
generated for communication between the client and
server.
• Provides the server authentication function for clients.

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• SSH encrypts data before sending it, ensuring data transmission security. It
applies to scenarios where encrypted authentication is required.

• Telnet is still used in tests or scenarios where encryption is not required (such as
on a LAN).
 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

3. Switching Basics
◼ Ethernet Switching Basics
 VLAN Basics
 VLAN Basic Configuration

4. Routing Basics

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 Ethernet Protocol
⚫ Ethernet is the most common communication protocol standard used by existing local area
networks (LANs). It defines the cable types and signal processing methods that are used on
a LAN.

Host A Host B Switch A

Switch B

Host A Host B

Host C Host D
Host C Host D

Early Ethernet Switch networking

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• Early Ethernet:

▫ Ethernet networks are broadcast networks established based on the Carrier

Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) mechanism.
Collisions restrict Ethernet performance. Early Ethernet devices such as hubs
work at the physical layer, and cannot confine collisions to a particular
scope. This restricts network performance improvement.

• Switch networking:

▫ Working at the data link layer, switches are able to confine collisions to a
particular scope, thereby helping improve Ethernet performance. Switches
have replaced hubs as mainstream Ethernet devices. However, switches do
not restrict broadcast traffic on the Ethernet. This affects Ethernet
performance.
 Layer 2 Ethernet Switch
⚫ Layer 2 Ethernet switches forward data
Internet Internet
through Ethernet interfaces. Specifically, a
switch performs addressing and forwards
data only based on the MAC address in the
Layer 2 header of an Ethernet data frame.

Layer 2 Ethernet
switch

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• We have discussed the architecture and composition of a communication

network. Layer 2 Ethernet switches are located at the edge of a communication
network and function as access devices for user and terminal access.
• Layer 2 Ethernet switch:

▫ On a campus network, a switch is the device closest to end users and is

used to connect terminals to the campus network. Switches at the access
layer are typically Layer 2 switches.

▫ A Layer 2 switch works at the second layer (data link layer) of the TCP/IP
model and forwards data packets based on MAC addresses.
• Layer 3 Ethernet switch:

▫ Routers are required to implement network communication between

different LANs. As data communication networks expand and more services
emerge on the networks, increasing traffic needs to be transmitted between
networks. Routers cannot adapt to this development trend because of their
 high costs, low forwarding performance, and small interface quantities.
New devices capable of high-speed Layer 3 forwarding are required. Layer
3 switches are such devices.

• Note: The switches involved in this course refer to Layer 2 Ethernet switches.
 MAC Address Table
⚫ Each switch has a MAC address table that stores the mappings between MAC addresses and
switch interfaces.

Host 1 Host 2
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2

IP 1 Switch IP 2
MAC 1 MAC 2

MAC Address Port

MAC 1 GE0/0/1

MAC 2 GE0/0/2
... ...

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• A MAC address table records the mappings between MAC addresses learned by a
switch and switch interfaces. When forwarding a data frame, the switch looks up
the MAC address table based on the destination MAC address of the frame. If the
MAC address table contains an entry mapping the destination MAC address of
the frame, the frame is directly forwarded through the outbound interface in the
entry. If there is no match of the destination MAC address of the frame in the
MAC address table, the switch floods the frame to all interfaces except the
interface that receives the frame.
 Working Principles of Switches

Host 1 Host 2

GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2

Switch
IP1: 192.168.1.1 IP2: 192.168.1.2
MAC1: 0050-5600-0001 MAC2: 0050-5600-0002

Frame sent by Host 1

Source MAC: MAC1 Destination MAC: MAC2 After receiving a data frame, the switch learns the
source MAC address of the frame, searches the MAC
Source IP: IP1 Destination IP: IP2
address table for the destination MAC address (MAC2:
Payload 0050-5600-0002 in this example) of the frame, and
forwards the frame through the corresponding interface.

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• Layer 2 switches work at the data link layer and forward frames based on MAC
addresses. Different interfaces on a switch send and receive data independently,
and each interface belongs to a different collision domain. This effectively
isolates collision domains on the network.

