Propagation Illustration

Path Loss - Cause

Path loss normally includes
1. Propagation Losses:
• By the natural expansion of the radio front in free space (which usually
takes the shape of an ever-increasing sphere).
2. Absorption Losses / Penetration Losses:
• When the signal passes through media not transparent to electro magnetic
wave
3. Diffraction Losses:
• When part of the radio wave front is obstructed by an sharp obstacle.
 Path Loss - Cause
1. Absorption Losses / Penetration Losses:
• When the signal passes through media not transparent to electro magnetic
wave.

Material Loss (dB) Frequency

Concrete block 13-20 1.3 GHz
Plywood (3/4”) 2 9.6 GHz
Plywood (2 sheets) 4 9.6 GHz
Plywood (2 sheets) 6 28.8 GHz
Aluminum siding 20.4 815 MHz
Sheetrock (3/4”) 2 9.6 GHz
Sheetrock (3/4”) 5 57.6 GHz
Turn corner in corridor 10-15 1.3 GHz
 Propagation Basics: 1
The three basic mechanism:
• Reflection
• When the obstruction or foliages have dimensions (Physical Dimension
(Dim)) much greater than that of wavelength of the signal.
• The surface of earth, building wall etc.
• For f = 900 MHz, 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐/𝑓𝑓 = (3 × 108) / (900 × 106) = 0.33 m
𝜆𝜆 ≪ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
• For f = 1800 MHz, 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐/𝑓𝑓 = (3 × 108) / (1800 × 106) = 0.175 m
• Diffraction
• When the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities or edges.
• This is the reason why radio signals travels in urban and rural areas without
a line of sight.
 Propagation Basics: 1
• Scattering
• When the medium has objects that are smaller or comparable to wavelength
of the signals.
• Objects include water droplets, rough surface, rain drops, snow.
• It depends on the wavelength heavily eg. Rain drops will interact with
millimeter wavelength but wont be effective when 900 MHz carrier is used.
 Propagation Basics: Properties of
Radio Waves
• Frequency dependence
• At higher frequency behaves more like a light.
• Difficulty in passing obstacles.
• More directed LOS but absorbed by rain.
• At lower frequency behaves more like a radio.
• Passes obstacles.
• Power falls of sharply with distance from source.
• Subject to interference from other radio wave sources.
Small and Large scale Fading

• MS moves over very small distance.

• Instantaneous fluctuation of receive
signal strength.
• The change is very rapid and arbitrary.
• Rx signal is the sum of many
contribution from different direction.
• For large scale propagation it is more
of a local average.
• Gradual drop is observed.
 Free – Space Propagation Model
• Free space propagation model – LOS path exists between T-R
• May applicable for satellite communication or microwave LOS links
• Frii’s free space equation: 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒅 = 𝑷𝑷𝒕𝒕 𝑮𝑮𝒕𝒕 𝑮𝑮𝒓𝒓 𝝀𝝀/ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝑳
• 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 : Transmitted power
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 = Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
• 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 : Received power
• 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 : Transmitter gain
The general gain of antenna G = (4 ∗ 𝜋𝜋 ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)/𝜆𝜆2
• 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟 : Receiver gain
• 𝑑𝑑 : Distance of T-R separation
• 𝐿𝐿 : System loss factor
• 𝜆𝜆 : Wavelength in meter 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐/𝑓𝑓
• Path Loss – difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the
received power.
 Free – Space Propagation Model
For Isotropic Antenna which radiates in all direction,
Power Density:
P Pt = Tx power
PD = t 2
4π d 4π d 2 = Area of sphere
Ae P= PD × Ae [ Ae = Effective Aperture of Rx Antenna ]
r

Pt Pr
For a directive antenna
Pt  directive antenna will always 
PD
= × Gt  have a greater gain factor 
4π d 2
 
Considering L’ as the attenuation factor,
Pt '
P=
D × Gt × L
4π d 2
 Free – Space Propagation Model
Gr λ 2
From antenna theory, Ae =
4π
PG ' G λ 2
Pr (d ) = PD × Ae = t t2 × L × r
4π d 4π
PG G λ 2
' PG G λ 2
 1
= t t 2r = × L t t r
=
 L '
( ) ( )
2
4 π d 2
4 π d 2
L L 
 Free – Space Propagation Model

PG G λ 2
Pr (d ) = t t r

( 4π )
2
d 2L
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 = Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
= Maximum power from Tx in the direction of antenna

