Unit 1

7. Principles of Selection and Gradation

In language teaching, Selection and Gradation are essential processes to determine what
content (words, structures, grammar) should be taught, and in what sequence. These
principles ensure that learners acquire language progressively and in a structured manner,
avoiding overwhelm and promoting retention.

1. Principles of Selection

Selection refers to the process of choosing which linguistic elements (vocabulary, grammar
structures, etc.) should be included in a curriculum or syllabus. The aim is to prioritize
language items that are most useful, relevant, and appropriate for learners at different
stages of learning.

Key Principles:

Frequency:
The most frequently used words, phrases, and structures in the target language should be
taught first. High-frequency items provide the greatest utility for learners in daily
communication.

Example: Teaching common verbs like go, eat, see before rare ones like perceive, devour,
glance.

Range:
Items that are used in a wide variety of contexts should be selected. Words and structures
that appear across different situations and text types are more valuable than those that are
context-specific.

Example: Words like good, bad, and happy are used in a variety of situations, while technical
jargon like biodegradable might have limited use.

Utility:
Language items that are immediately useful for the learner’s needs should be prioritized.
This depends on the learner's context, such as the need for survival English, academic
English, or business English.

Example: Teaching words like bathroom and restaurant is useful for beginners learning
English for travel.

Teachability:
Simpler language items, which are easier for learners to grasp, should be introduced earlier
in the curriculum. This ensures that learners are not overwhelmed by complex concepts too
soon.

Example: Start with basic present tense sentences before moving to complex tenses like the
past perfect continuous.

Coverage:
A selected item should cover as many linguistic functions as possible. This means choosing
words or structures that are versatile and can be used in various contexts.

Example: A verb like do or get has a broad range of uses and can cover many linguistic
needs.

Cultural Relevance:
Language items that are culturally relevant to the learners' environment should be selected.
This increases engagement and ensures that learners can relate to what they are learning.

Example: Teaching food-related vocabulary that corresponds to the local cuisine or holidays
specific to the learners' culture.

2. Principles of Gradation

Gradation refers to the arrangement of language content in a systematic order of difficulty. It

ensures that learners progress from simple to more complex language items in a logical,
step-by-step manner. Proper gradation prevents cognitive overload and enhances
comprehension.

Key Principles:

Simple to Complex:
Language items should be graded from simple to complex in terms of both form and
meaning. This allows learners to build a strong foundation before tackling more advanced
material.

Example: Begin with simple sentence structures like "I eat" before moving to more complex
ones like "I will be eating."

Known to Unknown:
Familiar language items should be taught first, gradually introducing unfamiliar or more
difficult items. This approach helps learners relate new information to what they already
know.
Example: Teach familiar concepts like personal introductions before moving to unfamiliar
topics like expressing opinions on abstract subjects.

Concrete to Abstract:
Learners tend to grasp tangible, concrete ideas more easily than abstract ones. Therefore,
language items dealing with physical objects and actions should be taught before those
dealing with abstract concepts.

Example: Teach vocabulary for objects like pen, table, and apple before teaching abstract
words like freedom and justice.

Frequency of Use:
Frequently used language items should be introduced first, as they are more useful for
communication. Less frequent items can be introduced later once students have mastered
the basics.

Example: Common expressions like How are you? should precede more specific or rare
expressions.

Immediate Need:
Items that learners need for immediate communication should be introduced early. This
encourages learners to use the language practically in real situations.

Example: Teaching polite phrases like please and thank you early on helps learners navigate
basic conversations.

Morphological and Syntactical Simplicity:

Language items with simpler morphological forms (like regular verbs) and straightforward
syntactical patterns should be introduced before more complex ones.

Example: Regular verbs (walk, talk) should be taught before irregular verbs (go, see).

Phonological Simplicity:
Words and sounds that are easier to pronounce should be introduced first. This makes it
easier for students to practice speaking and gain confidence in their pronunciation.

Example: Teach words with simpler phonetic patterns like cat and dog before introducing
more difficult ones like through and psychology.

Cumulative Progression:
The grading of language content should follow a cumulative progression, meaning each new
language item builds on previously learned material. This creates a coherent learning
experience.

Example: Teach the present continuous after students have mastered the present simple.

Conclusion

In summary, Selection and Gradation are essential strategies in language teaching. Effective
selection ensures that learners focus on the most useful, relevant, and teachable items.
Gradation ensures that these items are presented in a logical, progressive order that builds
on prior knowledge, allowing learners to develop their language skills smoothly and
systematically.

Unit 2

1. The Translation Method of Teaching English

Features:
The translation method, also known as the Grammar-Translation Method, emphasizes
translating sentences or texts from the target language (English) to the learners' native
language and vice versa.

Focus on Written Language: It primarily focuses on reading and writing, with less emphasis
on listening and speaking.

Grammar Rules: Grammar is taught deductively, i.e., through explanations of rules, followed
by translation exercises.

Vocabulary: Vocabulary is learned through direct translation of words between the

languages.

