READINGS: September 10, 2024

1. What are the Marxist and Non-Marxist Theories of Development?

(Marx on Development/Approaches to Stages of Development/; p.28-42)
2. Critique them all.

MARXIAN THEORY OF THE SOCIAL PRODUCTION PROCESS

-Human societies survive, evolve and develop through production. People must produce
goods and services for their sustenance.
Social Production has two (2) aspects in the production process.
1. Man’s relation with nature
2. Man’s relationship with man
I. Forces of Production (Marxian Theory)
A. Objects of Labour (Natural Resources) - natural resources lands, minerals,
metals etc..
B. Instruments or Means of Labour (Implements of some sort) - used to apply
implements, can be the simplest kind like hammers, shovels, or spades.
Includes complicated machinery.
( A and B =Material Basis of Production) A.K.A the means of production
C. Labour Power (Human Labour )- People’’s own toil, the sum total in the
production of man’s effort, talent and latent capabilities to transform nature
literally by his own hands
The concept of "forces of production" in Marxist theory refers to the combination of
the means of production (objects and instruments of labor) and labor power. It
represents the technological and human capacity of a society to produce goods and
services. The advancement of forces of production, often linked to technological
progress, is a key driver of societal development.

Example: The Industrial Revolution, Before the Industrial Revolution, most

manufacturing was done by hand in small workshops or homes. However, with the
invention of machines like the spinning jenny and the steam engine, production
became much more efficient and large-scale. This shift from manual labor to
machine-powered production marked a significant advancement in the forces of
production. As a result, societies experienced rapid economic growth, urbanization,
and social changes.

II. Relations of Production

Relations of production refers to the social interactions and relationships that
people have while producing goods and services. It includes how people work
together, their roles and responsibilities, and the power dynamics between them.
 These relationships form the foundation of the economy.
The sum total of social relations that human beings establish among themselves in
the social production process is also called the economic base. Thus, relations of
production are not limited to the point of production but extend to distribution as well.

III. Social Surplus and Class Relations

Surplus product is the production which is over and above what is necessary for the
maintenance of the instruments and objects of labour. In simple terms, you can think of it
(for the economy as a whole) as the national income or the social product.

Surplus Product: In any society beyond primitive stages, production generates surplus quantities of
goods. Surplus product refers to what is produced beyond what’s necessary for maintaining the tools
and objects of labor.

Think of it as the national income or the overall social product.

Distribution of Surplus: The surplus needs to be distributed among those who contribute to the
production process. Marxian theory investigates how this distribution occurs.

Class Differentiation: Marx identifies classes based on their position in the production process.
Two broad classes emerge:

Owners of Means of Production: These individuals control and profit from the means of production
(e.g., capitalists, landowners).

Non-Owners: Those who work but do not own the means of production (e.g., workers, laborers).

Exploitation and Class Struggle:

● Unequal distribution of surplus leads to exploitation.

● Class struggle arises as the exploited class seeks a fair share of the social product.
● The Communist Manifesto famously states that history is the story of class struggles.
● Ruling Class and Surplus Appropriation:
● The ruling class maintains its position by appropriating the surplus product.
● Their power lies in controlling this surplus

IV. Mode of Production and Superstructure

Mode of Production is essentially the economic system of a society. It's determined by two
main factors:

1. Means of Production: These are the tools, machinery, and resources used in
production.
2. Relations of Production: These are the social relationships involved in production,
like those between workers and owners.

Superstructure refers to the non-economic aspects of society, including:

● Legal system
● Political system
● Cultural institutions
● Social beliefs and values

The Relationship Between Mode of Production and Superstructure:

Marx argued that the mode of production is the foundation upon which the superstructure
is built. This means that the economic system of a society shapes its laws, government,
culture, and beliefs.

For example, in a feudal society (where land ownership is concentrated and labor is tied to
the land), the legal system might favor the aristocracy, and the cultural values might
emphasize loyalty and obedience to the lord. In a capitalist society (where private
ownership of the means of production is dominant), the legal system might protect property
rights, and cultural values might emphasize individualism and competition.

In summary, the mode of production is the economic base, and the superstructure is the
social and cultural superstructure that is shaped by that base.

● Marxian Analysis of the stages of development

Marx's theory of social progress posits that societies evolve through distinct stages, each characterized
by a unique mode of production. A mode of production is defined by the forces of production
(technology and labor) and the relations of production (social relationships and economic structures).
For a mode of production to be sustainable, there must be a harmonious relationship between its forces
and relations. When this harmony is disrupted, social conflict and change can occur. Marx emphasized the
role of class struggle in driving social change. As the forces of production develop, contradictions
between classes can arise, leading to revolutionary transformations.

When the existing relations of production hinder the development of the forces of production, a
revolutionary situation can emerge, leading to a transition to a new mode of production.
The superstructure (e.g., laws, institutions, culture) is influenced by the mode of production but can also
have an impact on it. Some argue that his focus on economic factors overemphasizes the role of class
struggle and underestimates the importance of other factors, such as culture, ideas, and individual agency.

5 stages of production
1. Primitive communism- early human societies ( hunting, nomadic pastoralism and stationary
agriculture) characterized by communal ownership of resources and simple forms of labor. The
level of consumption in this stage is extremely low and there is no surplus production. There are
no division on the basis of classes in such a social system.
2. Ancient Slavery- Societies based on the exploitation of slave labor. A corollary to the origin of
property was the first division of the society into classes, into exploiters and exploited, into
slave-owners and slaves. Thisled to the organization of the slave mode of production. The slave
was the property I of his master; the latter took away the whole of the product, leaving the slave
only the barest minimum for subsistence.
3. Feudalism- A hierarchical system with a landed aristocracy and serf labor. Serfs were tied to the
land through political and legal mechanisms. They cultivate the land through the payment of
feudal ground rent.
4. Capitalism- A system based on private ownership of the means of production and wage labor.
The capitalist, or the owner of these establishments, hires labor power in order to produce. The
owner of labor power, i.e., the worker, is no longer tied to the land as in feudalism but is free
to sell his labor power.

Marx's analysis of capitalism revolves around the concept of commodity production, which means that
goods are produced for sale in the market rather than for personal use. This system is characterized by:

● Private Ownership: The means of production (factories, land, machinery) are owned by
individuals or corporations, not the state.
● Wage Labor: Workers are employed for wages and do not own the means of production.
● Surplus Value: Capitalists extract surplus value from workers by paying them less than the value
of what they produce.
● Class Struggle: The conflict between the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers) is
central to capitalist society.

Marx argued that capitalism is inherently exploitative because capitalists profit from the labor of
workers without paying them the full value of what they produce. This exploitation creates class tensions
and contradictions that ultimately lead to social change.

5. Communism/Socialism- vision of socialism/communalism was that it would be characterized by

collective ownership of means of production and would be free of various 'ills' like exploitation of
capitalism and other earlier antagonistic modes of production. Communal ownership of resources
and the elimination of class distinctions.
➔ In the lower form of communism, People are paid based on how hard they work and what they
own. The government controls what people can make and sell.
➔ In the higher form of communism, The government doesn't really exist anymore. People share
everything based on their needs, not how much they work or own.
 6. Asiatic Mode of Production- it had a primarily agricultural economy with small units of
production. At the same time, it had centralized state and bureaucracy. Regulation of water
supplies was its primary source of power.