Path Loss:
P   G G λ2 
PL (dB) = 10 log  t  = −10 log 
t r

 ( 4π ) d 
2
 Pr
2

 λ2 
If Gt = Gr = 1, PL (dB) = −10 log  
 ( 4π ) d 
2 2
 Free – Space Propagation Model
• The Free space model or Friis Free space model is an effective predictor for
received power for values of “d” which are far field of the transmitting antenna
• Far field or Fraunhofer Region:
• It is that region of a transmitting antenna, beyond far distance 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 which is
related to the largest linear dimension of the Tx antenna aperture and carrier
wavelength. 2
2D
df =
λ
• D: largest physical linear dimension of the antenna, 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 ≫ 𝐷𝐷, 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 ≫ 𝜆𝜆
• So only when we are beyond 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 , i.e. if the receiver has further moved away
beyond 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 only then we can use free space expression.
 Free – Space Propagation Model
When d = 0, free space does not hold. For this reason d0 is used. Hence. Modified
free space equation
2
d 
Pr (d ) = Pr (d 0 )  0 
d 
Modified free space equation in dB
 P (d )  d 
= Pr (d ) dBm 10 log  r 0  + 20 log  0 
 0.001W  d 
Where 𝑑𝑑 ≥ 𝑑𝑑0 ≥ 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓
2D2
𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 is Fraunhofer distance which complies df =
λ

In practice, reference distance is chosen to be 1m (indoor) and 100m or 1km

(outdoor) for low gain antenna system in 1-2 GHz region
 Problems
1. Find the far field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1m an
operating frequency a) 900 MHz and b) 1800 MHz
2. If a transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the Tx power in units of a)
dBm and b) dbW
3. If 50 W is applied to a unity gain antenna with 900 MHz carrier frequency, find
the Rx power in dBm at free space distance 100 m from the antenna. What is Pr
(10 Km)? Assume unity gain for Rx antenna.
 Relating Power to Electric Fields
• Isotropic point source dispersing power flux density through a certain cross
section
• Power received at a distance “d”, Pr (d) is given by power flux density (Pd) times
the effective aperture of the receiver antenna
Pr (d=
) Pd × Ae
EIRP
now Pd = (By definition)
4π d 2

 EIRP   Gr × λ   PG
2 
t t Gr λ
2
Pr (d ) = ×
2    = 
2 
 4π d   4π   ( 4π ) d 
2

 EIRP  E2
Pr (d ) = Pd × Ae =  2 
× Ae = Ae
 4π d  η
E2
Pr (d ) = Ae (Free Space)
120π
 Relating Power to Electric Fields
• Even Pr (d) can be related to RMS voltage V and resistance of the matched
receiver as
2
 Vout 
V 2  2  2
Vant
(d ) =
Pr =  =
Rant Rant 4 Rant
Vant = open ckt voltage
 Problem
1. Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W transmitter. The carrier
frequency is 900 MHz (free space). Let Gt = 1,Gr = 2
a) Find the power at the receiver
b) The magnitude of E-field at the Rx antenna
c) The RMS voltage applied to the receiver input. When real impedance is 50
Ω for antenna is matched to receiver.
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model
 Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model
• The base station should be taller or higher.
• BS and MS should be separated by a certain
distance (few tens of km).
• Ideally, d (BS – MS separation)>> (ht+hr)
• Practically, d >> 10(ht+hr)
• Check for the two cases if the model could
• ETOT = ELOS + Eg
possibly be applied
• ht and hr are absolute 1. ht = 50m, hr = 10m, d = 250 m
2. ht = 30m, hr = 1.5m, d = 450 m
• For ELOS there is no obstruction and ELOS
depicts the part of received E-field
• The reflected component is Eg
 Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model
• If E0 is the free space E-field at a reference
point d0 from the Tx, then for d > d0, the E
field is given by:
E0 d 0   d 
=E (d , t ) cos ωc  t −  
d   c 
where,
• ETOT = ELOS + Eg E0 d 0
E (d , t ) =
• ht and hr are absolute d
= Represents the envelope of field
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model

E0 d 0   d ' 
ELOS (d ', t )
= cos ωc  t −  
d'   c 
Ed   d ''  
Γ 0 0 cos ωc  t −  
Eg (d '', t ) =
d ''   c 
Γ =Reflection coefficient
sin θi − ε r − cos 2 θi
Γ=
sin θi + ε r − cos 2 θi
if θi  very small, grating incident angle
= −1
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model

E=
TOT E LOS + E g
E0 d 0   d ' 
E TOT (d , t )
= cos ωc  t −  
d'   c 
E0 d 0   d ''  
+ ( −1) cos ωc  t −  
d ''   c 

( ht + hr ) + d 2 − ( ht − hr ) + d 2
2 2
∆= d ''− d ='
Since d  (ht + hr )
2ht hr
∆ [ By using Taylor series expansion ]
d
∆ =Path difference
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model