Merits:

Understanding Grammar: Learners develop a strong understanding of grammar rules, which

can improve accuracy.
Familiarity: Since it uses the native language, students feel comfortable and confident in
translating.

Good for Academic Purposes: Useful for learners who aim to read and understand literature
in English or write formal texts.

Demerits:

Limited Speaking Skills: Since there’s little focus on speaking or listening, students may
struggle with real-life communication.

Boring for Students: The heavy focus on translation and grammar can make lessons
monotonous.

Lacks Context: Language is learned in isolation without practical or communicative context.

2. The Direct Method of Teaching English

Features:
The Direct Method, also known as the Natural Method, emphasizes teaching English
through immersion, using only the target language in the classroom.

No Translation: The native language is not used at all. Instead, concepts are taught directly
in English.

Emphasis on Speaking and Listening: Oral communication is emphasized, with a focus on

conversation and dialogue.

Inductive Grammar: Grammar is taught inductively, i.e., students infer the rules from
language usage rather than explicit instruction.

Visual Aids: Teachers use visual aids, real objects, and gestures to convey meaning.

Merits:

Improves Speaking and Listening Skills: Students gain fluency and confidence in speaking
English.

Contextual Learning: Language is taught in context, helping learners use English in real-life
situations.

Engagement: The method encourages active participation and interaction.

Demerits:
Time-consuming: Learning grammar inductively takes longer.

Requires Skilled Teachers: Teachers need to be proficient in English and skilled in using
contextual cues to teach.

Limited for Beginners: Without the support of the native language, absolute beginners may
find it difficult to follow lessons.

3. The Structural and Situational Approach to Teaching English

Features:
The Structural-Situational Approach combines the learning of grammatical structures with
their use in specific social situations.

Pre-set Structures: Grammar is taught through pre-determined structures in a logical

sequence, such as simple tenses before complex ones.

Situational Contexts: These structures are taught within everyday situations, e.g., shopping,
greetings, or asking for directions.

Drills and Repetition: Repetition and drills are commonly used to reinforce grammatical
structures.

Merits:

Real-life Application: Students learn structures that are immediately applicable in real-life
situations.

Clear Progression: The structured approach ensures that learners progress systematically
through increasingly complex grammar.

Practical Skills: By learning in context, students become comfortable using English in

everyday interactions.

Demerits:

Limited Creativity: It restricts students to learning specific, fixed structures rather than
allowing free expression.

Overemphasis on Grammar: Communication may become overly focused on grammar,

which can hinder fluency.

4. The Bilingual Method of Teaching English

Features:
The Bilingual Method combines the use of the students’ native language and the target
language (English) in the classroom.

Selective Use of Native Language: The teacher uses both languages but transitions more
toward English as the learners’ proficiency improves.

Emphasis on Translation: Sentences are first introduced in English, followed by a translation

in the native language for clarity.

Grammar Taught Inductively: Learners derive grammar rules from the context of the
sentence and structure.

Merits:

Better Understanding: Students can grasp complex ideas by comparing them in both
languages.

Faster Learning: The use of the native language makes explanations quicker and clearer.

Less Anxiety: Learners may feel more at ease, knowing they can fall back on their native
language when needed.

Demerits:

Over-reliance on Native Language: Students may depend too much on their native
language, limiting immersion in English.

Not Fully Immersive: It doesn’t provide the full language immersion that methods like the
Direct Method do.

5. The Communicative Approach to Teaching English

Features:
The Communicative Approach focuses on teaching language through real-life
communication. The goal is for students to be able to use English effectively in everyday
situations.

Focus on Meaning: Emphasis is on conveying meaning rather than mastering grammar.

Functional Language: Students learn how to perform functions like asking for information,
making requests, and giving opinions.
Student-Centered: Activities are designed to encourage interaction, such as role-plays,
group discussions, and problem-solving tasks.

Authentic Materials: Teachers often use real-world materials like newspapers, videos, and
conversations.

Salient Features:

Communication Over Accuracy: Fluency is often prioritized over grammatical accuracy in the
early stages.

Interactive Activities: Learning happens through collaboration and interaction rather than
lectures.

Merits:

Engaging and Realistic: Students practice language in real-life contexts, making it more
relevant and engaging.

Promotes Fluency: It encourages natural conversation and enhances fluency.

Develops All Skills: It integrates speaking, listening, reading, and writing in a balanced way.

Demerits:

Grammar May Be Overlooked: There’s a risk that grammatical accuracy may be sacrificed
for the sake of fluency.

Requires Motivation: Learners need to be active participants, and it may be challenging for
shy or less motivated students.

6. Usage and Use

Usage refers to the rules and structure of a language, how words and grammar are used in a
conventional sense.

Use refers to how language is applied in real-world contexts for communication, focusing on
meaning and the practical function of language.

Example: The difference between learning grammar rules (usage) versus applying those
rules in conversation (use).

7. The Inductive and Deductive Methods of Teaching Grammar

Inductive Method:

Definition: The teacher provides examples from which students infer the grammar rule.

Merits:

Promotes critical thinking and discovery.

Learners are more likely to remember rules they deduce themselves.

