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FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION The Modernization of Digital Information

TECHNOLOGY: Textbook – English Technology

1-1-2023

Chapter 05 Microcomputers
Shambhavi Roy

Clinton Daniel
University of South Florida, cedanie2@usf.edu

Manish Agrawal
University of South Florida, magrawal@usf.edu

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/dit_tb_eng

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FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY: Textbook – English. 5.
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Microcomputers

CHAPTER CONTENTS
Overview 52
Microcomputers 52
Desktop Computer 52
Laptop 53
Tablet 54
Smartphone 55
Smartwatch 56
Architecture of a Microcomputer 57
Motherboard 57
CPU 58
RAM 60
Storage 64
HDD vs SSD vs Portable Flash Drives 65
Bus 66
GPU 67
GPUs for Video Content Creation 68
GPUs for ML and Crypto Mining 68
Input Devices 69
Keyboard 69
Mouse and Trackpad 70
Camera and Microphone 71
Output Devices 71
Speakers 72
Conclusion 72
Chapter Terms and Definitions 74
Chapter Case: Gaming Consoles Yesterday, Today,
and Tomorrow 76

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 51
 If you’re not looking toward the future or trying to improve the current technology,
you’ll be left behind.
—Gwynne Shotwell, president of SpaceX

Overview
In the previous chapter, we saw how computers are used in organizations. In this chapter, we will
introduce the common types of computers and provide an overview of the parts of a typical computer.
This will allow you to compare computers with different specifications and make the right choices
when selecting a computer for a specific task.

Microcomputers
A microcomputer is a small, standalone computer designed to be used by one person at a time.
Almost all computers you have used so far are likely to fall in the category of microcomputers.
Microcomputers are less expensive than large corporate computers designed to handle much
heavier computational tasks. These corporate computers are also called servers. Microcomputers are
also known as Personal Computers (PCs) and are typically used for personal tasks such as writing
emails, searching for information on the web, creating documents, making presentations, updating
spreadsheets, watching movies, listening to music, and playing computer games.
Microcomputers come in many formats. The most common types are desktop computers, laptops,
tablets, mobile phones, and smartwatches on your wrist.
While desktop computers bear no resemblance to smartwatches, both share surprisingly similar
architectures. Both have similar hardware components such as memory, storage, input, output, and
Central Processing Unit (CPU). Both also have similar software components including an operating
system and applications that run on the operating system.
Modern microcomputers can talk to each other and share information. When you snap a photo using
your phone, it can become immediately visible on your desktop. Similarly, when you get a phone call
or a message on your phone, it can pop up on your desktop, smartwatch, and phone simultaneously.
We begin by taking a brief look at each type of microcomputer.

Desktop Computer
A desktop computer is a microcomputer primarily
designed to meet the computational needs of a single
user at a fixed location. If you have a comfortable desk
where you do most of your work and would like a
computer to use on the desk without moving it around, a
desktop computer may be ideal for you.
While laptops are very popular for their mobility, desktops
continue to be very popular for several reasons. Desktop
computers generally offer the best value for your money since the components in a desktop do not
have to be optimized for size, weight, or power consumption. Also, since desktops don’t have to
be light, small, or portable, they can typically use larger power supplies and bigger fans to support

52 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
far more powerful processors (CPUs) and video cards. They can be configured with multiple hard
disk drives, optical disk drives, and support multiple peripherals like large external monitors, external
speakers, microphones, and cameras. Also, since they are designed to be stationary, users can create
setups with multiple peripherals and full-size keyboards that do not have to be dismantled each
time the device is moved. For their economy as well as setup convenience, desktop computers are
very common in organizations, particularly for office staff who do not need portable computers to
deliver presentations or take notes in meetings. Desktops are also popular for gaming because they
can simultaneously support the most powerful computing units, video cards, and highest resolution
monitors without the need to worry about optimizing battery performance.
One additional benefit of owning a desktop computer is the ease of upgrade. Desktops are enclosed
in cases that are usually easy to open. Desktops typically offer expansion slots that you can use to
add additional memory and Graphic Processing Units (GPUs) over time for a better video gaming
experience. Since desktops are larger, they also have several extra ports (USB, USB-C, HDMI, audio,
and memory card slots) readily available to add storage and connect peripherals.
As desktops are stationary, they also typically last much longer because they do not encounter shocks
from being tossed around. You are also not likely to misplace your desktop at your local coffee shop
or drop it from your backpack.
Typically, you’ll choose an operating system between the two dominating the desktop market—
Microsoft Windows and Apple Mac OS. Microsoft desktops are generally less expensive and have a
significantly larger share of the market compared to Apple Mac OS based desktops.
Linux is also an option for a desktop operating system. Ubuntu is a version of Linux optimized for
desktops and laptops.34 The lack of end user applications such as Office and vendor-specific drivers for
peripherals such as printers and cameras limit the usability of Linux desktops for many end users. In
recent years, however, as web-based applications such as Office 365 and Google Docs gain popularity
for most personal productivity tasks, Linux is becoming an increasingly viable option, particularly for
enthusiasts.