• Layer 2 switches maintain the mappings between MAC addresses and interfaces
by learning the source MAC addresses of Ethernet frames in a table called a MAC
address table. Layer 2 switches look up the MAC address table to determine the
interface to which a frame is forwarded based on the destination MAC address of
the frame.
 Three Frame Processing Behaviors of a Switch
⚫ A switch processes the frames entering an interface over a transmission medium in
three ways:
Switch
Flooding
Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4

Switch
Forwarding
Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4

Forwarding path
inside a switch
Switch Outgoing frame
Discarding Incoming frame
Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4
Data frame

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• A switch forwards each frame that enters an interface over a transmission

medium, which is also the basic function of a switch.

• A switch processes frames in three ways: flooding, forwarding, and discarding.

▫ Flooding: The switch forwards the frames received from an interface to all
other interfaces.

▫ Forwarding: The switch forwards the frames received from an interface to

another interface.

▫ Discarding: The switch discards the frames received from an interface.

 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

3. Switching Basics
 Ethernet Switching Basics
◼ VLAN Basics
 VLAN Basic Configuration

4. Routing Basics

46 Huawei Confidential
 Why Do We Need VLANs?
⚫ Broadcast packets have a wide-ranging impact on a network. However, Ethernet has no
method for forwarding control.

A B C

User: Administrator:
I don't want to receive I want to stop B from
broadcast packets from C. accessing A.

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• Traditional Ethernet switches learn source MAC addresses (MAC addresses of

hosts connected to the switch interfaces) of received frames to generate a
forwarding table, based on which the switch then forwards frames. All the
interfaces can communicate with each other, meaning that maintenance
personnel cannot control forwarding between interfaces. Such a network has the
following disadvantages:

▫ Low network security: The network is prone to attacks because all

interfaces can communicate with each other.

▫ Low forwarding efficiency: Users may receive a large number of

unnecessary packets such as broadcast packets, which consume a lot of
bandwidth and host CPU resources.

▫ Low service scalability: Network devices process packets on an equal basis

and cannot provide differentiated services. For example, Ethernet frames
used for network management cannot be preferentially forwarded.
 Objectives of the VLAN Technology
⚫ The Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN) technology divides users into multiple logical groups
(networks). Intra-group communication is allowed, whereas inter-group communication is prohibited.
Layer 2 unicast, multicast, and broadcast packets can be forwarded only within a group. In addition,
group members can be easily added or deleted.

A B C

Group 2 Group 1

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• The VLAN technology provides a management method for controlling the

communication between terminals. As shown in the figure above, PCs in Group 1
and PCs in Group 2 cannot communicate with each other.
 What Is VLAN?
⚫ The VLAN technology logically divides a physical LAN into multiple VLANs (broadcast
domains).

Router

Switch A Switch B Switch C

VLAN 1

VLAN 2

VLAN 3

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• Hosts within a VLAN can communicate with each other but cannot communicate
directly with hosts in other VLANs. This confines broadcast packets within a
single VLAN. Inter-VLAN communication is not allowed, which improves network
security. For example, if enterprises in the same building establish their own
LANs, the cost is high. If enterprises share the same LAN in the building, there
may be security risks. In this case, the VLAN technology can be adopted to enable
enterprises to share the same LAN while ensuring information security.
• The figure above shows a typical VLAN networking. Three switches are deployed
at different locations, for example, on different floors of a building. Each switch is
connected to three PCs that belong to different VLANs (for example, VLANs for
different enterprises).
 VLAN Frame Format

6B 6B 2B 64–1500 B 4B

DA SA TYPE DATA FCS Untagged frame

6B 6B 4B 2B 64–1500 B 4B

DA SA TAG TYPE DATA FCS Tagged frame

2B 2B

0x8100 PRI CFI VLAN ID (12 b)

TPID TCI

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• IEEE 802.1Q adds a 4-byte VLAN tag to an Ethernet frame header.

• Tag Protocol Identifier (TPID): identifies a frame as an 802.1Q-tagged frame. This

field is of 2 bytes and has a fixed value of 0x8100.

• Tag Control Information (TCI): indicates the control information of an Ethernet

frame. This field is of 2 bytes.

▫ Priority: identifies the priority of an Ethernet frame. This field is of 3 bits.