Engages students actively in the learning process.

Demerits:

Time-consuming.

Learners may struggle to identify patterns or rules.

Deductive Method:

Definition: The teacher explains the grammar rule directly, followed by examples and
practice.

Merits:

Time-efficient, especially for complex grammar rules.

Provides clear and immediate understanding.

Demerits:

May not engage students in active learning.

Students might forget the rule if not applied regularly in context.

8. Teaching of Structures, Drills, and Substitution Tables

Teaching Structures:

Definition: This involves teaching specific sentence patterns and grammatical forms, like
subject-verb agreement or tense usage.
Approach: Focused on practicing specific structures until they are mastered.

Drills:

Definition: Repetitive practice where students produce sentences using a specific

grammatical structure.

Types:

Mechanical Drills: Students repeat sentences without variation.

Meaningful Drills: Students practice structures while making sense of meaning.

Communicative Drills: Practice with an emphasis on actual communication.

Substitution Tables:

Definition: A grid where students substitute different elements (like verbs, nouns, adjectives)
to form new sentences.

Example: | Subject | Verb | Object | |---------|------|--------| | I | eat | an apple | | She |

drinks| tea |

Merits of Drills and Substitution Tables:

Reinforce Grammar: Repetition helps in internalizing sentence structures.

Builds Confidence: Learners become more confident using structures they have practiced
multiple times.

Demerits:

Can Become Boring: Overuse of drills may result in rote learning without true understanding.

Lack of Creativity: Drills focus on repetition rather than free expression, which may limit
creativity.
Unit 3
1. The Difference Between Intensive Readers and Extensive Readers

Intensive Reading focuses on close reading of shorter texts, with detailed analysis of the
material. The goal is to achieve full comprehension and deepen understanding, often
concentrating on grammar, vocabulary, and linguistic details.

Characteristics of Intensive Reading:

Focus on short, challenging texts

Detailed analysis of grammar and structure

Emphasis on vocabulary acquisition

Often teacher-directed, with guided tasks

Involves comprehension exercises, questions, and discussion

Extensive Reading involves reading large amounts of text for general understanding,
fluency, and enjoyment. It encourages students to read independently and widely, exposing
them to various topics and text types.

Characteristics of Extensive Reading:

Focus on long texts or large quantities of material

Emphasis on overall comprehension rather than details

Encourages self-selected, independent reading

Improves fluency, vocabulary, and reading speed

Develops a love for reading and learner autonomy

Aims of Teaching Intensive and Extensive Reading:

Intensive Reading aims to improve detailed comprehension, linguistic accuracy, and critical
thinking.

Extensive Reading aims to enhance reading fluency, general comprehension, and foster
positive attitudes toward reading.
2. Teaching a Passage Intensively and the Steps Involved

Step 1: Pre-reading Activities

Activating Prior Knowledge: Engage students by discussing the topic or asking related
questions.

Vocabulary Preview: Introduce challenging or key vocabulary from the text.

Setting a Purpose: Clarify the objective of reading the passage (e.g., understanding details,
analyzing structure).

Step 2: Reading the Passage

First Reading: Students read the passage to get the general idea.

Second Reading: Focus on deeper comprehension, paying attention to specific details,

vocabulary, and structure.

Step 3: Detailed Analysis

Comprehension Questions: Ask both factual and inferential questions to ensure students
grasp the meaning.

Textual Analysis: Analyze sentence structures, grammar, and usage within the text.

Discussion: Encourage students to share interpretations and engage critically with the
content.

Step 4: Post-reading Activities

Summarizing: Have students summarize the passage in their own words.

Follow-up Questions: Ask higher-order questions (e.g., Why did the author choose this
structure?).

Language Exercises: Practice new vocabulary or grammar points from the passage.

3. Abilities of a Skilled Reader: Skimming, Scanning, and Other Skills

Skimming: The ability to read rapidly to get the general idea or gist of a text. This is useful
when you need to understand the overall content without focusing on details.
Steps in Skimming:

Look at the title, headings, and subheadings

Read the introductory and concluding paragraphs

Glance at the first sentence of each paragraph

Scanning: The ability to locate specific information quickly within a text, without reading
everything. This is useful for finding dates, names, or key facts.

Steps in Scanning:

Know what you're looking for (keywords or phrases)

Let your eyes move rapidly over the text

Stop when you find the information

Response Skills: Engaging with the text, forming personal reactions, and providing opinions
about its content.

Inferential Skills: The ability to read between the lines and understand meanings that are
implied rather than directly stated.

Interpretative Skills: The ability to understand and explain the deeper meanings of the text,
such as themes, tone, and intentions.

Scholarly Skills: Engaging with texts in a more analytical and critical manner, often involving
comparisons, synthesis of information, and drawing from external references.

4. Questioning Techniques and Comprehension Questions

Types of Questions:

Literal Questions: These focus on facts directly stated in the text (e.g., "What did the main
character do?")

Inferential Questions: These require students to make logical deductions based on the
information in the text (e.g., "Why did the character behave this way?")