● German Historical School theorist

➢ Fredrich List
- He argued English School of its lack of interest in deriving from the study and
examination of empirical historical processes. his theory concentrated upon the transition
from the agricultural stage to one on a higher level by introducing manufacture. Basically,
proposed a theory of economic growth based on historical stages.
- In essence, List's theory is criticized for being incomplete, geographically biased, He
argued that only countries with temperate climates were suited for manufacturing,
disregarding the potential of other regions to industrialize., and lacking a strong
explanatory framework, List offered little explanation for how and why transitions
between stages occurred. It primarily served to champion protectionism rather than
providing a general theory of economic growth.
-
5 stages of growth
a) the savage stage, b) the pastoral stage, c) the agricultural stage, d) the agriculture and manufacturing
stage, and e) agricultural, manufacturing and commercial stage.

➢ Bruno Hildebrand
He presents 3 stages of development; a) Natural or Barter Economy, b) Money Economy, and c) Credit
Economy.

➢ Karl Bucher
Bucher suggests three stages, a) the stage of independent domestic or household economy, b) the stage of
town economy, c) the stage of national economy.

There is no exchange in the domestic economy. Production is mainly for the household. Although
there is division af labour an institutionalised system of exchange is absent. But certain items of
commerce, like weights and measures were present. Exchange is present in the next stage, the
town economy. However, exchange is limited to goods which pass directly from the producer to
the consumer, i.e., ideally all production for exchange is customer production. The gradual
dissolution of the domestic economy leads to the transition to the town economy. The stage of
national economy is characterised by Bucher as that in which goods are produced wholesale for a
market which constitutes the characteristic institution through which they circulate. The producer
and consumer are typically unknown to each other, and goods normally pass through many hands
before they reach the ultimate consumer. According to Bucher, the transition from the town
economy to the national economy is facilitated by the creation of the unified nation state.
 ➢ Werner Sombart
Sombart classifies his stages not on the basis of linear historical periodicity, but on the basis of the degree
of social interaction. He calls the three stages a) individual economy, b) transitional economy, and c)
social economy.

● Individual economy depicts a stage in which social interaction exists primarily within the
household and in which only slight contact occurs with other economically activeunits (an
example of this stage is tribal economy or joint family production).
● In the transitional stage, people work together to meet everyone's needs, but they also do some
things on their own. It's like a mix of working together and doing things alone.
● In the social economy, people rely on each other for everything. They don't do much on their
own. This is how things work in many modern societies, like capitalism and socialism.

Production may be carried on for the sake of satisfaction of needs what is, for subsistence or for
the sake of acquisition. The fist two economic stages are characterised by production for
subsistence. The third stage, that of social economy, with the exception of a socialist economy is
invariably characterised by the principle of acquisition.

There are two aspects of Sombart's theory that merit attention. The first in his insistence on the
degree of interaction agshaping the form that economic processes take in a particular stage. The
second is his introduction of the concept of motivating economic activity as an important factor
influencing. In stressing the importance of motivation in the shift to a higher stage of
development, particularly in explaining the emergence of capitalism Somabrt differed from Marx
in that he believed that economic consciousness and ideology determine the form of economic
organisation rather than the other.way around. AccordJ"g to ' Sombart the same spirit which gave
rise to the new state, to reforms in christianity, to the new science and technology also made
possible the emergence of capitalism. The blend of what Sombart called the 'bourgeous spirit' and
the 'entrepreneurial spirit' made up, according to him the 'capitalist spirit'-the psychological state
which facilitated the development of capitalism.

➢ Hoselitz's Views on The German Historical School

Hoselitz points out that if the stages-of-growth theories have to become ,' useful theories to
analyze economic development, they must rise above mere historical categorisation. They should
try to relate the inner logic of production in each stage and trace the interilal dynamics of change
so that a theory in the prow sense of the term can be build around it. Obviously this will some of
the stages descriptively less accurate but then that is the price one has to pay for theorisation.

"In order to be of maximum usefulness for a theory of ecanomic growth, economic stages must be
constructed in such a way as to minimise the likelihood that the process of economic change
illuminated by these constructs, the merely "possible", rather than the "true",

➢ ROSTOW'S ANALYSIS OF THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

 Rostow's main attempt was to evolve a historical approach to industrialisation and further
material advance. He is more concerned with the period just preceding the industrial period-the
period of transition where industrialisation take proper roots in his economy-and the age of
economic maturity and prosperity hence forth.

A distinctive feature of Rostow's theory is that these stages are not merely descriptive. Rather one
stage can be clearly distinguished from another by some crucial socio-economic parameters.

1. Traditional Society

recognizes "the story of traditional society was a story of endless Change -but the level of
productivity was limited by inaccessibility of modem science, its application and its
frame of mind.

A traditional society is characterized by a reliance on pre-Newtonian science and

technology, limiting its productive capacity due to factors such as limited technological
innovation, subsistence-based economies, and social structures that prioritize tradition
and hierarchy over economic growth. (very old-fashioned and uses old ways of doing
things.)

2 characteristics
- Societies main resources are from agriculture and there was a big difference in
social classes.
- Even though there was a government, power was often held by people who
owned land.

➔ Pre-Conditions for Take Off

This period of initial transition-where changes in a dynamic sense begin to be visible in the society-is
classified in the pre-condition stage.
This is the stage where a country is getting ready to take off and grow quickly. It takes time to change
how people think and act, so that they can use new technology and ideas to make things better. In
Rostow's metaphor of an aeroplane, this is the stage where the propeller starts roaring though the air craft
still stays stationary. This is like when an airplane's engines start to run, but the plane doesn't move yet.
Britain was one of the first countries to do this. Sometimes, other countries helped them start this change.
These changes include new ways of learning, new banks, and better ways to move things around. But
even with these changes, the country still had some old ways of doing things.

➔ The take off

the great watershed in the life of modernmsocieties. Airpane flies off the ground.

During the take off, industries expand rapidly, yielding profits that are reinvested, themrate of effective
investment and savings will rise from. Basically, businesses grow bigger and make more money. Money
is invested in new technologies to grow faster like farmers start using new ways to grow more food, then
produce more products which is also important for growth.
The take-off is specifically defined as requiring all three of the following conditions:

1) a rise in the rate of productive investment from 5 per cent or less to 10 per cent or more of national
income.

2) the development of one or more manufacturing sectors, with a high rate of growth.

3) the existence or quick emergence of a political, social and institutional framework which exploits the
impulses to expansion in the modem sector and the potential external economic effects of the take-off
gives growth an on-going character.

The Take-off stage is therefore a period when the seale of productive activity reaches a critical level and
produces changes which lead to a massive and progressive structural transformation in economies.
➔ The drive to maturity
After the take-off there is a long interval of sustained, may be fluctuating progress as the steady-growth
economy tries to extend modem technology over the whole front of its economic activity.

When a country has been growing for about 60 years, it reaches a mature stage. At this stage, the
economy is strong and can do many different things. The airplane is fully borne and is flying at a certain
height. The country can now use the latest technology and resources to produce many different kinds of
goods and services.

➔ The Age of High Mass Consumption

At this mature stage, the economy is primarily driven by durable consumer goods and services. This
represents a level of technical advancement beyond basic industrialization. As a result, the welfare state
often emerges during this period.

Rostow thought that all countries had to follow the same steps to become rich and modern. He said they
needed to save a lot of money and invest it wisely. But this doesn't always work. India, for example, tried
to follow this plan, but it took a long time and didn't work very well.

Rostow didn't explain why countries change from one stage to another. He just described the different
stages without really explaining how they happen. His focuses only in one particular transition- transition
to capitalism.

