GEO 2217: Introduction to Land Surveying

Introduction:
1.0 DEFINITION OF SURVEY
Surveying is the process of determining the relative position of
natural and man- made features on or under the earth's surface, the
presentation of this information either graphically in the form of
plans or numerically in the form of tables, and the setting out of
measurements on the earth's surface. It is a technique of determining
the relative position of different features on, above or beneath the
surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and
finally representing them on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.
It can also be defined as the science of determining the relative
positions of objects or points on the earth's surface. These points may
be any physical thing: a highway, culvert, ditch, storm drain inlet, or
property corner. Distances and directions determine the horizontal
positions of these points.
It can also be defined as the scientific process of measuring the
dimensions of a particular area of the earth's surface, including its
horizontal distances, directions, angles, and elevations. Artificial
structures, such as a road or building, may also be noted on a survey.
Once these measurements are taken, they can be used to make a map
or even a globe.
The word surveying means:
1. The study or practice of measuring altitudes, angles, and distances
on the land surface so that they can be accurately plotted on a map.
2. The setting out on the ground of the positions of proposed
construction or engineering works.
The surveyor may be called on to determine heights and distances; to
set out buildings, bridges and roadways; to determine areas and
volumes and to draw plans at a predetermined scale.

A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications

and technical expertise to conduct one, or more, of the following
activities;

 to determine, measure and represent land, three-dimensional

objects, point-fields and trajectories;
 to assemble and interpret land and geographically related
information,
 to use that information for the planning and efficient
administration of the land, the sea and any structures thereon;
and,
 to conduct research into the above practices and to develop them.
This allows researchers to collect data about the dynamic places,
people, and species around them. Field work enables students and
researchers to examine the way scientific theories interact with real
life. Field work is important in both the social and natural sciences.

1.1 CATEGORIES
There are two major categories of surveying:

1. Plane Surveying

Plane surveying deals with areas of limited extent and it is assumed

that the earth’s surface is a plane and therefore no corrections
necessary for the earth’s curvature.

2. Geodetic Surveying

Geodetic surveying is concerned with determining the size and shape

of the earth and it also provides a high-accuracy framework for the
control of lower order surveys. The highest standards of accuracy are
 necessary. Geodetic surveys cover relatively large areas (e.g. a state
or country) for which the effects of earth curvature must be
considered. It aimed to establish a network of horizontal and vertical
monuments that serves as a reference framework for initiating other
surveys and research, always goes beyond the smaller horizontal and
vertical measurements of distances, angles, sizes as well as latitude
and longitude, it is carried out at National level and often involves
international cooperation.

1.2 BRANCHES
Apart from the two main categories, we may also classify surveys
according to their different branches and those disciplines directly
associated with surveying:

1. Topographic Surveys are concerned with the measurement and

mapping of the physical features of the earth. These features are all
natural and manmade features.
2. Engineering Surveys cover surveys carried out as part of the
preparation for, and carrying out of, engineering works, including
roads, railways, pipelines, drainage etc.

3. Cadastral Surveys are concerned with the measurement, definition

and mapping and recording of property boundaries.

4. Hydrographic Surveys are those made for determining the shape of

the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbours and oceans. They also include
the measurement of the flow of water in streams and the estimation
of water resources.

5. Aerial Surveys are made from an aeroplane, and for the purpose of
mapping the terrain. The control for such a map is obtained from
ground surveys, but the details are obtained from aerial photographs.
This includes making measurements and interpretations from aerial
photographs.

6. Astronomic Surveys are surveys made to determine the latitude,

longitude and azimuth from observations to the stars.

7. Mining Surveys are those made to determine survey control for the
development of both surface and underground mines within the
mining industry, and the determination of volumes in mine
production.
8. Computing is a specialized area of surveying where complex
computer programs are used to solve problems within the surveying
industry.

9. Consulting is another specialized area of surveying where specialist

surveyors are hired for a short period of time to advise on the
requirements for a specific task or to perform the specific task.

The above surveys have a common stem in skills and training. They
have little or nothing in common with marine surveys, public opinion
surveys, quantity surveys etc.