Evaluative Questions: These ask students to judge the quality or credibility of the text (e.g.,
"Do you agree with the author’s point of view?")

Questioning Techniques:
Open-ended Questions: Encourage discussion and critical thinking by requiring more
elaborate responses (e.g., "What do you think the author is trying to convey?")

Closed-ended Questions: Direct students to specific facts or details, usually answered with
"yes" or "no" or short phrases (e.g., "Did the event happen in the past or future?")

Probing Questions: Help deepen understanding by encouraging students to expand on their

answers (e.g., "Can you explain why that is important?")

Effective Comprehension Questions:

Should cover different levels of thinking, including recall, understanding, application,

analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Align with the reading purpose: factual for intensive reading and more inferential or analytical
for extensive reading.

5. Teaching Extensive Readers and the Steps Involved

Step 1: Encouraging a Reading Habit

Choice of Books: Allow students to choose from a wide range of books based on their
interests.

Set Clear Expectations: Make it clear that the goal is to read for enjoyment and general
comprehension, not detailed analysis.

Step 2: Providing Support and Guidance

Reading Logs: Have students maintain a record of what they read, along with brief
summaries or personal reflections.

Book Discussions: Facilitate informal discussions where students can share thoughts and
recommend books to each other.

Step 3: Follow-up Activities

Book Reports: Simple reports that focus on general comprehension, characters, plot, and
personal reflections.

Creative Assignments: Encourage students to draw, act out scenes, or write alternative
endings based on their reading.
Group Projects: Organize group activities where students compare different books or
authors they have read extensively.

Step 4: Assessment of Extensive Reading

Informal Assessments: Instead of quizzes, assess students’ overall comprehension through

discussions, reports, or presentations.

Encouraging Autonomy: Provide feedback that fosters a positive attitude toward independent
reading.

Conclusion

By teaching both intensive and extensive reading techniques, educators can cater to the
different needs of learners. Intensive reading develops deep comprehension and critical
skills, while extensive reading builds fluency, enjoyment, and autonomy in reading. Both
approaches, supported by effective questioning and reading strategies, help foster skilled,
confident readers.

Criteria of a Good Intensive Reader

1. Attention to Detail: A good intensive reader pays close attention to the fine details in the
text, including vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and textual nuances.

2. Deep Comprehension: Intensive readers should be able to fully understand the content of
the text, including explicit and implicit meanings. They should demonstrate mastery of the
text's themes, ideas, and arguments.

3. Critical Thinking: They analyze and question the text, evaluating its claims, structure, and
logic. Intensive readers should be able to engage with the text critically, asking why certain
choices were made by the author.

4. Active Engagement: Intensive readers are active participants in the reading process,
interacting with the text by taking notes, highlighting, or asking questions. This helps them
internalize the information and apply it to further tasks or discussions.

5. Vocabulary Development: A key characteristic of a good intensive reader is the ability to

expand their vocabulary through close analysis of unfamiliar words and expressions
encountered in the text.
6. Application of Linguistic Knowledge: Intensive readers apply their knowledge of language
rules and structures (grammar, syntax) while reading. They can understand and analyze how
these elements contribute to the overall meaning of the text.

7. Ability to Summarize and Paraphrase: After reading, a good intensive reader should be
able to restate key points from the text accurately and concisely in their own words, showing
clear understanding.

Criteria of a Good Extensive Reader

1. Reading Fluency: Extensive readers read smoothly and quickly, without stopping
frequently to focus on details. They are comfortable reading large volumes of text with ease.

2. Wide Range of Interests: A good extensive reader engages with various genres, topics,
and text types. This variety helps them build general knowledge, language competence, and
a broad understanding of the world.

3. General Comprehension: Extensive readers aim for overall understanding rather than
detailed analysis. They can grasp the main ideas, plotlines, and themes of a text without
necessarily focusing on individual words or sentences.

4. Reading for Pleasure: A strong extensive reader enjoys the reading process and is
motivated by interest in the material rather than external pressure or academic tasks.

5. Self-directed Learning: Extensive readers choose their own reading materials based on
interest, and they regulate their own reading habits. They are often intrinsically motivated
and enjoy independent exploration through reading.

6. Development of Language Fluency: Over time, extensive readers build a rich vocabulary
and improve their grammatical understanding naturally through regular reading. They also
enhance their familiarity with idiomatic expressions, colloquial language, and context-specific
terms.

7. Improved Reading Speed: Since extensive reading is focused on quantity and general
understanding, a good extensive reader becomes faster and more efficient at reading longer
texts.
8. Positive Attitude Toward Reading: A good extensive reader enjoys the act of reading and
sees it as a rewarding activity. They are less focused on perfection and more on
engagement and fluency.

In summary, a good intensive reader excels in comprehension, analysis, and detailed

understanding, while a good extensive reader is proficient in fluency, broad comprehension,
and enjoyment of reading a wide range of texts. Both sets of skills complement each other in
fostering well-rounded, skilled readers.