➢ GERSCHENKRON'S THEORY OF STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

the development of societies stemmed from the understanding that countries embarked upon
industrialisation starting from different levels of economic backwardness. Gerschenkron's Propositions
are a set of theories about economic development that emphasize the role of backwardness in driving
economic modernization. His main argument is that countries that are late to industrialize often need to
adopt more radical and accelerated development strategies to catch up with more advanced nations.

Key Propositions:
 1. Discontinuous Industrialization: Backward economies often experience rapid and
discontinuous industrialization, characterized by a sudden surge in manufacturing output.
2. Economic Stress: Backwardness can lead to greater economic stress, including inflation, balance
of payments issues, and social unrest.
3. Focus on Producer Goods: Latecomers may prioritize the production of producer goods (capital
goods) over consumer goods in their early stages of industrialization.
4. Consumption Pressure: Lower levels of consumption among the population may be necessary to
free up resources for investment in industrialization.
5. State Intervention: Backward economies often require strong state intervention to promote
industrialization, including measures to increase capital supply, provide entrepreneurial guidance,
and protect domestic industries.
6. Limited Role of Agriculture: Agriculture may play a less active role in supporting
industrialization in backward economies, due to factors such as low productivity or limited land
availability.

Gerschenkron's theory of economic backwardness has been subject to several criticisms. Some
argue that he overemphasized the role of state intervention, neglecting other factors like innovation and
social structures. His focus on European cases may not apply universally. Additionally, critics point out
that his theory can be overly deterministic, suggesting a fixed path for latecomers. Gerschenkron's
emphasis on backwardness and state intervention may have overshadowed the importance of comparative
advantage and other factors in economic development.

1. Origins of the Concept and Sociological Interpretation (Globalization book intro 2016, p. 8-12)
2. Waves of Globalization (Sociology of Globalization p. 14-28)
3. Characteristics of Globalization (Sociology of Globalization p. 29- 53)
4. Critiques and Relationship to Development (No resource. Prayers lang)
As usual, see our gdrive folder.

Origins of the Concept and Sociological Interpretation

Sociologists and historians define globalization

● The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the many peoples of the

world who all live and work on one large planet. In short, it is the way in which people
all over the Earth interact with one another in terms of economics, politics, and culture.
● For Robertson (1992: 8): Globalization as a concept refers both to the compression of
the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole ... both
concrete global interdependence and consciousness of the global whole.
○ compression of space - things that are at a distance as great as ever before are, because of
technological developments, nearer in terms of the speed of communications and travel.
 ○ annihilation of space (Harvey 1991), where spatial distances no longer matter because of
the possibility of communicating, moving and seeing over them fully and quickly.
● For Giddens (1990: 64): Globalization can ... be defined as the intensification of
world-wide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local
happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. This is a
dialectical process because such local happenings may move in an obverse direction
from the very distanciated relations that shape them. Local transformation is as much a
part of globalization as the lateral extension of social connections across time and space.
○ Here worldwide relations are seen as becoming more intense, with a stress on the
importance of interactions between the local and global, in which the local is not just
shaped by globalization but may react to it in an alternative way.
● Waters (2001: 5) sees globalization as a social process in which the constraints of
geography on economic, political, social and cultural arrangements recede and people
become increasingly aware of this and act accordingly. Waters sees globalization as a
process rather than an end, and he emphasizes culture and consciousness and the effect
it has on action.
● Holton (2005) also stresses globalization as a process and defines it as:
○ 1 Interconnection – the intensified movement of goods, money, technology, information,
people, ideas and cultural practices across political and cultural boundaries.
○ 2 The interdependence of these activities across boundaries, and convergence and
integration, for instance, in prices and markets. Globalization must be more than
movement that is episodic, or involves few people (e.g., as in early trade), or has few
consequences for those not involved in it.
○ 3 Holton also sees globalization as involving consciousness and identification of the
world as a single place, for instance as in cosmopolitan culture, religions and
environmentalism. There are overlaps here with Robertson’s consciousness-focused
definition.
○ 4 Holton emphasizes agency and process in globalization, as opposed to it being an
external or fixed structure.
● Held et al. (1999) have what they call a transformationalist view. This sees globalization
as: new but not unprecedented; open-ended, it may go in many different directions; and
varying in the form it takes by place, class and over time. This is compatible with local,
regional and national relations continuing but interacting with globalization and taking
global forms, or forms affected by globalization. Globalization transforms human affairs
 by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. It
involves:
○ 1 The stretching of activities across frontiers so activities in one part of the world have
significance for others in distant regions. There is transregional interconnectedness and
a widening of networks.
○ 2 World relations become regularized with the consequence that there is an
intensification or growing magnitude of interconnections, interactions and flows across
societies and states.
○ 3 The speeding up of global interactions and processes as a result of the development of
transport and communications. The global diffusion of ideas, goods, information, capital
and people is faster.
○ 4 The impact of distant events is magnified. Local developments can have big global
consequences, so the boundaries between domestic and global affairs become blurred.
● Held et al. show that globalization is complex. It includes numerous processes rather
than one activity or end, and involves both agency and structure, the input of actors into
making it and external constraints on them. It is differentiated in the sense that it
develops to different extents and in varying patterns in different areas. It is aterritorial,
in that it can involve deterritorialization (where the stretching of activities goes beyond
being coterminous with territories) but also reterritorialization (where globalization
becomes established in regions and subnational areas, and even encouraged
nationalism).
● Held et al. also make some important qualifications about what globalization is not.
They argue that globalization should not be confused with interdependence, integration,
universalism or convergence. It is
○ not interdependence because, they say, that involves symmetry rather than hierarchy and
there is plenty of the latter in globalization;
○ not integration because that implies shared community and that does not exist;
○ not universalism because globalization is not shared by all people or communities in the
same way; and
○ not convergence because this assumes growing homogeneity and harmony, while
globalization could lead to conflict.
● The historians Osterhammel and Petersson (2005) also stress regularization and
stability in global relations as a prerequisite to globalization. They make the distinction
between:
 ○ (1) world history, which is the study of different civilizations, their internal dynamics and
comparisons between them;
○ (2) global history, which is the study of contacts and interactions between societies; and
○ (3) globalization, which may grow out of some of those contacts and interactions.
● Globalization grows where the contacts and interactions become networks and
interaction spheres. Not all interactions become networks. This requires longevity, and
sometimes institutional reinforcement so that they gain the sort of stability also found in
hierarchical organizations.
● Osterhammel and Petersson say institutions such as diplomacy and trade help to turn
interactions into networks.
● Other factors in globalization they mention include range, importance, intensity and
speed. These are enabled by technology and organizational and institutional support.
The durability and frequency of relations affects whether interactions become a stable
network, and this can be restricted by space, or frozen or reversed. As such,
globalization is a process rather than being fixed or static at one moment.

Waves of Globalization

The historical context of globalization can be summarized under five different phases which can
be described as the five waves of globalization. These waves have touched the world in different
periods which are as follows.

● First wave of globalization taking place between the Third to Tenth centuries.
● Second wave of globalization took place between the Eleventh and the end of the
Fourteenth century.
● Third wave of globalization between the Fifteenth to Nineteenth centuries.
● Fourth wave between the beginnings of the twentieth century to the first half of the
twentieth century.
● Fifth wave from the last two decades of the twentieth century and continuing till date.