The value of this field ranges from 0 to 7, providing differentiated
forwarding services.

▫ Canonical Format Indicator (CFI): indicates the bit order of address

information in an Ethernet frame. This field is used in token ring or FDDI
source-routed MAC methods and is of 1 bit.

▫ VLAN Identifier (VLAN ID): controls the forwarding of Ethernet frames

based on the VLAN configuration on a switch interface. This field is of 12
bits, with its value ranging from 0 to 4095.
• Since VLAN tags are adopted, Ethernet frames are classified as untagged frames
(without 4-byte VLAN tags) or tagged frames (with 4-byte VLAN tags).

• In this course, only the VLAN ID field is discussed.

 VLAN Assignment Methods
⚫ How are VLANs assigned on a network?

SW1

VLAN
Assignment VLAN 10 VLAN 20
Method
Interface-based GE0/0/1, GE0/0/3 GE0/0/2, GE0/0/4
MAC address–
MAC 1, MAC 3 MAC 2, MAC 4
based
IP subnet–based 10.0.1.* 10.0.2.*

Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4 Protocol-based IP IPv6

10.0.1.1 10.0.2.1 10.0.1.2 10.0.2.2
MAC 1 MAC 2 MAC 3 MAC 4 10.0.1.* + 10.0.2.* + GE0/0/2 +
Policy-based
GE0/0/1+ MAC 1 MAC 2

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• PCs send only untagged frames. After receiving such an untagged frame, a switch
that supports the VLAN technology needs to assign the frame to a specific VLAN
based on certain rules.
• Available VLAN assignment methods are as follows:
▫ Interface-based assignment: assigns VLANs based on switch interfaces.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures a port VLAN ID (PVID) for
each switch interface. When an untagged frame arrives at an
interface of a switch, the switch tags the frame with the PVID of
the interface. The frame is then transmitted in the specified VLAN.
▫ MAC address–based assignment: assigns VLANs based on the source MAC
addresses of frames.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures the mapping between MAC
addresses and VLAN IDs. After receiving an untagged frame, a
switch tags the frame with the VLAN ID mapping the source MAC
address of the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
▫ IP subnet–based assignment: assigns VLANs based on the source IP
addresses and subnet masks of frames.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures the mapping between IP
addresses and VLAN IDs. After receiving an untagged frame, a
switch tags the frame with the VLAN ID mapping the source IP
address of the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
▫ Protocol-based assignment: assigns VLANs based on the protocol (suite)
types and encapsulation formats of frames.

▪ A network administrator preconfigures the mapping between

protocol (suite) types and VLAN IDs. After receiving an untagged
frame, a switch tags the frame with the VLAN ID mapping the
protocol (suite) type of the frame. The frame is then transmitted in
the specified VLAN.

▫ Policy-based assignment: assigns VLANs based on a specified policy, which

means VLANs are assigned based on a combination of interfaces, MAC
addresses, and IP addresses.

▪ A network administrator preconfigures a policy. After receiving an

untagged frame that matches the policy, a switch adds a specified
VLAN tag to the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
 Interface-based VLAN Assignment

Interface-based VLAN assignment

10 • Principles
SW1 SW2
PVID 1 PVID 1
▫ VLANs are assigned based on interfaces.
▫ A network administrator preconfigures a PVID for
PVID 10 PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 20 each switch interface to assign each interface to the
VLAN corresponding to the PVID.
▫ After an interface receives an untagged frame, the
switch adds a tag carrying the PVID of the interface
to the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4
VLAN 10 VLAN 20 • PVID (Port VLAN ID)
▫ Default VLAN ID of an interface
The network administrator must
reconfigure VLANs when hosts move. ▫ Value range: 1–4094

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• Assignment rule:

▫ VLAN IDs are configured on physical interfaces of a switch. All PC-sent

untagged frames arriving at a physical interface are assigned to the VLAN
corresponding to the PVID configured on the interface.

• Characteristics:

▫ This VLAN assignment method is simple, intuitive, and easy to implement.

Currently, it is the most widely used VLAN assignment method.

▫ When a PC is connected to another switch interface, the frames sent by

the PC may be assigned to a different VLAN.