Laptop
Laptops, small enough to fit in your lap, has a clamshell
unit, a screen on the top half and an integrated keyboard
and trackpad on the bottom. The great advantage of a
laptop is its portability which allows you to work from
anywhere–school, home, and coffee shops. In the post-
Covid world, with most offices offering hybrid work
models, a laptop may be an indispensable possession
offering you the ability to work from wherever you want.
As laptop prices drop, colleges are increasingly requiring
students to own a personal laptop for use in class.
Manufacturers aim to design laptops that are as light as possible and work all day without the need
for an external power source. To optimize for portability, the components inside a typical laptop,

34 The open-source Ubuntu desktop can be downloaded here, https://ubuntu.com/download/

desktop (accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 53
including the CPU, Random-Access Memory (RAM), storage, keyboard, monitor, camera, microphone,
and speakers focus on power efficiency, and compromise on performance metrics such as speed to
keep the unit light. As the CPU is optimized to use less power and minimize heat generation, it may
not be as powerful as your desktop CPU. This can be noticeable in demanding tasks such as video
conferencing, software development, or when working on large spreadsheets with a lot of formulae.
Powerful chips generate a lot of heat and drain the battery fast, so this design optimization makes
sense. Also, laptops typically have expensive Solid State Drive (SSD) storage because SSDs consume
little power and are lightweight. Laptop keyboards can also lack features common in full-sized
keyboards such as a dedicated numbers keypad.
However, the benefits of being able to sit at a park bench, airport, or meeting room, pull out your
laptop and work or be entertained far outweigh the performance compromises of laptops for most
users. As laptops come with a built-in rechargeable lithium-ion battery, you won’t need to find a
charging source for several hours, even with continuous use. To address some of the limitations of
laptops, you can carry a mouse and headphones or wireless earbuds. Some people keep a full-sized
monitor, keyboard, and mousepad connected to a docking station at their home or office, so the
laptop easily converts into a full-fledged desktop when they work for long hours.
Just like the desktop PC market, even the laptop market is dominated by Microsoft Windows and
Apple Mac OS. As Apple manufactures its own hardware, a Mac PC will have Mac OS. However,
since Microsoft licenses its operating system to other hardware manufacturers, you are likely to find
Microsoft Windows on laptops manufactured by several manufacturers including Samsung, LG, Dell,
HP, Acer, and others.
An increasingly popular laptop option, particularly for high school students, is the Chromebook.
Chromebooks use an operating system developed by Google, which saves very limited data on the
local device, and uses data storage on the cloud instead. This reduces hardware needs on the local
device, reducing costs significantly. This approach becomes increasingly effective as more and more
applications move to the cloud.

Tablet
A tablet computer (known simply as a tablet) is a
microcomputer designed for portability and media
consumption. They have screen sizes comparable to
that of a laptop, but lack the input/output capabilities
of a laptop such as keyboards and mice. Instead, they
use touchscreens for input and output, much like a
smartphone. Tablets have the same components as
other microcomputers—RAM, CPU, storage, microphone,
camera, and speakers, and they connect to the Internet
through Wi-Fi, just like most other portable devices. Some
tablet models also support Internet connectivity over a
cellular network.
The motivation behind tablets is to have a basic computer that is inexpensive, can be carried easily
and be turned on quickly to consume media in a convenient way. If you want to watch cooking shows
in your kitchen, read books in subway stations, or attend web conferences from airport lounges, a

54 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
tablet may be the optimal device for you. To make them as easy to use as phones, they rely on mobile
operating systems like Apple IOS or Google’s Android. Touching and swiping the screen is a fun and
engaging experience for most users.
Today, there are about 5 billion mobile devices (smartphones and tablets) in the world. The two primary
mobile OS makers (Apple and Google) have app stores where independent software developers
offer games and applications. These app stores have unleashed the creative potential of software
developers who build applications for tablets and smartphones. As a mobile phone or tablet user, you
can access a tremendous array of games and all sorts of applications to enhance productivity, receive
therapy, simplify communication, identify trees, improve vocabulary, and learn new languages.