1. Selection and Gradation of Vocabulary

Selection of Vocabulary refers to choosing which words should be taught to students based
on their needs, the course objectives, and the context in which the words will be used.
Teachers must consider various factors when selecting vocabulary:

Frequency: Words that are used frequently in the language should be prioritized (e.g.,
common words like "run," "important").

Range: Words that appear across different contexts or subjects should be chosen over
specialized vocabulary (e.g., "water" is more useful than "geology").

Usefulness: Words that will be relevant to the students' lives, interests, or future needs (e.g.,
words related to technology for a business course).

Learner’s Level: The difficulty level of vocabulary should match the proficiency level of
students (e.g., beginners may learn basic nouns and verbs, while advanced learners can
handle more abstract or technical terms).

Teachability: Some words are easier to teach because they can be demonstrated, visualized,
or explained more clearly (e.g., "chair" is easier to teach than "democracy").

Gradation of Vocabulary refers to organizing the selected words in a systematic way so that
they are introduced progressively based on complexity and relevance. Gradation ensures
that learners are introduced to simpler, more foundational words before tackling more
complex vocabulary.

Principles of Gradation:

From Simple to Complex: Start with basic, concrete words (e.g., "apple") and move towards
abstract or complex terms (e.g., "justice").

Contextual Gradation: Teach vocabulary that fits into the immediate context of what students
are learning (e.g., words related to family when teaching about personal relationships).
Thematic Gradation: Introduce vocabulary related to a particular theme or topic (e.g., words
about travel, food, or education).

Frequency Gradation: Introduce more commonly used words earlier, while less frequent or
specialized words come later.

2. Techniques in Teaching New Words

Effective vocabulary teaching requires techniques that promote comprehension, retention,

and active use of new words.

1. Direct Explanation: Teachers provide clear definitions or explanations of the word, using
simple language or translating into the students' first language when necessary.

2. Contextual Teaching: Words are introduced within the context of a sentence or passage.
This helps students understand the meaning through the situation in which the word is used.
For example, explaining "excited" in the context of a story where someone is about to win a
prize.

3. Visual Aids: Using pictures, diagrams, or real objects (realia) to teach concrete
vocabulary. For example, showing a picture of a "mountain" to teach the word.

4. Word Formation Techniques: Teaching students how new words are formed using
prefixes, suffixes, or root words. For instance, showing how “happy” can become “unhappy”
or “happiness.”

5. Synonyms and Antonyms: Teach new words by relating them to synonyms (words with
similar meanings) or antonyms (words with opposite meanings). For example, introducing
“big” and “large” together, or “happy” and “sad.”

6. Word Maps and Mind Maps: These graphic organizers help learners visualize
relationships between words. A central word is written in the middle, and related words are
branched out from it.

7. Guessing from Context: Encourage students to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words from
the surrounding text or situation. For example, “She was elated when she heard the good
news” gives clues that “elated” means “very happy.”

8. Mnemonics: Use memory aids, like rhymes or associations, to help students remember
difficult words. For example, associating the word "bizarre" with “bazaar,” a place where
strange things might be sold.

3. Teaching Active and Passive Vocabulary

Active Vocabulary consists of words that students can use confidently in speaking and
writing. These are the words that students fully understand and can use to express their own
ideas.
Techniques for Teaching Active Vocabulary:

Role-plays and Simulations: Give students scenarios where they must use specific
vocabulary in dialogues or discussions.

Sentence Formation: Have students practice making sentences with the new words to
reinforce understanding and usage.

Peer Teaching: Encourage students to explain the meaning and usage of new words to each
other.

Passive Vocabulary includes words that students recognize and understand when
encountered in a text or conversation, but they might not use these words in their own
speech or writing.

Techniques for Teaching Passive Vocabulary:

Reading and Listening Activities: Expose students to a wide range of texts and recordings
where they can see or hear the new vocabulary in context.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing: Encourage students to rephrase or summarize passages

that contain new vocabulary. This helps reinforce the passive recognition of the words.

Glossaries and Word Lists: Provide lists of new words with definitions or translations for
students to refer to while reading.

Bridging Passive and Active Vocabulary: The goal is often to move words from passive to
active use. This can be achieved by:

Repetition and Practice: Regular exposure to the words in different contexts, both spoken
and written, helps transition passive vocabulary into active use.

Encouraging Usage: Give students opportunities to use newly learned words in their own
writing and speaking.

4. Objectives Behind and Steps Involved in Teaching Poetry

Objectives of Teaching Poetry:

Developing Language Skills: Poetry helps improve listening, speaking, reading, and writing
skills through exposure to varied and artistic use of language.

Enhancing Vocabulary and Grammar: Poetry introduces learners to new vocabulary,

figurative language, and different sentence structures.
Encouraging Creative Thinking: Poetry often involves metaphorical language and imagery,
which helps students develop interpretative and creative thinking skills.

Appreciating Literary Devices: Poetry is rich with literary devices (e.g., metaphors, similes,
alliteration, etc.), teaching students how language can be used for artistic and expressive
purposes.

Cultural Understanding: Through poetry, students gain insight into the culture, emotions, and
experiences of others, fostering empathy and cultural awareness.

