Pre-class definitions:
Cross-Cultural Pragmatics
Cross-cultural pragmatics is the study of how people from different cultures use
language to communicate and understand each other. It examines how cultural
values and social norms influence things like making requests, giving
compliments, or apologizing. Since people from different cultures may have
different ways of expressing politeness, showing respect, or managing conflict,
cross-cultural pragmatics helps us understand these differences to improve
communication and avoid misunderstandings.
Discourse
Discourse refers to any connected series of spoken or written language that
forms a meaningful conversation, story, or text. It’s more than just individual
words or sentences; it’s about how these parts work together to communicate an
overall idea, whether in a conversation, a speech, a book, or even a news article.
Discourse also considers context, such as who is speaking, where, why, and how
this affects the way language is used and understood.
Illocutions
Illocutions are the intentions behind a speaker’s words or the action that is
performed by saying something. For example, when someone says “I promise to
call you,” they are not just speaking but performing the act of promising.
Illocutions focus on what the speaker *means to do* through their words—such
as requesting, apologizing, commanding, or suggesting—rather than just what
the words literally say.
Following the Principle of Cooperation
The principle of cooperation is the idea that people generally try to be helpful
and clear in conversations so that communication can go smoothly. This
principle, proposed by philosopher H.P. Grice, suggests that speakers work
together by following certain conversational rules, like giving the right amount
of information, being truthful, staying relevant, and being clear. When people
follow this principle, they make it easier to understand and be understood.
The Relevance Maxim
The relevance maxim, one of Grice’s conversational rules, is the expectation
that people will stay on topic in a conversation. This means that each speaker’s
contribution should be relevant to the discussion. For example, if someone asks
“How was the movie?” a relevant response would be about the movie, not an
unrelated topic. Staying relevant helps conversations make sense and flow
naturally.
Obeying Politeness Strategies
Politeness strategies are ways people use language to show respect, avoid
offending others, and make communication smoother. These strategies might
include being indirect (like saying “Could you pass the salt?” instead of “Pass
the salt”), using polite phrases, or softening requests and criticisms. Politeness
strategies vary by culture but generally help people maintain positive social
relationships and reduce potential conflicts during interactions.
Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and how they create meaning. It
explores how anything that can stand for something else—such as words,
images, gestures, sounds, and objects—communicates ideas or messages.
Semiotics examines the way signs function in language, art, media, and culture
to understand how people interpret and convey meaning.
In semiotics, each sign has three parts:
1. The Sign Itself (like a word or image).
2. The Object (what the sign represents).
3. The Interpretant (the idea or meaning created in the mind of the person who
sees or hears the sign).
Semiotics helps us understand not just the literal meanings of signs but also the
cultural, emotional, and social messages they carry.
-Some examples to illustrate semiotics in everyday life:
1. Traffic Light Colors:
- Sign: The colors red, yellow, and green.
- Object: Red = stop, yellow = slow down or caution, green = go.
- Interpretant: People understand these colors as instructions for driving
behavior, without needing words.
2. Emoji:
- Sign: 😊 (a smiling face emoji).
- Object: Happiness or friendliness.
- Interpretant: The emoji suggests friendliness or a positive tone, making a
message seem warm or light-hearted.
3. National Flag:
- Sign: A country’s flag (e.g., the U.S. flag).
- Object: The country it represents (in this case, the United States).
- Interpretant: The flag symbolizes patriotism, national identity, and the values
associated with the country.
4. Brand Logo:
- Sign: The Apple logo (a bitten apple).
- Object: Apple Inc. and its products.
- Interpretant: When people see the Apple logo, they associate it with qualities
like innovation, technology, and high-end design.
5. Wedding Ring:
- Sign: A ring worn on the left hand’s ring finger.
- Object: Marriage or commitment.
- Interpretant: Seeing a wedding ring on someone typically conveys that they
are married or in a committed relationship.
6. Smoke as a Sign of Fire:
- Sign: Smoke.
- Object: Fire or burning.
- Interpretant: When people see smoke, they interpret it as a sign that
something is burning nearby.
In each example, semiotics helps explain how we assign meaning to things,
whether through cultural conventions (like the meaning of colors in a traffic
light) or natural associations (like smoke signaling fire).
Peirce’s three types of signs—icon, index, and symbol—with clear examples
to illustrate each one:
1. Icon
Definition: An icon is a sign that looks like or resembles the object it
represents. It has a direct, visual similarity to the object.
Examples:
o A photograph of a tree is an icon of a tree because it visually
resembles the actual tree.
o A picture of a fork and knife on a restaurant sign is an icon for
food because it visually represents items used to eat.
o The symbol of a trash can on a computer screen resembles a real
trash can, so we understand it to mean "delete."
Icons work because there’s a clear likeness or similarity to the object they
represent, making their meaning easy to interpret based on appearance.
2. Index
Definition: An index is a sign that points to or indicates something
directly related to it. It has a physical or causal connection to the object.
Examples:
o Smoke is an index of fire because it suggests that something
nearby is burning.
o A thermometer reading is an index of the temperature because
the reading is directly caused by the surrounding temperature.
o A footprint in the sand is an index of a person or animal that
walked there, as it physically shows their presence.
Indexes work because they are directly connected to what they represent, so
they “point” to their object or give evidence of it.
3. Symbol
Definition: A symbol is a sign that represents something based on a
learned, cultural or conventional association. It doesn’t resemble the
object but rather represents it by agreement or “rule.”
Examples:
o The word “tree” is a symbol for an actual tree. It doesn’t look like
a tree, but we learn to associate the sound or letters “t-r-e-e” with
the concept of a tree.
o A red cross is a symbol of medical help in many cultures, even
though the cross itself doesn’t resemble a doctor or medicine.
o The peace symbol (☮) represents peace because people have
collectively agreed on this meaning, though it doesn’t look like
peace itself.
Symbols work because of shared understanding and cultural conventions, so
they must be learned.
Summary Table with Examples
Type Description Example
Icon Resembles the object it represents A picture of a castle on a sign
Index Has a direct connection to the object Smoke as an indicator of fire
Represents by cultural convention or The word “castle” or the peace
Symbol
rule symbol
Icons rely on resemblance, indexes rely on a direct link or evidence, and
symbols rely on learned associations.