1.3 HISTORY OF SURVEYING

It is quite probable that surveying had its origins in ancient Egypt.
The Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza was built c. 2700 BC, 755 feet
long and 480 feet high. Its nearly perfect squareness and north-south
orientation affirm the ancient Egyptians' command of surveying.

Evidence of some form of boundary surveying as early as 1400 BC

has been found in the fertile valleys and plains of the Tigris,
Euphrates, and Nile rivers. Clay tablets of the Sumerians show
records of land measurement and plans of cities and nearby
agricultural areas. Boundary stones marking land plots have been
preserved.

There is a representation of land measurement on the wall of a tomb

at Thebes in Egypt (1400 BC) showing head and rear chainmen
measuring a grain field with what appears to be a rope with knots or
marks at uniform intervals. Other persons are shown. Two are of high
estate, according to their clothing, probably a land overseer and an
inspector of boundary stones.

Fig. 1.1 Surveying in Egypt

There is some evidence that, in addition to a marked cord, wooden
rods were used by the Egyptians for distance measurement.
The Egyptians had the groma, which was used to establish right
angles. It was made of a horizontal wooden cross, pivoted at the
middle and supported from above. From the end of each of the four
arms hung a plumb bob. A plumb bob is a shaped weight that hangs
from a string. Because of the weight, the string will always be vertical.

Fig. 1.2 Egyptian Groma

By sighting along each pair of plumb bob cords in turn, the right angle
could be established. The device could be adjusted to a precise right
angle by observing the same angle after turning the device
approximately 90°. By shifting one of the cords to take up half the
error, a perfect right angle would result.

There is no record of any angle-measuring instruments of that time,

but there was a level consisting of a vertical wooden A-frame with a
plumb bob supported at the peak of the A so that its cord hung past
an indicator, or index, on the horizontal bar. The index could be
properly placed by standing the device on two supports at
approximately the same elevation, marking the position of the cord,
reversing the A, and making a similar mark. Halfway between the two
marks would be the correct place for the index.

Fig. 1.3
Thus, with their simple devices, the ancient Egyptians were able to
measure land areas, replace property corners lost when the Nile
covered the markers with silt during floods, and build the huge
pyramids to exact dimensions.

The Greeks used a form of log line for recording the distances run
from point to point along the coast while making their slow voyages
from the Indus to the Persian Gulf about 325 BC.

The Greeks introduced the astrolabe, which is an instrument to

measure the altitude of stars above the horizon, in the 2nd century
BC. It took the form of a graduated arc suspended from a hand-held
cord. A pivoted pointer that moved over the graduations was pointed
at the star. The instrument was not used for nautical surveying for
several centuries, remaining a scientific aid only.

During their occupation of Egypt, the Romans acquired Egyptian

surveying instruments, which they improved slightly and to which
they added the water level and the plane table.

About 15 BC the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius mounted a

large wheel of known circumference in a small frame, in much the
same fashion as the wheel is mounted on a wheelbarrow; when it was
pushed along the ground by hand it automatically dropped a pebble
into a container at each revolution, giving a measure of the distance
travelled. It was, in effect, the first odometer.

Fig. 1.4
The water level consisted of either a trough or a tube turned upward
at the ends and filled with water. At each end there was a sight made
of crossed horizontal and vertical slits. When these were lined up just
above the water level, the sights determined a level line accurate
enough to establish the grades of the Roman aqueducts.
In laying out their great road system, the Romans are said to have
used the plane table. It consists of a drawing board mounted on a
tripod (a three legged stand similar to that used by photographers)
or other stable support.

Fig. 1.5
It also consists of a straightedge ruler, usually with sights for accurate
aim (the alidade) to the objects to be mapped, along which lines are
drawn. It was the first device capable of recording or establishing
angles. Later adaptations of the plane table had magnetic compasses
attached.

Arab traders brought the magnetic compass to the west in the 12th
century AD.

Plane tables were in use in Europe in the 16th century. Surveyors

practiced the principle of graphic triangulation and intersection. In
1615 Willebrord Snell, a Dutch mathematician, measured an arc of
meridian by instrumental triangulation.

In 1620 the English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed a

surveying chain, which was superseded only by the steel tape in the
beginning of the 20th century.