1.2.1 The First Wave of Globalization

 ● Early Beginnings: The Ancient World. The seeds of globalization were sown thousands
of years ago. Ancient civilizations like the Sumerians and Indus Valley people began
trading goods and ideas, fostering early connections between distant lands. The
Hellenistic period, marked by Alexander the Great's conquests, further expanded
cultural and economic exchange across the Mediterranean and Middle East.
● The Silk Road: A Network of Trade. One of the most significant developments in early
globalization was the Silk Road. This anc..ient network of trade routes connected China
to the Mediterranean, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. Silk,
spices, and other valuable commodities were traded along this route, stimulating
economic growth and cultural exchange.
● The Islamic Golden Age: A Period of Innovation. The Islamic Golden Age, from the
7th to 13th centuries, was a time of great intellectual and scientific advancement.
Muslim scholars made significant contributions to fields like mathematics, astronomy,
and medicine. The Islamic world also played a crucial role in preserving and
transmitting Greek and Roman knowledge.
● The Mongol Empire: A Catalyst for Global Exchange. Under the leadership of Genghis
Khan, united vast territories across Asia and Europe. This political unification facilitated
trade and cultural exchange, as Mongol armies and merchants traveled across the
continent.
● Key Takeaways

1.2.2 The Second Wave of Globalization

● Though the duration of this phase is very limited and short, yet from the outcome point
of view it is quite significant.
● During this period, large estate owners in Europe introduced technological revolution in
production which resulted in the commercialisation of agriculture. Increased food
production: New farming techniques led to more food, creating a surplus that needed to
be sold elsewhere.
● The Hundred Years' War: This war disrupted trade but also caused people to flee war
zones, leading to migration and cultural exchange.
● During this period of history, maritime commerce gained prominence in the port cities
of Europe. Particularly, the port cities like Venice in Italy and Bruges in Belgium played
 a significant role in linking countries and transferring goods and people to outside lands.
This massive trade linkage laid the foundation of globalization.
● The Age of Exploration: European explorers discovered new lands, opening up trade
routes and global connections.
● However, this phase came to an end because of rising competition resulting in war,
plunder and exploitation which impoverished the people to an infinite extent. There was
a reaction against the outside intrusion. No doubt this phase was significant in the
process of globalization. Market expansion, forced migration, maritime commerce, trade
and turbulence contributed significantly to globalization during this period.

1.2.3 The Third Wave of Globalization

● Age of Exploration: European explorers like Columbus and da Gama sought new trade
routes and resources, leading to the discovery of the Americas and increased global
interaction.
○ Compared to Portugal, Spain succeeded in establishing more permanent and complex
settlements in the New World, largely through centralized colonial governments.
○ Spreading Catholicism and converting indigenous people acted as a major impetus for
colonization and Spanish imperial expansion.
○ The Age of Discovery brought a broad change in globalization, being the first period in
which Eurasia and Africa engaged in substantial cultural, material and biological
exchange with the New World.
○ Global integration continued with the European colonization of the Americas Initiating
widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves),
communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western hemispheres.
● Colonial Empires: The next phase is known as proto-globalization. European powers
established colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia, exploiting resources and
imposing their cultures.
○ In the 17th century, globalization became also a private business phenomenon when
chartered companies like British East India Company (founded in 1600), often described
as the first multinational corporation, as well as the Dutch East India Company (founded
in 1602) were established.
○ Keith Griffins writes that the eighteenth century presented humankind two visions. They
are: economic prosperity based on free markets and a vision of liberty, equality and
fraternity championing the cause of democracy
○ French Revolution and the Enlightenment
 ● Industrial Revolution: The idea of economic prosperity germinated from the Industrial
revolution. Technological advancements in Europe led to increased production and
trade, stimulating economic growth and global connections.
○ It was a period during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe and
America became industrial and urban. Industrialization marked a shift to powered
machinery, factories and mass production. The iron and textile industries, along with the
development of the steam engine, played central roles in the Industrial Revolution.
● Rise of Nationalism: A sense of national identity and pride led to protectionist policies
and trade barriers, hindering global integration.

1.2.4 The Fourth Wave of Globalization

● The fourth wave of globalization (early 20th century) started with a promising push
towards global interdependence. However, it was quickly disrupted by World War I.
● The rapid innovations and technological progress during this phase contributed
significantly for a paradigm shift from local to global.
● The focus became concentrated on interdependence; inter connectivity instead on
national development and self interest. Up to the outbreak of the First World War, this
trend continued to exist.
● Devastation from World War I: The war destroyed economies and created global
instability. For example, France faced food shortages due to a lack of agricultural
resources.
● Rise of nationalism and protectionism: Countries focused on self-preservation and
closed themselves off to international trade through high tariffs and isolationist policies.
○ During this period, two ideologies emerged which refrained the countries to get
assimilated in the global integration process. These two were: isolation and
protectionism. These led to the decline of globalization for the next two decades.
● The Great Depression: The economic collapse of the 1920s and 30s further hindered
global trade and investment. This marked the end of the fourth wave of globalization.
● Treaty of Versailles (1919): Supported international trade by promoting freedom of
navigation and reduction of trade barriers.
● Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919): Hindered globalization by advocating for economic
self-sufficiency for nations.

1.2.5 The Fifth Wave of Globalization

 ● The fifth wave of globalization, which began after World War II, has been marked by
significant advancements in technology, increased international cooperation, and the
growth of global institutions.
● International Organizations:
○ Bretton Woods System: Established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Bank to stabilize the global economy.
○ General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): Reduced trade barriers and promoted
free trade.
○ World Trade Organization (WTO): Succeeded GATT and further liberalize international
trade.
● Technological Advancements:
○ Transportation: Improved shipping and air travel facilitated the movement of goods and
people.
○ Communication: Advancements in telecommunications, particularly the internet,
revolutionized global communication and business.
● Economic Liberalization and Globalization:
○ Deregulation: Governments reduced regulations on businesses, promoting economic
growth and international trade.
○ Privatization: State-owned enterprises were privatized, increasing competition and
efficiency.
● Global Culture and Exchange:
○ Cultural exchange: The spread of popular culture, music, and movies has led to greater
cultural understanding and homogenization.
○ Migration: Increased migration has led to diverse societies and cultural exchange.

Impact of Globalization:

● Economic growth: Globalization has contributed to economic growth and development in many
countries.
● Job creation: It has created jobs and increased wealth.
● Cultural exchange: It has led to increased cultural exchange and understanding.
● Challenges: Globalization has also led to challenges such as income inequality, environmental
degradation, and social unrest.
1.3 Distinctive Characteristics of Globalization

● Globalization is a social and historical reality. It is an ongoing process of social change

that links people, neighborhoods, cities, regions and countries much more closely
together than they have ever been before.
● This has resulted in increasing people’s access to diversified commodities, communities,
ideas and information and thereby ensuring rapid transformations in societies. In the
initial years, globalization was viewed essentially as an economic process.
● Accordingly, the characteristics assigned to it were more economic in nature. These
characteristics bagged more economic essence and some political values. These were:
○ Borderless world
○ Liberalization
○ Free Trade
○ Extended Economic Activities

1.3.1 Borderless world

● Notions of a “borderless world” simply mean political “deterritorialization”.

○ “Deterritorialization” concept implies the territorial component in world affairs is of
much reduced significance. The territorial structures and compartments which have, for
 the past few hundred years, formed a basic component of the state system experience
structural change under the process of globalization.
○ It evokes images of a world in which goods, services, capital, and information flow across
national borders. In this world, the choices over where to produce, where to establish
shop, invest, and save are no longer confined within national borders .