• PVID: default VLAN ID

▫ Each switch interface must be configured with a PVID. All untagged

frames arriving at a switch interface are assigned to the VLAN
corresponding to the PVID configured on the interface.
▫ The default PVID is 1.
 VLAN Interface Types
Interface type

• Access interface
An access interface is used to connect a switch to a terminal, such as a
PC or server. In general, the NICs on such terminals receive and send
only untagged frames. An access interface can be added to only one
VLAN.

• Trunk interface
A trunk interface is used to connect a switch to another switch or a
sub-interface on a device such as a router or firewall. This type of
interface allows frames that belong to multiple VLANs to pass
through and differentiates the frames using the 802.1Q tag.

• Hybrid interface
Similar to a trunk interface, a hybrid interface also allows frames that
VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20 belong to multiple VLANs to pass through and differentiates the
frames using the 802.1Q tag. You can determine whether to allow a
hybrid interface to send frames that belong to one or multiple VLANs
Access interface Trunk interface VLAN-tagged.

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• The interface-based VLAN assignment method varies according to the switch

interface type.

• Access interface

▫ An access interface often connects to a terminal (such as a PC or server)

that cannot identify VLAN tags, or is used when VLANs do not need to be
differentiated.

• Trunk interface

▫ A trunk interface often connects to a switch, router, AP, or voice terminal

that can accept and send both tagged and untagged frames.

• Hybrid interface

▫ A hybrid interface can connect to a terminal (such as a PC or server) that

cannot identify VLAN tags or to a switch, router, AP, or voice terminal that
can accept and send both tagged and untagged frames.
▫ By default, hybrid interfaces are used on Huawei devices.
 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

3. Switching Basics
 Ethernet Switching Basics
 VLAN Basics
◼ VLAN Basic Configuration

4. Routing Basics

55 Huawei Confidential
 Basic VLAN Configuration Commands
⚫ Create VLANs.

[Huawei] vlan vlan-id

 Create a VLAN and enter the VLAN view, or enter the view of an existing VLAN.
 The value of vlan-id is an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.

[Huawei] vlan batch { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] }

Create VLANs in a batch.

 batch: creates VLANs in a batch.
 vlan-id1: specifies the start VLAN ID.
 vlan-id2: specifies the end VLAN ID.

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• The vlan command creates a VLAN and displays the VLAN view. If the VLAN to
be created exists, the VLAN view is displayed directly.
• The undo vlan command deletes a VLAN.
• By default, all interfaces belong to the default VLAN, that is, VLAN 1.
▫ Commands:
▫ vlan vlan-id
▪ vlan-id: specifies the VLAN ID. The value is an integer that ranges
from 1 to 4094.
▫ vlan batch { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] }
▪ batch: creates VLANs in a batch.
▪ vlan-id1 to vlan-id2: specifies the IDs of VLANs to be created in a
batch.
− vlan-id1 specifies the start VLAN ID.
− vlan-id2 specifies the end VLAN ID. The value of vlan-id2
 must be greater than or equal to that of vlan-id1. vlan-id1
and vlan-id2 identify a VLAN range.
▪ If to vlan-id2 is not specified, the VLAN specified by vlan-id1 is
created.
▪ The values of vlan-id1 and vlan-id2 are integers that range from
1 to 4094.
Basic Access Interface Configuration Commands
⚫ Set the interface type.

[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type access

 In the interface view, set the link type of the interface to access.

⚫ Configure the default VLAN of the access interface.

[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port default vlan vlan-id

 In the interface view, configure the default VLAN of the interface and add the interface to the VLAN.
 vlan-id: specifies the default VLAN ID. The value is an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.

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 Basic Trunk Interface Configuration Commands
⚫ Set the interface type.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type trunk

 In the interface view, set the link type of the interface to trunk.

⚫ Add the trunk interface to specified VLANs.

[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port trunk allow-pass vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }

 In the interface view, add the trunk interface to specified VLANs.

⚫ (Optional) Configure the default VLAN of the trunk interface.

[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port trunk pvid vlan vlan-id

 In the interface view, configure the default VLAN of the trunk interface.

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• Command: port trunk allow-pass vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] | all }

▫ vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ]: specifies the VLANs to which the trunk interface is

added.
▪ vlan-id1 specifies the start VLAN ID.