2π∆ ∆ωc
θ∆
= = = Phase Difference
λ c
∆ θ∆
τ=
d = = Time Delay
c 2π f c
d ''
When d  ht & hr at t =
c
 d ''  E0 d 0   d ''− d '   E0 d 0
d,t =
ETOT  =  cos ω
 c  c   d '' − cos 0 0

 c  d'   
Ed Ed
= 0 0 cos θ ∆ − 0 0
d' d ''
Ed
≈ 0 0 [ cos θ ∆ − 1]
d
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model

 d ''  E0 d 0
ETOT  d , t = ≈ [cos θ ∆ − 1]
 c  d
2 2
 E0 d 0   E0 d 0 
 [ ] 
2
ETOT (d )
=  cos θ ∆ − 1 +  sin θ ∆
2

 d   d 
E0 d 0
E=
TOT ( d ) 2 − 2 cos θ ∆
d
Ed θ 
ETOT (d ) = 2 0 0 sin  ∆ 
d  2 
Decays in an oscillating fashion with increasing d
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model

E0 d 0 θ 
ETOT (d ) = 2 sin  ∆ 
d  2 
θ  θ θ
Let, sin  ∆   ∆ iff ∆ < 0.3 rad
 2  2 2
θ ∆ 2π ht hr  2ht hr 2π 
≈ < 0.3 rad  = ∆ , θ=
∆ ∆
2 λd  d λ 
20π ht hr 20ht hr
d> 
3λ λ
2 E d 2π ht hr k
ETOT (d ) ≈ 0 0 ≈ 2 V/m
d λd d
Two Ray (Ground Reflection)
Propagation Model

2 E0 d 0 2π ht hr k
ETOT (d ) ≈ ≈ 2 V/m
d λd d
( 4π ) E02 ( ht hr ) Gr λ 2
2 2
E2
=Pr = Ae ×
120π 120π d λ
4 2
4π
PG G ( h h )
2

Pr = t t r 4 t r
d
PL (dB) = 40 log(d )
− (10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht + 20 log hr )
 Problem
1. A mobile is located 5 km away from a BS and uses vertical λ/4 monopole
antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB to receive cellular radio signals. The E-field at 1
km from transmitter is measured to be 10-3 V/m. The carrier frequency used for
this system is 900 MHz.
a) Find the length and the effective aperture of the receiving antenna
b) Find the received power at the mobile using 2-Ray ground reflection model
assuming ht = 50 m and hr = 1.5 m
2. In a 2-ray ground reflection model, assume θ ∆ must be kept below 6.261 rad for
phase cancellation purpose. Assuming a receiver height of 2 m and given
requirement thatθ i be less than 50, what are the minimum allowable values for
the Tx – Rx separation distance and height of the transmitter antenna? The
carrier frequency is 900 MHz.
 Free – Space Propagation Model
2
t t Gr λ
2
PG  λ 
Pr = Pr = PG G
t t r  
( 4π ) d 2  4π d 
2

PG G
( 4π ) d 2
2
Pt Pr = t t r
= L path _ loss
Pr Gt Gr λ 2
Pr (dBm) = Pt (dBm) + Gt (dBi ) + Gr (dBi ) − Lpath _ loss (dB)
2
Pt  4π d 
=   [ If G=t G=
r 1]
Pr  λ 
2
Pt  4π df c   d = meters 
=   
Pr  3 × 108   f c = Hz 
 4π 
L path=_ loss 20 log  8 
+ 20 log ( d ) + 20 log ( f c )
 3 × 10 
 d = km 
32.44 + 20 log ( d ) + 20 log ( f c ) 
L path _ loss = 
f
 c = MHz 
 Problems
1. Calculate the free space path loss for a signal transmitted at a frequency of 900
MHz the distance between the Tx and Rx being 1 km. Ans: 91.66 dB
2. A wireless communication transmitter has an output of 165 W at a carrier
frequency of 325 MHz. It is connected to an antenna with a gain of 12 dBi. The
receiving antenna is 15 km away and has a gain of 6 dBi. Calculate the power
delivered to the receiver, considering free space propagation. Assume that there
are no other losses or mismatch in the system. Ans: -36.06 dBm (2.51 W)
3. Determine the propagation loss for a radio signal at 800 MHz with ht = 30 m
and hr = 2 m, d = 10 km, using two ray model and compare the results with free
space path loss model.
 Propagation Basics
• Diffraction
• When the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities or edges.
• This is the reason why radio signals travels in urban and rural areas without
a line of sight.
• The Rx signal strength varies rapidly (decreases) as a receiver moves deeper
into the obstructed region.
• Diffraction is explained using “Huygens Principle”.
• All point in the wave front can be considered as point sources for the
production of secondary wavelets.
• These wavelets combine to produce a new wave front in the direction of
propagation.
Diffraction Model
Knife Edge Geometry when ht = hr
Knife Edge Geometry when ht > hr
 Knife Edge Geometry when ht > hr