Fig. 1.6
A surveyor’s chain consists of a series of links, each link about 0.2m
long, used to measure distances accurately. Every 10 links (about
2m) has a small disc hanging from the chain, so that the position can
be accurately measured.

Fig. 1.7
The study of astronomy resulted in the development of angle-reading
devices that were based on arcs of large radii, making such
instruments too large for field use.

With the publication of logarithmic tables in 1620, portable angle

measuring instruments came into use. They were called topographic
instruments, or theodolites. They included pivoted arms for sighting
and could be used for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles.
Magnetic compasses may have been included on some.

The vernier, an auxiliary scale permitting more accurate readings

(1631), the micrometer microscope (1638), telescopic sights (1669),
and spirit levels (about 1700) were all incorporated in theodolites by
about 1720.

The development of the circle-dividing engine about 1775, a device

for dividing a circle into degrees with great accuracy, brought one of
the greatest advances in surveying methods, as it enabled angle
measurements to be made with portable instruments far more
accurately than had previously been possible.

By the late 18th century modern surveying can be said to have begun.
One of the most notable early feats of surveyors was the
measurement in the 1790s of the meridian from Barcelona, Spain, to
Dunkirk, France, by two French engineers, Jean Delambre and Pierre
Méchain. This was to establish the basic unit for the metric system of
measurement.

Many improvements and refinements have been incorporated in all

the basic surveying instruments. These have resulted in increased
accuracy and speed of operations and have opened up possibilities
for improved methods in the field.

During the nineteenth century, the combination of a hot air balloon

and a camera were used to produce maps and plans. It was difficult to
survey large areas because the balloons were slow moving and a new
photographic negative had to be loaded into the camera after each
photograph was taken. In 1862 union soldiers used cameras mounted
in hot air balloons to map behind the confederate lines.

It was not until the turn of the twentieth century, with the
developments of the aircraft and invention of the roll of photographic
film, that aerial photographs started to be used extensively within the
survey industry.

The first light wave Electronic Distance Measurement instrument

was developed in 1943 to measure the velocity of light. Once the
velocity of light was known, it was then possible to reverse the
process so that a distance could be measured.

In 1954, the light wave was replaced by a radio wave to increase the
distance that could be measured. In the late 1960s, lasers were first
used with EDMs.

In the mid to late 1970s, the United States of America sent their first
Global Positioning System satellites into space. The final development
was the extensive use of computers to perform most common data
processing and recording of survey data.

1.4 THE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF SURVEYING

Surveying like other field of study has its own elements. There are
four major elements of surveying. These elements are also known as
methods of conducting surveying. In other textbook, these elements
are termed as types of surveying cartographers).
(a) Chain or tape surveying
(b) Prismatic compass survey
(c) Plane table surveying
(d) Leveling technique

1.5 THE SURVEY PROCESS

The following sequence of steps is commonly followed when
carrying out a survey:

(i) Reconnaissance / preliminary inspection/primary

surveying
Is the process of taking general view of the land to be surveyed in
order to get real picture of the work to be done. It is done by visual
observation of the area. During the reconnaissance the surveyor does
walking around the area to be surveyed and taking general views and
noting down the dominant features area, Boundaries of the area,
Corners of the boundaries of the area and Other structures such as
building, big trees, ponds, lakes, small hills etc.
Importance of reconnaissance
(i) It helps to get the full picture of the survey to be conducted
(ii) It helps for choosing the scale for map making
(iii) It makes survey for new coordinates and old coordinate easier
(iv) It shows the existing situation on a piece of paper
During the reconnaissance phase, the surveyor will obtain an overall
picture of the area that the project will be conducted in. They will
select where the control points will be located, the accuracy required
for the control, and which survey instruments will be required for the
project.

(ii) Measurement and Marking (Actual Survey)

During the measurement and marking phase, the surveyor will
perform all the observations in the field required to accurately
determine the control points, as well as placing and observing to any
temporary points such as wooden pegs. They would also perform any
calculations from the observations, such as angular and linear
misclose and area and volume calculations.