1.3.2 Liberalization

● Liberalization refers to the relaxing social and economic policies which results in better
integration of an economy with the global economy.
● In general, it refers to the removal of restrictions; usually government rules and
regulations imposed on social, economic, or political matters.
○ Trade liberalization may be with regard to reducing restrictions on imports or exports
and facilitating free trade.
○ Economic liberalization generally refers to allowing more private entities to participate
in economic activity, and
○ Capital market liberalization refers to reducing restrictions imposed on debt and equity
markets.

1.3.3 Free Trade

● Free trade symbolizes a liberal economic order that prevents protectionism and
isolation. Simply speaking, globalization is the process of changing the world into an
integrated world from an isolated one.

1.3.4 Globalization of Economic Activities

● Globalization as a process widens, intensifies, speeds up, and increases world-wide

interconnectedness. It is characterized by four types of change.
○ First, it involves a stretching of social, political and economic activities across frontiers,
regions and continents.
○ Second, it is marked by the intensification, or the growing magnitude, of
interconnectedness and flows of trade, investment, finance, migration, culture, etc.
○ Third, it can be linked to a speeding up of global interactions and processes, as the
development of world-wide systems of transport and communication increases the
velocity of the diffusion of ideas, goods, information, capital and people. And,
○ Fourth, it results in the growing extensity, intensity and velocity of global interactions.
 ● Globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of
the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of
international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies.
● It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of market frontiers, and is an
irreversible trend for economic development in the whole world at the turn of the
millennium.

The general characteristics of globalization go beyond their economic characteristics and

include the following.

1.3.5 Globalization is a universal process, but not uniform in its result.

● Globalization takes place in every society irrespective of time and space.

● Though universal as a phenomenon, no uniformity is marked in its expression. The
depth and the pace of globalization have its longitudinal and spatial variations. At
certain points of time the depth and pace of globalization is faster while it is retarded at
certain other periods of time.
● For example, during the periods of peace and scientific prosperity, it has taken a swift
pace while during wars, depressions, the pace of globalization has gone down. The rate
of globalization is spectacularly higher in the developed areas in comparison to the pre
modern and underdeveloped areas.

1.3.6 Globalization is a historical process

● Thomas Loren Friedman classifies the period of globalisation into three spells.
○ He states that the first phase of Globalization involves the globalization of countries,
○ the second phase involves the globalization of companies and
○ the third and final phase of globalization involves the globalization of individuals.
● Globalization is an historical process that began with the first movement of people out
of Africa into other parts of the world.
● The discovery of America and the opening up of new trade routes to Africa and Asia
brought the world closer together. It was followed by a process of increasing
colonization and industrialization in the 18th century.
 ● During the 19th Century the emerging nation states increasingly cut back trade
restrictions (customs duties,bureaucratic regulations) and put the economy on the gold
standard, thus providing a basis for international monetary and financial politics.
● In the closing years of 20th and the beginning years of 21st century technological
progress (steamships, railroads, telegraph), internet and media revolution, accelerated
transportation and communication and established global linkage.

1.3.7 Globalization is both developmental and detrimental to society

● ‘global village’ - the interconnectedness amongst humans on the planet where the
barriers of national and international boundaries become less relevant and the world
figuratively becomes a smaller place.
● The process is driven economically by international financial flows and trade,
technologically by information technology and mass media entertainment, and very
significantly, also by human means such as cultural exchanges, migration and
international tourism. Due to globalisation, there are signs of solidarity across societies
in support of progressive ideals such as social justice, environmental sustainability and
health as basic human right.
● Supporters of economic globalization over emphasise the developmental effects of
globalisation which include, flows of trade and finance.
○ Trade increases growth, especially in poorer countries.
○ Growth increases incomes, especially for the poor, so eventually there is a convergence of
wealth and higher incomes for the poor.
○ Higher income brings better living conditions.
● However, globalisation has also got its detrimental effect on the society.
○ It is a threat to sustainable development. Due to rapid spread of industrialization
following globalization, the world carbon dioxide emissions increase speedily. This
affects the environment. Climate change follows globalization.
○ Globalization transfers jobs from developed countries to less developed countries.
This creates a system of unemployment in the developed countries. Globalization
transfers investment spending from developed countries to less developed countries.
○ Globalization tends to move taxation burdens away from corporations onto individual
citizens. Corporations have the ability to move to locations where the tax rate is lowest.
The tax burdens are ultimately shouldered by individual citizens.
 ○ Globalization encourages dependence on other countries for essential goods and
services. It halts the self sufficiency of the nations which becomes hazardous for a
country’s economy.
○ With globalization, goods can often be obtained cheaply from elsewhere. A country
may come to believe that there is no point in producing its own food or clothing. It
becomes easy to depend on imports. But in abnormal situations, this overdependency
creates problems of starvation and procuring basic needs for the nation.
○ Globalization ties countries together, so that if one country collapses, the collapse is
likely to ripple through the system, pulling many other countries with it.
● Women in developing countries become the worst victims of the process of
globalisation. Women with the lack of skill, training become devalued and undermined
in the new process of production. They are pushed out of the employment market and
are impoverished.
● Job insecurities
● Cross border terrorism
● Cultural degradation and erosion of local culture are also the outcome of globalisation.

1.3.8 Globalization is a long term process

1.3.9 Globalization is an irreversible process

● UN Secretary General Kofi Annan describes globalization as "an irreversible process, not
an option”. It does not have any swing back or look back. It is always forward looking in
nature.
● An irreversible process is a process in a system that changes from a state to another
without getting back to the former.Globalization is the next step in the progressive
evolution of human societies. As such, this development cannot and should not be
stopped as it would violate the ‘natural’ laws of societal progress.

1.3.10 Globalization leads to hyperbridization, homogenization and harmonization

● Hybridization implies mixing. Homogenization denotes bringing symmetry or similarity.

Harmonization means brining synthesis by removing discrepancies.
 ● Globalization, the increasing interconnectedness of the world, has a profound impact on cultures
worldwide. It's a complex process that simultaneously promotes both cultural homogenization
and hybridization.

Homogenization:

● Global Culture: This refers to the spread of similar cultural elements, such as consumer products,
fashion trends, and popular culture, across different countries.
● Loss of Diversity: As global influences become more dominant, local cultures may lose their
unique characteristics.
● Cultural Imperialism: This occurs when a dominant culture imposes its values and norms on
other cultures.

Hybridization:

● Cultural Exchange: This involves the blending of different cultural elements to create new and
unique forms.
● Glocalization: This is the adaptation of global products and services to local tastes and
preferences.
● Cultural Diversity: While globalization can lead to homogenization, it can also foster cultural
diversity by allowing for the exchange of ideas and traditions.

The Paradox of Globalization: While globalization can lead to a loss of cultural diversity, it can also
promote multiculturalism. As people from different cultures interact, they can develop a greater
appreciation for each other's customs and traditions. This can lead to a more diverse and inclusive world.

1.3.11 Globalization leads to diffusion

1.3.12 Globalization is a Multi-dimensional Process

● Socially it implies intensification, extension of social relations affecting individual’s

interaction, institutions, social processes etc.
● Economically, it means opening up of national market, free trade and commerce among
nations, and integration of national economies with the world economy.
● Politically, it means limited powers and functions of state, more rights and freedoms
granted to the individual and empowerment of private sector.
 ● Culturally, it means exchange of cultural values between societies and between nations;
submergence of local culture by a global culture through a process of cultural
homogenisation and
● ideologically, it means the spread of new ideas like liberalism and capitalism.