▪ to vlan-id2 specifies the end VLAN ID. The value of vlan-id2 must
be greater than or equal to that of vlan-id1.
▪ The values of vlan-id1 and vlan-id2 are integers that range from 1
to 4094.

▫ all: adds the trunk interface to all VLANs.

• Command: port trunk pvid vlan vlan-id

▫ vlan-id: specifies the default VLAN ID of the trunk interface. The value is
an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.
 Basic Hybrid Interface Configuration Commands
⚫ Set the interface type.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type hybrid
 In the interface view, set the link type of the interface to hybrid.
⚫ Add the hybrid interface to specified VLANs.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port hybrid untagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }
 In the interface view, add the hybrid interface to specified VLANs. Frames that belong to these VLANs then
pass through the hybrid interface in untagged mode.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port hybrid tagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }
 In the interface view, add the hybrid interface to specified VLANs. Frames that belong to these VLANs then
pass through the hybrid interface in tagged mode.
⚫ (Optional) Configure the default VLAN of the hybrid interface.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port hybrid pvid vlan vlan-id
 In the interface view, configure the default VLAN of the hybrid interface.
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• Command: port hybrid untagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }

▫ vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ]: specifies the VLANs to which the hybrid interface
is added.
▪ vlan-id1 specifies the start VLAN ID.
▪ to vlan-id2 specifies the end VLAN ID. The value of vlan-id2 must
be greater than or equal to that of vlan-id1.
▪ The values of vlan-id1 and vlan-id2 are integers that range from 1
to 4094.
▫ all: adds the hybrid interface to all VLANs.
• Command: port hybrid tagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }
▫ vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ]: specifies the VLANs to which the hybrid interface
is added.
▪ vlan-id1 specifies the start VLAN ID.
▪ to vlan-id2 specifies the end VLAN ID. The value of vlan-id2 must
be greater than or equal to that of vlan-id1.
▪ The values of vlan-id1 and vlan-id2 are integers that range from 1
 to 4094.
▫ all: adds the hybrid interface to all VLANs.
• Command: port hybrid pvid vlan vlan-id
▫ vlan-id: specifies the default VLAN ID of the hybrid interface. The value is
an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.
 Configuration Example: Configuring Interface-based VLAN Assignment
⚫ Networking requirements
 There are many users connected to an enterprise's switches. Currently, users of the same service access the enterprise network
through different switches. To ensure communication security, the enterprise requires that users with the same service can directly
communicate only with each other.
 To meet this requirement, configure interface-based VLAN assignment on the switches and add interfaces connecting users with
the same service to the same VLAN. In this way, users in the same VLAN can directly communicate only with each other at Layer 2.

SW1 GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3 SW2

PVID 1 PVID 1

GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1
PVID 10 PVID 20
PVID 20 PVID 10

Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4

VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20
Access interface Trunk interface
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• Configuration roadmap:

▫ Create VLANs and add interfaces connecting users to the VLANs to isolate
Layer 2 traffic between users with different services.

▫ Configure interface types and specify allowed VLANs for interfaces on

SW1 and SW2 to allow users with the same service to communicate
through SW1 and SW2.
Creating VLANs

SW1 SW2
GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3
PVID 1 PVID 1

GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2

Create VLANs: PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 10 PVID 20

[SW1] vlan 10
[SW1-vlan10] quit
[SW1] vlan 20
[SW1-vlan20] quit Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4
VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20
[SW2] vlan batch 10 20

Access interface
Trunk interface

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Configuring Access and Trunk Interfaces
Configure access interfaces and add the interfaces to
corresponding VLANs.
[SW1] interface GigabitEthernet 0/0/1
SW1 SW2
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type access GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3
PVID 1 PVID 1
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port default vlan 10
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
[SW1] interface GigabitEthernet 0/0/2 PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 10 PVID 20
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/2] port link-type access
[SW1] vlan 20
[SW1-vlan20] port GigabitEthernet0/0/2
[SW1-vlan20] quit

Configure a trunk interface and configure

Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4
allowed VLANs for the interface.
VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20
[SW1] interface GigabitEthernet 0/0/3
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/3] port link-type trunk
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/3] port trunk pvid vlan 1 Access interface
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/3] port trunk allow-pass vlan 10 20 Trunk interface
Note: The configuration on SW2 is similar to that on SW1.