(iii) Plan Preparation (Mapping)

During the plan preparation phase, the calculations that were
performed from the field observations would be further enhanced
and used to produce the final plans for the project.
Note:
Control – The accepted surveying practice is to work
from the whole to the part when establishing
control. That is, select a small number of
primary control points that cover the whole
area and form a well-defined network of
figures. These are broken down into a
smaller network of figures as required.
Accuracy – Some projects do not require the highest
possible accuracy, and, therefore, it is not
always necessary to use the highest possible
precision. This point is further reinforced by
1.6 the usual contracting requirement that the
UNITS job be done in the shortest possible time at
OF the least possible cost. Equipment and
techniques to be used need to be carefully
considered so that the project is completed
according to instructions, using the most
appropriate methods.

MEASUREMENT
The system of measurement used for surveying in Australia is
Système International (SI). Throughout this text SI unit will be used;
the most commonly used in surveying being shown below.

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Kilometre, metre, km m mm

millimetre

square metre m2 ha
Area
hectare

cubic metre m3
Volume

Angle °
degrees minutes '
seconds "

Mass (Weight)
kg
Kilogram
Temperature
°C
Degrees
Celsius
 The S1 unit for an angle is the radian (rad), but most surveying instruments
measure in degrees, minutes and seconds, which is known as the sexagesimal
system. This is the only unit of measure that is not SI.

- Horizontal Measurements

SI-units (metric system) are used (Km, m, and mm) in few cases, English Foot
System can be used (Miles, feet and inches). For example, 1ft = 0.3048m; 1km
= 0.62131miles; 1hectare = 2.471acres; 1km2 = 1,000,000m2; 1km2 =
100hectare = 100 (ha).

- Angular Measurements

Are angles between baselines or reference directions and survey lines or

objects to be fixed out Degrees are usually used but in few cases-
gradians/gons are used.
For Degrees: 1Revolution = 3600, 1Degree = 60’; 1Minute = 60’; 1Minute 60"
seconds. For Gons: 1Revolution = 400gons; 1gon = 100mgon; 400gons =
3600 =2Л radians.
- Angles are measured in degrees (00).
- A right angle is 900 in a sexagesimal system.
- Linear or Horizontal measurements are distances between points on the
land (ground) recorded in metres. Equipment used to measures are chains,
tapes, steel band, optical methods, electronics methods. Angular
measurements are measured through magnetic compass, theodolites and
levels.

1.7 PURPOSES OF SURVEYING

Broadly speaking, surveying is purposely for map making or plan over a

certain area/place, showing the existing situation of the area for development
It also required in planning. For example, planning of village settlements, town
planning (rural and urban planning) Communication purposes for example
construction of railroad, road, telephone lines and electric lines. Location of
physical and non - physical features on the land, either surface. For example,
farms, forest, football pitch, villages etc. adding details to the maps.

Surveying is the making of measurement in the field from which maps are
drawn. The map is the most essential piece of equipment that geographer,
pilot and planner use. The method is the method of surveying in which only
 linear measurements are taken in the field. Its principle is built upon the
framework of triangles. It aimed to measure a series of straight lines on the
ground with a chain or tape. It is the simplest method and common of making
linear or horizontal measurements for small area. The process involves fixing
of two relatively measured lines called tie (ties) or by right angles (off - sets)
(90˚).

Chaining (with chains) is the process of the direct measurement of a line,

although it is not necessarily with a chain. The main types of chain that are
used for chaining are the Gunter’s chain, The Engineer’s chain and the metric
chain. Chaining is the process of measuring distance using chains with the
help of ranging poles, pins and other gears.

 It helps to prepare a military map showing the road and railway

communications with different parts of a country.
 It helps to prepare a map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find
the best possible route for roads, railways, etc.
 It helps to prepare a geological map showing areas including underground
resources.
 It helps to prepare an archaeological map including places ancient relics exist.
 It helps to prepare a which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns,
forests, etc. of a country.
 It helps to prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of the fields, houses
and other properties.
 It help to prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering
works such as roads, railways, reservoirs, canals, etc.

1.8 RESPONSIBILITIES, ROLE AND TASKS OF A SURVEYOR

Surveying is classified as a learned profession because the modern surveyor
needs a wide background of technical training and experience and must
exercise independent judgement.