When h << d1 and d2 and h >> λ

h 2 (d1 + d 2 )
Excess path delay ∆ ≈
2 d1d 2

2(d1 + d 2 ) 2d1d 2
parameter υ h=
Fresnel Kirchhoff Diffraction = α
λ d1d 2 λ (d1 + d 2 )

2π∆ 2π h 2 (d1 + d 2 ) π 2
Phase Diference ϕ = ≈ or ϕ = υ
λ λ 2 d1d 2 2

Phase difference between LOS and NLOS is function of height and position of
obstruction as well as the Tx and Rx location
 Fresnel Zones: Diffraction Loss

nλ
∆=
2

• Fresnel zone represents successive regions where secondary waves have path
length from the transmitter to receiver which are nλ/2 greater than the total path
length of a LOS
• The radius of the nth Fresnel zone
nλ d1d 2
rn =
d1 + d 2
 Gain vs Fresnel Diffraction parameter
(υ)
• E field strength, Ed of a knife edge diffracted wave
∞
Ed (1 + j )
(υ ) ∫ π 2
= F= exp(( − j t )2)dt
E0 2 υ

• Diffraction Gain due to knife edge Gd (dB) = 20 log F (υ )

Gd (dB) 0 υ ≤ −1
G
=d ( dB ) 20 log(0.5 − 0.62υ ) −1 ≤ υ ≤ 0
Gd (dB) 20 log(0.5exp(−0.95υ ))
= 0 ≤υ ≤1
Gd (dB) = 20 log(0.4 − 0.1184 − (0.38 − 0.1υ ) 2 0 ≤ υ ≤ 2.4
 0.225 
Gd (dB) 20 log   υ > 2.4
 υ 
 Gain vs Fresnel Diffraction parameter
(υ)

Gd (dB) = 20 log F (υ )
 Problem
• Given the following geometry, determine (a) the loss due to knife edge
diffraction and (b) the height of the obstacle required to induce 6 dB diffraction
loss. Assume f = 900 MHz
 Scattering
• The actual received signal in a mobile environment is often stronger than what
predicted by reflection and diffraction.
• Waves are scattered or diffused in all direction due to the roughness of the
surface.
• Surface roughness is often tested using Rayleigh Criterion which defines “critical
height” (hc) of a surface undulation for a given angle of incidence.
λ
hc =
8sin θi
• If h, (minimum to maximum roughness height) < hc surface is smooth
• If h, (minimum to maximum roughness height) > hc surface is rough
• For rough surfaces the flat surface reflection coeff needs to be multiplied by a
scattering loss factor, ρs to account for the diminished reflected field.
 Practical Link Budget Design using
Path Loss model
• So far the models have been oversimplified.
• Radio Propagation Model can be derived by
1. Using Empirical Method:
Collect measurement fit curves.
2. Using Analytical Methods:
Model the propagation mechanism mathematically and derive equation
for path loss
 Log-distance Path Loss Model
• Average received power decreases logarithmically with distance whether in
outdoor or indoor radio channels.
n
d 
PL (d ) ∝   , PL (d ) = Path loss, n = path loss exponent
d
 o
d 
PL (dB ) = PL (d o ) + 10n log   , PL (d o ) =Ref path loss
d
 o
 Pt   G G λ2 
where PL (d o ) =
−10 log  =−10 log  t r2 2 
 Pr   ( 4π ) d 0 
Path Loss exponents for Different
Environments
Environment Path Loss Exponent, n
Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building line-of-sight 16. To 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
Obstructed in factories 2 to 3
 Log-Normal Shadowing Path Loss
Model
• The log distance model does not consider the fact that surrounding environment
may be vastly different at two locations having the same Tx-Rx.
d 
PL(d )[dB]= PL (d ) + X σ = PL (d o ) + 10n log   + X σ
 do 
PL(d ) = Random variable with normal distribution about distance dependent mean
X σ = Gaussian Random Variable with zero mean

• This distribution describes the random shadowing effects which happens when a
large nos. of measurement locations which have the same Tx-Rx
• This variable is used only when there is a shadowing effect. If there is no
shadowing effect then this variable is zero.
 Problem
• Calculate the received power at a distance of 3 km from the transmitter if the
path loss exponent is 4. Assume the transmitting power of 4 W at 800 Mhz a
shadow effect of 10.5 dBm and the power at reference distance (do = 100m) of -
32 dBm. What is the allowable path loss.
• Ans: PL: 37.5 dBm, Pr = -1.5 dBm