Steps Involved in Teaching Poetry:

Step 1: Pre-reading Activities

Introducing the Poem’s Theme: Begin by discussing the poem's central theme or idea with
the students. Activate their prior knowledge or experiences related to the theme.

Background of the Poet: Provide information about the poet’s life, influences, and context,
which can offer insight into the poem’s meaning.

Key Vocabulary and Literary Devices: Explain difficult words or unfamiliar literary devices
before reading, so students can focus on the meaning of the poem rather than getting stuck
on vocabulary.

Step 2: Reading the Poem

First Reading: Read the poem aloud or have students read it, focusing on overall rhythm,
tone, and flow without pausing for detailed analysis.

Second Reading: Break down the poem stanza by stanza, line by line. Discuss the meaning
of each section, ensuring students understand the literal and figurative meanings.

Encouraging Personal Interpretation: After understanding the literal meaning, ask students
for their interpretations. Encourage them to reflect on how the poem makes them feel or
what it reminds them of.

Step 3: Analyzing the Poem

Identifying Literary Devices: Highlight the use of literary techniques (e.g., rhyme, metaphor,
personification) and discuss how they contribute to the poem’s meaning or mood.

Theme and Message: Focus on the overall message or themes of the poem. Discuss what
the poet is trying to communicate and how it relates to broader issues or human
experiences.
Tone and Mood: Analyze the emotional tone (e.g., joyful, melancholic) and how the poet's
choice of words creates the mood.

Step 4: Post-reading Activities

Discussion: Engage students in a discussion about their feelings, opinions, and

interpretations of the poem. Compare and contrast different views.

Creative Responses: Encourage students to respond creatively by writing their own poems,
creating art based on the poem’s theme, or dramatizing the poem.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing: Have students rewrite the poem in their own words to
ensure comprehension of both the literal and figurative meanings.

Recitation: Encourage students to memorize and recite the poem to practice rhythm,
pronunciation, and expression.

Conclusion:

Teaching vocabulary and poetry involves a structured approach that balances building
foundational language skills with fostering creativity and appreciation for language. By
carefully selecting vocabulary, using varied teaching techniques, and engaging students with
the richness of poetry, educators can create a dynamic and meaningful learning experience.

Unit 4
1. Audio-Visual Aids in Teaching English

Definition:
Audio-visual (AV) aids refer to tools and materials that use sight and sound to enhance
learning. They include various forms of technology such as videos, audio clips,
presentations, and visual materials that support the teaching of English.

Types of Audio-Visual Aids:

Audio Aids:

Radio Broadcasts: These provide learners with exposure to authentic spoken English,
helping improve listening skills.

Language Learning CDs/MP3s: Pre-recorded lessons or dialogues can be used for listening
comprehension practice.
Podcasts: These offer engaging and relevant content in English for learners at various
levels.

Visual Aids:

Pictures, Charts, and Posters: These provide visual context for vocabulary, grammar, and
sentence structures, helping learners better understand new concepts.

Flashcards: Useful for vocabulary reinforcement, flashcards can be used for individual
practice or group activities.

Graphic Organizers: Tools like mind maps, Venn diagrams, and flowcharts help students
organize their thoughts and understand relationships between ideas.

Audio-Visual Aids:

Videos and Films: These offer learners exposure to natural language use, accents, and
pronunciation. They can also illustrate culture and context in an engaging manner.

PowerPoint Presentations: Visual presentations that combine text, images, and multimedia
are useful for explaining complex ideas or providing structured learning.

Interactive Whiteboards (Smartboards): Teachers can use these to present content in an

interactive way, allowing students to engage directly with the material by manipulating text or
images on the board.

Benefits of Audio-Visual Aids:

Enhanced Understanding: By combining sound and visuals, students are better able to
comprehend new language structures, vocabulary, and pronunciation.

Increased Engagement: AV aids make lessons more dynamic, holding students’ attention
and fostering active participation.

Retention and Recall: Learners are more likely to remember what they’ve learned when
concepts are presented through multiple sensory channels.

Cultural Context: Video materials, for example, allow students to see real-life situations,
promoting understanding of cultural norms and usage in different contexts.

2. Use of Media for Teaching English

Definition:
Media in language teaching refers to the use of mass communication platforms (like
television, radio, newspapers, and the internet) to expose students to authentic language
input and cultural content.

Types of Media Used in Teaching English:

Television and Streaming Platforms:

English TV Shows/Films: Authentic shows and movies allow students to observe real
language use, idiomatic expressions, and varied accents.

Documentaries: These help students acquire subject-specific vocabulary and offer insight
into different topics and cultures.

Educational Channels (e.g., BBC Learning English): These channels offer targeted language
lessons, grammar explanations, and listening practice.

Radio and Podcasts:

English Radio Stations: Radio broadcasts in English provide real-time language exposure,
helping with listening comprehension and understanding conversational English.

Podcasts: They allow students to listen to spoken English on a wide range of topics, at their
own pace. Teachers can assign specific podcasts related to the lesson.

Newspapers and Magazines:

Print Media: Articles from English newspapers and magazines (physical or digital) help
students improve reading skills, expand vocabulary, and understand journalistic styles.