Critiques and Relationship to Development [Origins of the Concept and Sociological

Interpretation]

Critiques of Globalization. While globalization has been hailed as a force for economic growth
and cultural exchange, it has also drawn significant criticism. Some of the key critiques include:

● Inequality
○ Global Wealth Disparity: Globalization has often led to a widening gap between the rich
and the poor, both within and between countries.
○ Exploitation of Labor: Multinational corporations may exploit workers in developing
countries by offering low wages and poor working conditions.
● Cultural Homogenization:
○ Loss of Diversity: The dominance of Western culture and consumerism can
erode local cultures and traditions.
○ Cultural Imperialism: Powerful nations may impose their cultural values on less
powerful ones.
● Environmental Degradation:
○ Resource Depletion: Increased global trade and production can lead to
overexploitation of natural resources.
○ Pollution: Industrial activities and transportation contribute to environmental
pollution and climate change.
● Political Instability:
○ Erosion of National Sovereignty: Globalization can weaken the power of
nation-states, making them vulnerable to external pressures.
○ Social and Political Unrest: Economic inequality and cultural change can lead to
social unrest and political instability.

Globalization and Development. The relationship between globalization and development is

complex and multifaceted. While globalization can offer opportunities for economic growth and
poverty reduction, it can also exacerbate inequality and hinder sustainable development.
Positive Impacts:

● Economic Growth: Increased trade, investment, and technological transfer can

stimulate economic growth and create jobs.
● Poverty Reduction: Globalization can help lift people out of poverty by providing access
to new markets and opportunities.
● Cultural Exchange: Globalization can promote cultural exchange and understanding
between different societies.

Negative Impacts:

● Inequality: As mentioned earlier, globalization can exacerbate inequality within and

between countries.
● Environmental Degradation: Increased consumption and production can harm the
environment.
● Loss of Cultural Identity: The dominance of Western culture can erode local cultures
and traditions.

First Wave of Globalization (3rd-10th centuries)

● Critique: Limited geographical scope, primarily confined to Eurasia.

● Development Implications: While it fostered cultural exchange and trade, its impact on
global development was relatively limited due to geographical constraints and lack of
advanced technologies.

Second Wave of Globalization (11th-14th centuries)

● Critique: Fragile and disrupted by conflict (Hundred Years' War).

● Development Implications: While it laid the foundation for maritime trade, its potential
for widespread development was hindered by political instability and limited
technological advancements.
Third Wave of Globalization (15th-19th centuries)

● Critique: Dominated by European colonialism, leading to exploitation and inequality.

● Development Implications: While it accelerated global trade and cultural exchange, it
also perpetuated a system of dependency and uneven development. Colonial powers
often extracted resources without investing in the long-term development of their
colonies.

Fourth Wave of Globalization (Early 20th century)

● Critique: Disrupted by World War I and the Great Depression, leading to economic
decline and political instability.
● Development Implications: This wave's potential for global economic integration was
severely curtailed by these major world events, hindering global development.

Fifth Wave of Globalization (Late 20th century - present)

● Critique: Uneven distribution of benefits, with some countries benefiting more than
others. Increased inequality within and between countries.
● Development Implications: While it has accelerated economic growth and
technological advancement, it has also exacerbated global inequality. Developing
countries often face challenges in competing in the global economy and may become
overly reliant on developed nations.

Overall, while each wave of globalization has contributed to human progress and
development, it's important to acknowledge the uneven and often exploitative nature of
these processes. The fifth wave, in particular, has raised concerns about the impact of
globalization on labor rights, environmental sustainability, and social justice.

To foster more equitable and sustainable development, it's crucial to:

● Promote fair trade practices: Ensure that developing countries receive a fair share of
the benefits from global trade.
● Strengthen international cooperation: Address global challenges like climate change,
poverty, and inequality through multilateral efforts.
 ● Invest in education and human capital: Empower individuals to participate in the
global economy and contribute to innovation and development.
● Promote sustainable development: Balance economic growth with environmental
protection and social equity.

By addressing these issues, we can harness the potential of globalization to create a more just
and prosperous world for all.

CRITIQUES AND RELATION TO DEVELOPMENT ON THE DISTINCT

CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBALIZATION

1. Borderless World:

● Critique: The concept of a borderless world is idealistic. National borders still hold
significant power in terms of immigration, trade regulations, and cultural identity.
● Development: While easier movement of goods and services can boost development, it
can also lead to job losses in developed nations and environmental damage in developing
ones.

2. Liberalization:

● Critique: Rapid liberalization can harm developing countries by exposing them to unfair
competition from established corporations.
● Development: Liberalization can encourage investment and economic growth, but it
needs to be managed carefully to ensure benefits are distributed fairly.

3. Free Trade:

● Critique: Free trade agreements can benefit wealthy corporations more than developing
countries, and can lead to job losses in industries that can't compete.
● Development: Free trade can increase efficiency and access to goods, but developing
countries need to be able to protect their own industries during development.

4. Globalization of Economic Activities:

 ● Critique: The benefits of globalization are often unevenly distributed, with
multinational corporations and developed countries reaping most of the rewards.
● Development: Globalization can create jobs and promote economic growth in
developing countries, but it can also lead to exploitation of labor and resources.

5. Universality vs. Non-Uniformity:

● Critique: Globalization doesn't affect all countries equally. Developed countries have
more resources and infrastructure to take advantage of it.
● Development: Developing countries may need special assistance and policies to
integrate effectively into the global economy.

6. Historical Process:

● Critique: Some argue that globalization benefits the West at the expense of the
developing world, continuing a historical pattern of colonialism.
● Development: Developing countries need to be aware of their historical context and
negotiate for fair terms in the globalized world.

7. Developmental and Detrimental Effects:

● Critique: The claim that globalization benefits everyone is simplistic. It can lead to
environmental degradation, job insecurity, and cultural homogenization.
● Development: The benefits of globalization need to be balanced against its potential
downsides. Sustainable development policies are crucial.

8. Long-Term Process:

● Critique: The argument that globalization is inevitable ignores the role of political
choices and policies in shaping its form.
● Development: Countries can choose how they participate in globalization and develop
policies to mitigate its negative effects.

9. Irreversible Process:

● Critique: The claim that globalization is irreversible ignores the possibility of major
economic or political disruptions that could reshape the global order.
 ● Development: Countries should maintain flexibility and the ability to adapt their
policies as the global landscape changes.

10. Homogenization vs. Heterogenization:

● Critique: The idea of a global monoculture ignores the persistence of strong national
and cultural identities.
● Development: Globalization can lead to a more interconnected world with cultural
exchange, but it doesn't have to erase cultural diversity.

11. Diffusion:

● Critique: The spread of technology and ideas can be uneven, with developing countries
struggling to keep pace.
● Development: Developing countries need to invest in education and infrastructure to
benefit from the diffusion of knowledge and technology.

12. Multi-Dimensional Process:

● Critique: While globalization has social, political, and cultural aspects, the economic
dimension often dominates, leading to neglect of other considerations.
● Development: A holistic approach to globalization is needed, considering its social,
political, and cultural impacts alongside economic ones.

13. Top-Down Process:

● Critique: The idea that globalization is driven by Western powers ignores the increasing
role of emerging economies and new global actors.
● Development: Developing countries need to develop their own strategies for
participating in globalization, not simply accept a top-down model.