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 Verifying the Configuration

[SW1]display vlan SW1 SW2

GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3
The total number of vlans is: 3 PVID 1 PVID 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
U: Up; D: Down; TG: Tagged; UT: GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 10 PVID 20
Untagged;
MP: Vlan-mapping; ST: Vlan-stacking;
#: ProtocolTransparent-vlan; *: Management-vlan;
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VID Type Ports
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4
1 common UT:GE0/0/3(U) ... VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20
10 common UT:GE0/0/1(U)
TG:GE0/0/3(U)
20 common UT:GE0/0/2(U)
Access interface
TG:GE0/0/3(U)
Trunk interface

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• The display vlan command displays information about VLANs.

• Description of the command output:

▫ Tagged/Untagged Port: interfaces that are manually added to a VLAN in

tagged or untagged mode.

▫ VID or VLAN ID: VLAN ID.

▫ Type or VLAN Type: VLAN type. The value common indicates a common
VLAN.

▫ Ports: interfaces added to a VLAN.

 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

3. Switching Basics

4. Routing Basics
◼ Basic Routing Principles
 Static and Default Routes

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 Routes
⚫ Routes are the path information that is used to guide packet forwarding.
⚫ A routing device is one that forwards packets to a destination network segment based on routes. The most
common routing device is a router.
⚫ A routing device maintains an IP routing table that stores routing information.

Route-based packet forwarding path

Router R4

Data R1 R2 R3

N M

Gateway Gateway

Destination-based forwarding

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• A gateway and an intermediate node (a router) select a proper path according to

the destination address of a received IP packet, and forward the packet to the
next router. The last-hop router on the path performs Layer 2 addressing and
forwards the packet to the destination host. This process is called route-based
forwarding.

• The intermediate node selects the best path from its IP routing table to forward
packets.

• A routing entry contains a specific outbound interface and next hop, which are
used to forward IP packets to the corresponding next-hop device.
 Routing Information
⚫ A route contains the following information:
 Destination network: identifies a destination 1.1.1.2
10.1.1.0/24
network segment.
 Mask: identifies a network segment together with a GE0/0/0
1.1.1.3
destination IP address.
 Outbound interface: indicates the interface through
which a data packet is sent out of the local router.
IP routing table
 Next hop: indicates the next-hop address used by Destination/Mask Outbound Interface Next Hop
the router to forward the data packet to the 10.1.1.0/24 GE0/0/0 1.1.1.2
destination network segment.
⚫ The information identifies the destination
network segment and specifies the path for
forwarding data packets.

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• Based on the information contained in a route, a router can forward IP packets to

the destination network segment along the corresponding path.

• The destination address and mask identify the destination address of an IP

packet. After an IP packet matches a specific route, the router determines the
forwarding path according to the outbound interface and next hop of the route.

• The next-hop device for forwarding the IP packet cannot be determined based
only on the outbound interface. Therefore, the next-hop device address must be
specified.
 Routing Table
• A router discovers routes using Destination/ Outbound
Next Hop
multiple methods. Mask Interface
14.0.0.0/8
11.0.0.0/8 2.2.2.2 GE0/0
• A router selects the optimal route and R4
13.0.0.0/8 3.3.3.2 GE0/1
installs it in its IP routing table. 1.1.1.2/30
14.0.0.0/8 1.1.1.2 GE0/2
• A router forwards IP packets based on ...
GE0/2
routes in the IP routing table. 1.1.1.1/30 1.1.1.0/30 1.1.1.1 GE0/2

• Routers manage path information by GE0/0 GE0/1 1.1.1.1/32 127.0.0.1 GE0/2

2.2.2.1/30 3.3.3.1/30
managing their IP routing tables. R2

2.2.2.2/30 3.3.3.2/30

R1 R3

11.0.0.0/8 13.0.0.0/8

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• A router forwards packets based on its IP routing table.

• An IP routing table contains many routing entries.

• An IP routing table contains only optimal routes.