Digital Newspapers and Blogs: Online versions of news outlets or popular blogs expose
students to current topics and diverse writing styles.

Benefits of Using Media:

Exposure to Real-world English: Media offers learners exposure to natural, unstructured

language as it is used by native speakers in various contexts.

Cultural Enrichment: Media often introduces learners to cultural norms, values, and
practices, enhancing their understanding of the target language’s culture.

Accessibility: With the internet, students have instant access to global media, allowing for
flexible learning inside and outside the classroom.
Improving Listening and Reading Skills: Media content typically offers a balance of both
listening (via radio, podcasts, videos) and reading (via articles, captions, and subtitles).

3. Use of Online and Digital Applications for Innovative Teaching

Definition:
Digital applications refer to online tools and platforms that facilitate language learning in
innovative ways. These can include language learning apps, interactive websites, and digital
teaching aids.

Popular Online and Digital Applications:

Language Learning Apps:

Duolingo, Memrise, and Babbel: These apps offer personalized and gamified language
lessons that encourage vocabulary building, grammar practice, and conversational skills.

Quizlet: An app where teachers can create digital flashcards and quizzes to help students
review vocabulary and grammar.

Online Classrooms and LMS (Learning Management Systems):

Google Classroom, Moodle, Edmodo: These platforms allow teachers to manage courses,
share materials, set assignments, and engage with students in an online environment. They
often include forums for discussions, submission portals, and grading systems.

Interactive Learning Platforms:

Kahoot: A game-based platform that allows teachers to create quizzes and interactive
games that make vocabulary learning and grammar practice fun.

Nearpod: An interactive platform where teachers can create engaging lessons with quizzes,
polls, and real-time assessments.

Video Conferencing Tools:

Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Google Meet: These tools enable real-time virtual lessons, allowing
for interactive classes, group work, and face-to-face speaking practice, even in remote
settings.

Digital Storytelling and Writing Tools:

Storybird, Book Creator: These platforms allow students to create their own stories or books,
improving their writing skills and enhancing creativity.

Blogs and Wikis: Students can maintain a class blog or contribute to a wiki where they
practice writing, review vocabulary, and share their thoughts in English.

Advantages of Using Online and Digital Applications:

Interactivity and Engagement: Digital applications often include interactive elements like
quizzes, games, and real-time assessments, making learning more engaging.

Personalized Learning: Many applications use adaptive learning techniques, which tailor the
lessons to each student’s proficiency level and learning pace.

Immediate Feedback: Many apps and online platforms provide instant feedback on quizzes,
exercises, and assignments, allowing students to track their progress.

Global Access and Flexibility: Online tools and apps can be accessed from anywhere, at any
time, providing learners with flexibility to study at their convenience.

Collaborative Learning: Many digital platforms facilitate group work and peer-to-peer
learning, enhancing students’ communication and teamwork skills.

Conclusion

The integration of audio-visual aids, media, and digital applications into English teaching
provides numerous benefits that go beyond traditional methods. These tools make lessons
more dynamic, interactive, and suited to diverse learner needs, promoting a more engaging
and effective language learning experience. Teachers can leverage these modern aids to
cater to various learning styles, foster student participation, and support personalized
learning paths.

Unit 5
1. Need for and Criteria of a Good Lesson Plan

Need for a Lesson Plan:

Organized Instruction: A lesson plan ensures that the teaching is structured and follows a
logical sequence, making learning more efficient.
Time Management: It helps teachers allocate time effectively to various activities, ensuring
that all important content is covered within the given period.

Clear Objectives: It defines what students should learn by the end of the lesson, aligning
teaching with educational goals.

Preparedness: With a lesson plan, teachers are well-prepared with the necessary materials,
activities, and methods to engage students effectively.

Assessment Readiness: A well-prepared lesson plan incorporates assessment methods to

evaluate whether the learning objectives have been met.

Criteria of a Good Lesson Plan:

Clear Objectives: The objectives should be specific, measurable, and achievable within the
lesson. They must outline what students are expected to learn.

Student-Centered: The lesson should be designed to engage students actively, catering to

their interests and learning styles.

Sequential Structure: The content must be presented in a logical order, progressing from
simple to more complex ideas.

Variety of Teaching Methods: It should include different methods (e.g., discussions, activities,
visual aids) to accommodate different learning styles.

Flexibility: A good lesson plan allows for adjustments based on students' understanding and
engagement during the class.

Assessment Integration: It should include formative and summative assessments to check

students' progress.

Reflection and Feedback: At the end of the lesson, the teacher should reflect on the lesson’s
effectiveness and gather feedback from students.

2. Writing Specimen Lesson Plans for Teaching Prose, Poetry, Vocabulary, and Grammatical
Structures

Prose:

Objective: To understand the main ideas and details of the prose passage.

Introduction: A brief discussion on the theme of the prose.

Reading Activity: Students read the passage aloud or silently.

Explanation: Teacher explains difficult words and key concepts.

Discussion: Ask comprehension questions to check understanding.