14. Deterritorialization:

● Critique: The idea that globalization weakens national borders ignores the continued
importance of national governments in regulating economies and protecting citizens.
● Development: National governments still play a crucial role in shaping the impact of
globalization on their societies.
These are just some of the critiques of globalization and its relationship to development. It's a
complex issue with no easy answers. The key is to be aware of the potential benefits and
drawbacks, and to develop policies that promote sustainable and inclusive development in a
globalized world.

Critiques and Relationship to Development [Origins of the Concept and Sociological

Interpretation]
Critiques of Globalization. While globalization has been hailed as a force for economic growth
and cultural exchange, it has also drawn significant criticism. Some of the key critiques include:

● Inequality
○ Global Wealth Disparity: Globalization has often led to a widening gap between the rich
and the poor, both within and between countries.
○ Exploitation of Labor: Multinational corporations may exploit workers in developing
countries by offering low wages and poor working conditions.
● Cultural Homogenization:
○ Loss of Diversity: The dominance of Western culture and consumerism can
erode local cultures and traditions.
○ Cultural Imperialism: Powerful nations may impose their cultural values on less
powerful ones.
● Environmental Degradation:
○ Resource Depletion: Increased global trade and production can lead to
overexploitation of natural resources.
○ Pollution: Industrial activities and transportation contribute to environmental
pollution and climate change.
● Political Instability:
○ Erosion of National Sovereignty: Globalization can weaken the power of
nation-states, making them vulnerable to external pressures.
○ Social and Political Unrest: Economic inequality and cultural change can lead to
social unrest and political instability.

Globalization and Development. The relationship between globalization and development is

complex and multifaceted. While globalization can offer opportunities for economic growth and
poverty reduction, it can also exacerbate inequality and hinder sustainable development.

Positive Impacts:

● Economic Growth: Increased trade, investment, and technological transfer can

stimulate economic growth and create jobs.
 ● Poverty Reduction: Globalization can help lift people out of poverty by providing access
to new markets and opportunities.
● Cultural Exchange: Globalization can promote cultural exchange and understanding
between different societies.

Negative Impacts:

● Inequality: As mentioned earlier, globalization can exacerbate inequality within and

between countries.
● Environmental Degradation: Increased consumption and production can harm the
environment.
● Loss of Cultural Identity: The dominance of Western culture can erode local cultures
and traditions.

First Wave of Globalization (3rd-10th centuries)

● Critique: Limited geographical scope, primarily confined to Eurasia.

● Development Implications: While it fostered cultural exchange and trade, its impact on
global development was relatively limited due to geographical constraints and lack of
advanced technologies.

Second Wave of Globalization (11th-14th centuries)

● Critique: Fragile and disrupted by conflict (Hundred Years' War).

● Development Implications: While it laid the foundation for maritime trade, its potential
for widespread development was hindered by political instability and limited
technological advancements.

Third Wave of Globalization (15th-19th centuries)

● Critique: Dominated by European colonialism, leading to exploitation and inequality.

 ● Development Implications: While it accelerated global trade and cultural exchange, it
also perpetuated a system of dependency and uneven development. Colonial powers
often extracted resources without investing in the long-term development of their
colonies.

Fourth Wave of Globalization (Early 20th century)

● Critique: Disrupted by World War I and the Great Depression, leading to economic
decline and political instability.
● Development Implications: This wave's potential for global economic integration was
severely curtailed by these major world events, hindering global development.

Fifth Wave of Globalization (Late 20th century - present)

● Critique: Uneven distribution of benefits, with some countries benefiting more than
others. Increased inequality within and between countries.
● Development Implications: While it has accelerated economic growth and
technological advancement, it has also exacerbated global inequality. Developing
countries often face challenges in competing in the global economy and may become
overly reliant on developed nations.

Overall, while each wave of globalization has contributed to human progress and
development, it's important to acknowledge the uneven and often exploitative nature of
these processes. The fifth wave, in particular, has raised concerns about the impact of
globalization on labor rights, environmental sustainability, and social justice.

To foster more equitable and sustainable development, it's crucial to:

● Promote fair trade practices: Ensure that developing countries receive a fair share of
the benefits from global trade.
● Strengthen international cooperation: Address global challenges like climate change,
poverty, and inequality through multilateral efforts.
● Invest in education and human capital: Empower individuals to participate in the
global economy and contribute to innovation and development.
 ● Promote sustainable development: Balance economic growth with environmental
protection and social equity.

By addressing these issues, we can harness the potential of globalization to create a more just
and prosperous world for all.

CRITIQUES AND RELATION TO DEVELOPMENT ON THE DISTINCT

CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBALIZATION

1. Borderless World:

● Critique: The concept of a borderless world is idealistic. National borders still hold
significant power in terms of immigration, trade regulations, and cultural identity.
● Development: While easier movement of goods and services can boost development, it
can also lead to job losses in developed nations and environmental damage in developing
ones.

2. Liberalization:

● Critique: Rapid liberalization can harm developing countries by exposing them to unfair
competition from established corporations.
● Development: Liberalization can encourage investment and economic growth, but it
needs to be managed carefully to ensure benefits are distributed fairly.

3. Free Trade:

● Critique: Free trade agreements can benefit wealthy corporations more than developing
countries, and can lead to job losses in industries that can't compete.
● Development: Free trade can increase efficiency and access to goods, but developing
countries need to be able to protect their own industries during development.

4. Globalization of Economic Activities:

● Critique: The benefits of globalization are often unevenly distributed, with

multinational corporations and developed countries reaping most of the rewards.
 ● Development: Globalization can create jobs and promote economic growth in
developing countries, but it can also lead to exploitation of labor and resources.

5. Universality vs. Non-Uniformity:

● Critique: Globalization doesn't affect all countries equally. Developed countries have
more resources and infrastructure to take advantage of it.
● Development: Developing countries may need special assistance and policies to
integrate effectively into the global economy.

6. Historical Process:

● Critique: Some argue that globalization benefits the West at the expense of the
developing world, continuing a historical pattern of colonialism.
● Development: Developing countries need to be aware of their historical context and
negotiate for fair terms in the globalized world.

7. Developmental and Detrimental Effects:

● Critique: The claim that globalization benefits everyone is simplistic. It can lead to
environmental degradation, job insecurity, and cultural homogenization.
● Development: The benefits of globalization need to be balanced against its potential
downsides. Sustainable development policies are crucial.

8. Long-Term Process:

● Critique: The argument that globalization is inevitable ignores the role of political
choices and policies in shaping its form.
● Development: Countries can choose how they participate in globalization and develop
policies to mitigate its negative effects.

9. Irreversible Process:

● Critique: The claim that globalization is irreversible ignores the possibility of major
economic or political disruptions that could reshape the global order.
● Development: Countries should maintain flexibility and the ability to adapt their
policies as the global landscape changes.
10. Homogenization vs. Heterogenization:

● Critique: The idea of a global monoculture ignores the persistence of strong national
and cultural identities.
● Development: Globalization can lead to a more interconnected world with cultural
exchange, but it doesn't have to erase cultural diversity.

11. Diffusion:

● Critique: The spread of technology and ideas can be uneven, with developing countries
struggling to keep pace.
● Development: Developing countries need to invest in education and infrastructure to
benefit from the diffusion of knowledge and technology.

12. Multi-Dimensional Process:

● Critique: While globalization has social, political, and cultural aspects, the economic
dimension often dominates, leading to neglect of other considerations.
● Development: A holistic approach to globalization is needed, considering its social,
political, and cultural impacts alongside economic ones.

13. Top-Down Process:

● Critique: The idea that globalization is driven by Western powers ignores the increasing
role of emerging economies and new global actors.
● Development: Developing countries need to develop their own strategies for
participating in globalization, not simply accept a top-down model.