• A router manages routing information by managing the routing entries in its IP

routing table.
 Checking the IP Routing Table

<Huawei> display ip routing-table

Route Flags: R - relay, D - download to fib
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Routing Tables: Public
Destinations: 6 Routes: 6

Destination/Mask Proto Pre Cost Flags NextHop Interface

1.1.1.1/32 Static 60 0 D 0.0.0.0 NULL0

2.2.2.2/32 Static 60 0 D 100.0.0.2 Vlanif100
100.0.0.0/24 Direct 0 0 D 100.0.0.1 Vlanif100
100.0.0.1/32 Direct 0 0 D 127.0.0.1 Vlanif100
127.0.0.0/8 Direct 0 0 D 127.0.0.1 InLoopBack0
127.0.0.1/32 Direct 0 0 D 127.0.0.1 InLoopBack0

Destination Protocol Flag Next-hop IP Outbound

network type address interface
address/Mask Route Cost
preference (metric)

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• Destination/Mask: indicates the destination network address and mask of a

specific route. The network segment address of a destination host or router is
obtained through the AND operation on the destination address and mask. For
example, if the destination address is 1.1.1.1 and the mask is 255.255.255.0, the
IP address of the network segment to which the host or router belongs is 1.1.1.0.

• Proto (Protocol): indicates the protocol type of the route, that is, the protocol
through which a router learns the route.

• Pre (Preference): indicates the routing protocol preference of the route. There
may be multiple routes to the same destination, which have different next hops
and outbound interfaces. These routes may be discovered by different routing
protocols or manually configured. A router selects the route with the highest
preference (with the lowest preference value) as the optimal route.

• Cost: indicates the cost of the route. When multiple routes to the same
destination have the same preference, the route with the lowest cost is selected
as the optimal route.
• NextHop: indicates the local router's next-hop address of the route to the
destination network. This field specifies the next-hop device to which packets
are forwarded.

• Interface: indicates the outbound interface of the route. This field specifies the
local interface through which the local router forwards packets.
 Route-based Forwarding Process
Destination/Mask Next Hop Outbound Interface
20.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.2 GE0/0
Destination
IP address: 30.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.1 GE0/1
40.0.1.2 10.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.1 GE0/0
40.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.2 GE0/1

R2's IP routing table

Data
Gateway Gateway
GE0/1 GE0/0 20.0.1.0/24 GE0/0 GE0/1 GE0/0 GE0/1 40.0.1.0/24
10.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.0/24
10.0.1.1 20.0.1.1 20.0.1.2 30.0.1.1 30.0.1.2 40.0.1.1
R1 R2 R3
R1's IP routing table R3's IP routing table
Destination/Mask Next Hop Outbound Interface Destination/Mask Next Hop Outbound Interface
10.0.1.0/24 10.0.1.1 GE0/1 40.0.1.0/24 40.0.1.1 GE0/1
20.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.1 GE0/0 30.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.2 GE0/0
30.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.2 GE0/0 10.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.1 GE0/0
40.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.2 GE0/0 20.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.1 GE0/0

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• The IP packets from 10.0.1.0/24 need to reach 40.0.1.0/24. These packets arrive at
the gateway R1, which then searches its IP routing table for the next hop and
outbound interface and forwards the packets to R2. After the packets reach R2,
R2 forwards the packets to R3 by searching its IP routing table. After receiving
the packets, R3 searches its IP routing table, finding that the destination IP
address of the packets belongs to the network segment where a local interface
resides. Therefore, R3 directly forwards the packets to the destination network
segment 40.0.1.0/24.
 Contents

1. IP Address Basics

2. Introduction to Network Technologies

3. Switching Basics

4. Routing Basics
 Basic Routing Principles
◼ Static and Default Routes

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Introduction to Static Routes
• Static routes are manually configured by network Static route
administrators, have low system requirements, and
apply to simple, stable, and small networks.