Conclusion: Summarize the main points of the passage.

Poetry:

Objective: To appreciate the meaning, tone, and literary devices in the poem.

Introduction: Brief background about the poet and the poem’s theme.

First Reading: Teacher reads the poem aloud, focusing on rhythm and tone.

Explanation: Analyze each stanza for meaning, literary devices, and emotions.

Discussion: Ask interpretative and inferential questions.

Creative Activity: Students write a short poem or reflection related to the theme.

Vocabulary:

Objective: To learn new vocabulary words and use them in context.

Introduction: Introduce the new words with pictures or examples.

Explanation: Provide definitions, synonyms, and usage examples.

Practice: Students use the words in sentences or short paragraphs.

Game: Engage students in a vocabulary-related game (e.g., crossword, word match).

Grammatical Structures:

Objective: To understand and apply a specific grammatical rule.

Introduction: Provide examples of the grammatical structure (e.g., present continuous tense).

Explanation: Break down the structure and usage of the rule.

Practice: Provide exercises where students form sentences using the structure.

Application: Students create short dialogues or paragraphs using the grammar rule.
3. Importance and Characteristics of a Good Test

Importance of a Good Test:

Evaluates Learning: Tests assess whether students have understood and retained the
material taught.

Identifies Gaps: It helps identify areas where students are struggling and need further
instruction.

Measures Progress: Tests allow teachers to track students' progress over time.

Motivates Students: A well-designed test can motivate students to engage more with their
learning and study the material.

Provides Feedback: It gives both teachers and students feedback on their performance,
guiding future learning strategies.

Characteristics of a Good Test:

Validity: The test should measure what it is supposed to measure (e.g., a grammar test
should assess grammar knowledge).

Reliability: The test should yield consistent results when taken by the same group of
students under similar conditions.

Clarity: The instructions and questions should be clear, without ambiguity.

Fairness: The test should be unbiased, considering different learning styles and
backgrounds.

Comprehensive: It should cover a wide range of skills and topics relevant to the subject
matter.

Balanced Difficulty: It should include a mix of easy, moderate, and challenging questions.

Objective Scoring: The test should have a clear and consistent scoring system.

4. Types of Questions

Closed-ended Questions: These questions have a specific answer, typically factual or

short-response questions.

Example: "What is the past tense of 'go'?"

Open-ended Questions: These require students to provide a more detailed, thoughtful
response.

Example: "Why do you think the character acted that way?"

Inferential Questions: These require students to make inferences based on the information
provided.

Example: "What can you infer about the main character’s motivations?"

Interpretative Questions: These ask students to interpret the meaning behind a text,
statement, or situation.

Example: "What do you think the author was trying to convey with this metaphor?"

5. Objective Types of Questions, Their Merits and Demerits

Objective Types of Questions:

Multiple-choice Questions (MCQs): Students choose the correct answer from a set of
options.

Merits: Easy to score, can cover a wide range of content, measures factual knowledge.

Demerits: May encourage guessing, not suitable for testing higher-order thinking skills.

True/False Questions: Students determine if a statement is correct or not.

Merits: Simple and quick to administer and score.

Demerits: High chance of guessing correctly (50%), limited depth of knowledge tested.

Matching Questions: Students match items in two columns.

Merits: Can test a large amount of content in a short time, easy to score.

Demerits: May not assess deep understanding, only factual recall.

Fill-in-the-Blanks: Students complete sentences by filling in missing words.

Merits: Assesses recall and knowledge application, more open than MCQs.
Demerits: Can be too narrow or too broad, may lead to ambiguity in responses.

6. Small, Paragraph, and Essay Questions, Their Merits and Demerits

Small Questions (Short-answer):

Merits: Quick to answer, tests factual knowledge, encourages precision.

Demerits: May not assess deep understanding, can be superficial.

Paragraph Questions:

Merits: Allows for more detailed responses, assesses understanding and synthesis of
information.

Demerits: Time-consuming to answer and grade, may result in incomplete responses under
time pressure.

Essay Questions:

Merits: Tests deep understanding, critical thinking, and the ability to organize and present
arguments.

Demerits: Time-consuming for both students and teachers, may be biased by writing skills
rather than content knowledge.

7. Tests in Vocabulary, Structures, and Reading Comprehension

Vocabulary Tests:

Word Definition: Students provide definitions for words.

Synonyms/Antonyms: Students identify or provide words with similar or opposite meanings.

Usage: Students use given words in sentences.

Structure (Grammar) Tests:

Fill-in-the-Blanks: Students fill in missing grammatical elements (e.g., tense, prepositions).

Sentence Correction: Students identify and correct grammatical errors in sentences.

Sentence Transformation: Students rewrite sentences using a specific grammatical
structure.

Reading Comprehension Tests:

Factual Questions: Assess recall of specific details from the text.

Inferential Questions: Ask students to infer meanings or ideas from the text.

Interpretative Questions: Require students to interpret the themes, tone, or message of the
text.

Each test type should be aligned with the learning objectives, ensuring that students are
evaluated on the relevant skills and content.