14. Deterritorialization:

● Critique: The idea that globalization weakens national borders ignores the continued
importance of national governments in regulating economies and protecting citizens.
● Development: National governments still play a crucial role in shaping the impact of
globalization on their societies.

These are just some of the critiques of globalization and its relationship to development. It's a
complex issue with no easy answers. The key is to be aware of the potential benefits and
drawbacks, and to develop policies that promote sustainable and inclusive development in a
globalized world.

Critiques of Globalization Theories

Globalization is a complex phenomenon that has been interpreted through various
sociological and historical lenses. Each theory offers a unique perspective but also
faces critiques. Below are the main theories of globalization along with their critiques.

1. Robertson's Definition of Globalization

● Critique: Robertson's view emphasizes the compression of space and the
intensification of global consciousness, but critics argue that it may overlook the
unequal power dynamics that shape these interactions. The focus on
consciousness might neglect material conditions and socio-economic disparities
that influence globalization outcomes.

2. Giddens' Dialectical Process

● Critique: Giddens posits that globalization involves the interplay between local
and global influences. Critics suggest that this dialectical approach can be overly
optimistic, as it may not adequately account for how local cultures can be
overwhelmed or marginalized by dominant global forces, leading to cultural
homogenization rather than a true exchange.

3. Waters' Social Process Perspective

● Critique: Waters defines globalization as a social process where geographical
constraints recede. However, critics argue that this perspective can
underestimate the significance of geography and local contexts in shaping
globalization, suggesting that not all areas benefit equally from global
interconnectedness.

4. Holton's Emphasis on Agency

 ● Critique: Holton emphasizes agency in globalization, viewing it as a process
rather than a fixed structure. Critics contend that this focus on agency may
downplay structural factors such as economic inequalities and political power
that significantly influence who benefits from globalization.

5. Held et al.'s Transformationalist View

● Critique: Held et al. argue for a transformationalist view, suggesting globalization
is new and open-ended. Critics highlight that this perspective may romanticize
globalization by ignoring its historical precedents and the potential for negative
consequences, such as environmental degradation and social dislocation.

6. Osterhammel and Petersson's Distinction

● Critique: They differentiate between world history, global history, and
globalization itself. Critics argue that this distinction can lead to
oversimplification, as it may imply a linear progression from historical
interactions to globalization without adequately addressing the complexities and
interruptions in these processes.

7. Historical Waves of Globalization

● Critique: The classification of globalization into distinct waves can be seen as
reductive. Critics argue that this framework risks oversimplifying the continuous
and overlapping nature of global interactions, failing to capture the nuances and
variations within each wave.

Conclusion
Each theory of globalization provides valuable insights but also faces significant
critiques that highlight its limitations. Understanding these critiques is essential for a
comprehensive analysis of globalization's impact on societies worldwide.

Understanding Modernity and Development Theories

1. Defining Modernity

The sources do not provide a definition of modernity. However, they discuss

modernization, which can be understood as the process of transitioning from
traditional to modern societies. This transition involves a shift from simple, static
social structures to complex, dynamic processes, driven by growth and increasing
specialization.

Characteristics of Modern Societies:

● Urbanization: A high concentration of population in cities and the growing

importance of urban centers.
● Industrialization: Extensive use of inanimate energy, widespread circulation of
commodities, and growth of service industries.
● Increased Connectivity: Extensive interaction among members of society and
widespread participation in economic and political affairs.
● Secularization: Widespread literacy and the adoption of secular and scientific
perspectives.
● Mass Communication: A pervasive network of mass media.
● Bureaucratization: The presence of large-scale social institutions, such as
government and businesses, with increasingly bureaucratic structures.
● Nationalization: Unification of large populations under a single political entity
(nation-state) and increasing interaction among these entities (international
relations).

Modernization is an ongoing process, and no society is completely "modern". All

societies exhibit elements of both traditional and modern forms.

2. Theories of Development

The sources discuss three main theories of development:

A. Modernization Theory

● Central Idea: Modernization theory views development as a linear, evolutionary

process where societies progress from "traditional" to "modern" stages. This
theory argues that internal factors within countries, such as traditional values,
institutions, and low levels of technology, are responsible for underdevelopment.
● Policy Implications: Modernization theory advocates for adopting Western
values, institutions, and technologies to promote economic growth and social
progress. This includes fostering individual achievement motivation, promoting
urbanization and industrialization, and establishing democratic institutions.
● Examples: The Marshall Plan, which aimed to rebuild Western European
economies after World War II by promoting industrialization and market-based
reforms, is often cited as an example of modernization theory in practice.
 ● Criticisms:
○ Ethnocentric Bias: Critics argue that modernization theory is Eurocentric
and assumes the superiority of Western values and institutions. It fails to
recognize the diversity of cultural contexts and the potential for alternative
paths to development.
○ Oversimplification: The theory's rigid categorization of societies as
"traditional" or "modern" is overly simplistic and ignores the complexity of
social change.
○ Ignoring External Factors: Modernization theory overlooks the role of
external factors, such as colonialism and global economic inequalities, in
shaping development trajectories.

B. Dependency Theory

● Central Idea: Dependency theory challenges modernization theory by arguing

that underdevelopment is not an inherent condition of Third World countries but a
consequence of their historical and economic relationship with developed
nations. It emphasizes the exploitative nature of global capitalism and the role
of colonialism and imperialism in creating and perpetuating underdevelopment.
● Policy Implications: Dependency theory advocates for reducing dependence on
developed countries through strategies such as import substitution
industrialization, regional integration, and challenging unequal terms of trade.
● Examples: The exploitation of Latin American countries for their raw materials
during the colonial period, which hindered the development of their own
industries, is often cited as an example of dependency theory in practice.
● Criticisms:
○ Overemphasis on External Factors: Critics argue that dependency theory
places too much emphasis on external factors and neglects the role of
internal factors, such as corruption and poor governance, in hindering
development.
○ Economic Determinism: Dependency theory is criticized for its economic
determinism, which overlooks the role of social, cultural, and political
factors in development.
○ Limited Solutions: The theory's proposed solutions, such as national
autarky or delinking from the global capitalist system, are often seen as
impractical and ineffective.

C. World-Systems Theory
 ● Central Idea: World-systems theory builds upon dependency theory by analyzing
the global capitalist system as a whole, emphasizing the interconnectedness of
different regions and the unequal distribution of power and resources. It
identifies three main categories of countries within this system: core,
semi-periphery, and periphery, with core countries benefiting at the expense of
peripheral countries.
● Policy Implications: World-systems theory suggests that peripheral countries
need to challenge their position within the global capitalist system through
collective action, such as forming regional alliances and demanding fairer trade
agreements.
● Examples: The concentration of wealth and technological innovation in core
countries like the United States and Western Europe, while countries in Africa and
parts of Asia remain on the periphery, is often cited as an example of
world-systems theory in practice.
● Criticisms:
○ Limited Agency: Critics argue that world-systems theory, like dependency
theory, can lead to a sense of powerlessness among peripheral countries,
suggesting that they have little agency to change their situation.
○ Overemphasis on Economic Factors: The theory can be criticized for
overemphasizing economic factors and neglecting the role of culture,
politics, and social movements in shaping development.

It's important to note that these theories are not mutually exclusive, and they can be
seen as complementary frameworks for understanding the complexities of
development. Each theory offers valuable insights into the challenges faced by
developing countries and the potential strategies for promoting economic growth and
social progress.