• However, static routes cannot automatically adapt Destined for

20.1.1.0/24 GE0/0/0 GE0/0/1
to network topology changes and so require manual 10.0.0.2/24 20.1.1.3/24
intervention. GE0/0/0 GE0/0/1
RTA 10.0.0.1/24 RTB 20.1.1.2/24 RTC
• Packets destined for 20.1.1.0/24 do not match the
direct route in RTA's IP routing table. In this case, a
static route needs to be manually configured so that Destination
Source Next Hop
the packets sent from RTA to 20.1.1.0/24 can be Network
forwarded to the next hop 10.0.0.2. 20.1.1.0 Static 10.0.0.2

10.0.0.0 Direct 10.0.0.1

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Configuration Example

GE0/0/0 S1/0/0
10.0.0.2/24 20.1.1.3/24
Configure RTA.
GE0/0/0 S1/0/0
RTA 10.0.0.1/24 RTB 20.1.1.2/24 RTC [RTA] ip route-static 20.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 10.0.0.2

Destined for Destined for Configure RTC.

20.1.1.0/24 10.1.1.0/24
[RTC] ip route-static 10.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 S1/0/0

⚫ Configure static routes on RTA and RTC for communication between 10.0.0.0/24 and 20.1.1.0/24.
⚫ Packets are forwarded hop by hop. Therefore, all the routers along the path from the source to the
destination must have routes destined for the destination.
⚫ Data communication is bidirectional. Therefore, both forward and return routes must be available.

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Default Route
• Default routes are used only when packets to be forwarded do not match any routing entry in an IP
routing table.

• In an IP routing table, a default route is the route to network 0.0.0.0 (with the mask 0.0.0.0), namely,
0.0.0.0/0.
RTA needs to forward packets to a network
segment that is not directly connected to it
and forwards the packets to 10.0.0.2.

192.168.1.0/24
RTA RTB 192.168.2.0/24
GE0/0/0 GE0/0/0
10.0.0.0/24 192.168.3.0/24
10.0.0.1 .
10.0.0.2 .
192.168.254.0/24

[RTA] ip route-static 0.0.0.0 0 10.0.0.2

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Application Scenarios of Default Routes
⚫ Default routes are typically used at the egress of an enterprise network. For example, you
can configure a default route on an egress device so that the device forwards IP packets
destined for any address on the Internet.

Enterprise network
RTA
1.2.3.0/24 Internet
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/0 1.2.3.254
PC 192.168.1.254 1.2.3.4
192.168.1.100
Gateway: 192.168.1.254

[RTA] ip route-static 0.0.0.0 0 1.2.3.254

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 Summary

⚫ In this course, we have learned the composition of IP addresses, subnetting,

basic principles of network communication, and basic operations and
application scenarios of common network protocols. In the following
course, we will learn operating system basics. Stay tuned.

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 Quiz

1. Which of the following are functions of firewalls?

A. Isolating networks of different security levels
B. Authenticating user identities
C. Implementing NAT
D. Performing route calculation
2. Default routes are typically used at the egress of an enterprise network. For example, you
can configure a default route on an egress device so that the device forwards IP packets
destined for any address on the Internet.
A. True
B. False

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• Answers:

▫ ABCD

▫ A
 Recommendations

⚫ Huawei Learning
 https://e.huawei.com/en/talent/portal/#/
⚫ Huawei Support Knowledge Base
 https://support.huawei.com/enterprise/en/knowledge?lang=en

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Acronyms and Abbreviations
⚫ ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
⚫ DNS: Domain Name Service
⚫ FTP: File Transfer Protocol
⚫ HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
⚫ ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
⚫ IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol
⚫ IP: Internet Protocol
⚫ LAN: Local Area Network
⚫ TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
⚫ UDP: User Datagram Protocol
⚫ VLAN: Virtual Local Area Network
⚫ VLSM: Variable Length Subnet Mask

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Thank you. 把数字世界带入每个人、每个家庭、
每个组织，构建万物互联的智能世界。
Bring digital to every person, home, and
organization for a fully connected,
intelligent world.

Copyright© 2022 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

All Rights Reserved.

The information in this document may contain predictive

statements including, without limitation, statements regarding
the future financial and operating results, future product
portfolio, new technology, etc. There are a number of factors that
could cause actual results and developments to differ materially
from those expressed or implied in the predictive statements.
Therefore, such information is provided for reference purpose
only and constitutes neither an offer nor an acceptance. Huawei
may change the information at any time without notice.