A Surveyor is a semi-professional who is the leader of a small, but expert

team, usually consisting of the surveyor with one or more survey assistants.

A surveyor must have a thorough knowledge of mathematics, particularly

geometry and trigonometry and calculus, a solid understanding of survey
theory and instruments. They must also have a thorough knowledge of
methods in the areas of geodesy, photogrammetry, remote sensing,
 cartography and computers, with some competence in economics (including
office management), geography, geology, astronomy and town planning, and a
familiarity with laws pertaining to land and boundaries. They are governed by
a professional code of ethics.

The surveyor, as the leader of the team, will be required to make most of the
decisions necessary for the smooth running of the team to ensure that the
required tasks are fulfilled.
Responsibilities of a Surveyor

The responsibilities of the surveyor are many and varied, but can generally be
reduced to the following:

a. Responsibility to the Task

The surveyor is responsible for completing the task required in the most
efficient manner and in the time available.

All effort must be made to ensure that the information supplied by the
surveyor is as accurate as is possible to complete the task. Not all tasks
require the same order of accuracy. By an understanding of the task the
surveyor must decide on the accuracy to be achieved.

b. Responsibility to the Client or Employer

The surveyor has a responsibility to the client or employer to produce what

the client requires, within the budget restraints.

This may need patience and tact in explaining to the client the limitations to a
task.

c. Responsibility to the Community

The surveyor has a responsibility to the community in general, to ensure that

work undertaken by his team does not damage property or interfere with
members of the community.

Permission must be sought before accessing private property or before

removing trees or shrubbery to enable survey measurements.
 The surveyor has a responsibility to protect the public in the purchases and
sales of land.

d. Responsibility to the team

The surveyor, as the leader of the survey team, has a responsibility to the
members of that team and must ensure that their needs are met regarding
their leave, pay, OH&S etc.

The surveyor has a responsibility to ensure that all members of the team
receive the training needed, not only to complete the task at hand, but also to
enable them to advance within their chosen professions.
Role of a Surveyor

The role of the surveyor is that of the leader of the team. With that role come
the responsibilities outlined above.

The role of the surveyor is to perform the measurements necessary to

complete any task required.
Tasks of a Surveyor

The tasks performed by a surveyor will depend on which branch of surveying

they practice in. The most common tasks involve the determination of height
and distances.

For the Cadastral Surveyor, the main tasks involve the determination of
property boundaries.

For the Topographical Surveyor, the main tasks involve the location of detail
on the earth’s surface for the production of maps.

For the Engineer Surveyor, the main tasks include the setting out of buildings,
sewers, drains, bridges and roadways; determining areas and volumes of
regular and irregular figures; the preparation of detailed drawings and plans.

For the Mine Surveyor, the main tasks include the setting out of mine lease
boundaries and the calculation of end-of-month volumes.
Responsibilities, Role and Tasks of a Survey Assistant
The survey assistant is an important and integral part of any survey party.
Most measurements performed by a surveyor require the assistance of
another person, be it levelling with a staffman or distance measurement with
a chainman.

Responsibilities of a Survey Assistant

The main responsibility of the survey assistant is to assist the surveyor in

performing his or her tasks.

Role of a Survey Assistant

As mentioned above, most surveys require at least two people, the surveyor
and another, to be able to undertake the necessary measurements.

The role of the Survey Assistant is to be that second person in the

performance of survey measurements.

Tasks of a Survey Assistant

The tasks performed by the Survey Assistant will depend on what the
surveyor is undertaking.

The primary task for the Survey Assistant will be as a chainman and a
staffman, although he/she may also be required to make sure that the
equipment is kept clean and ready to be used.

The Survey Assistant will also look after the vehicle, making sure that it is
refuelled, cleaned and correctly packed for use. Each morning the Survey
Assistant will pack the vehicle with the survey equipment needed for the day.

While on the work site, the Survey Assistant will also perform the manual
labour, such as clearing lines of sight of vegetation and clearing around survey
control points.
While traversing, the Survey Assistant will also work ahead of the Surveyor,
plumbing tripods and targets over control points for the Surveyor to observe
to.

In general, the Survey Assistant will perform whatever task is needed to help
the Surveyor complete their work.