Smartphone
Smartphones are portable computers that connect to
the Internet using cellular telephone networks. Apple
kickstarted the smartphone era by launching the iPhone
in 2007. While mobile phones with rudimentary Internet
capabilities (e.g., messages and text-based web browsers)
existed prior to iPhones, Apple managed to package
almost all the capabilities of microcomputers into an
easy-to-use device that you could use not only to make
calls and send text but also to run most microcomputer
applications such as email, word processors, and
spreadsheets. The iPhone brought together a purpose-
built mobile OS based on UNIX, a touchscreen, and an App store, all into one easy package.
Keep in mind, today’s smartphones are far more powerful than even the Apollo 11 guidance
computers, which helped us land on the moon and return safely. At the core, a smartphone is
also a microcomputer that has CPU, RAM, storage, display, speakers, and a microphone, with the
touchscreen and microphone serving as primary inputs. The app stores (available in Apple’s IOS and
Google’s Android) add to the versatility and usefulness of smartphones. Connectivity applications
such as Snapchat and Instagram enhance the entertainment value of phones, particularly for younger
users; the mobile versions of Zoom, Gmail, and Microsoft’s Office suite turn them into productivity
tools; WhatsApp, Slack, and Discord ease casual communication. These applications, created by third-
party vendors, greatly enrich the value of smartphones.
Prior to smartphones, we had featurephones that had a non-touch display, press-button based inputs,
and a set of built-in features. However, the smartphone is dynamic. You can add new apps, remove
old apps, and play a newly released game by buying it on the app store. It is possible to download and
use new applications because the Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) of mobile operating
systems allow third-party software to integrate tightly with the phone’s software and hardware.
Smartphones have eliminated many electronic utilities. Since smartphones became popular, people
have stopped carrying cameras and camcorders and even use their phones as a flashlight at night.
Hotels are beginning to eliminate alarm clocks35 and it is becoming increasingly difficult to find radio-
clocks, which were standard fixtures in bedrooms for decades.

35 Ben Schlappig, “Good Riddance: Marriott Looks to Cut Alarm Clocks,” https://onemileatatime.
com/news/marriott-cuts-alarm-clocks/ (accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 55
Smartwatch
A smartwatch is a microcomputer that you can wear on your wrist. Smartwatches are the newest
entrants to the microcomputer line-up. Smartwatches have RAM, internal storage, and a CPU.
They either use their own cellular chips or pair with phones to connect to networks. Because of
their size limitations, they obviously don’t have a keyboard and
mouse. But smartwatches make up for that shortcoming in other
ways, primarily by leveraging their seamless connectivity with
smartphones. Streaming services make it easy for you to save
music on your watch. Because smartwatches use Bluetooth to
connect with peripherals, you can put your ear buds on and go for
a walk, while listening to your favorite songs streaming out of your
watch. You can also make phone calls and send/receive messages
while you are exercising and don’t have access to your phone.
The main unique selling proposition (USP) of smartwatches is
that they help users improve their health. As microcomputers
closest to users and wrapped around wrists, smartwatches have
the potential to accurately sense many health parameters. Current
technologies already allow smartwatches to monitor heart rates,
blood oxygen levels, body temperature, step count, and sleep
cycles. Some smartwatches can detect a fall and automatically
notify nearby emergency services. Other smartwatches can detect irregular heartbeats and remind
you to get yourself checked.
The industry is working hard to add additional capabilities, including blood pressure and sugar
monitors. If these efforts are successful, smartwatches could help mitigate many common lifestyle
health issues like sugar, blood pressure, and fat. In the coming years, smartwatches may be our
greatest asset in improving health. Some of you may be the ones to write the software applications
that leverage the hardware capabilities of smartwatches to detect and monitor diseases.

Form Factor
The differences in the types of computers discussed in this section can also be
described as differences in their form factors.36 Form factor is the term used to
describe the physical size and shape of a computer device measured by outside
dimensions.37 For many common components, the form factor is also used as
an identifier for a class of components. For example, as 3.5” or 5.25” hard drive,
or a 1U or 2U server. These specifications define the space needed to fit the
components, not the drive’s storage capacity or a server’s processing capacity.

36 Dwight Pavlovic, “Computer Form Factors: A Guying Guide,” https://www.hp.com/us-en/shop/

tech-takes/computer-form-factor-buying-guide (accessed June 2023).
37 “What does form factor mean?” University Information Technology Services, https://kb.iu.edu/d/
ahvq (accessed June 2023).

56 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
Architecture of a Microcomputer
Microcomputers (or computers for short) take signals from input devices, process these inputs in
the CPU using instructions loaded in memory, and send the output to an output device. This general
processing sequence is used to understand keyboard strokes. The general architecture of a computer
was specified in 1945 in a report produced by the University of Pennsylvania for the US Military.38 The
report is known in the industry as the Von Neumann report. Section 2 of the report is shown in Figure
15. Remarkably, the basic computer architecture and the flow of input and output signals is almost
unchanged since the original 1945 report.

FIGURE 15 — Von Neumann architecture of a computer.

We will now look at the computer hardware—the physical parts of a computer you can touch and
feel. We will then examine the core parts of computer software—the instructions that tell a computer
what to do.

Motherboard
The motherboard is the wiring that connects all the
components of a computer. The motherboard of
a computer is analogous to the layout of a city or
town. The layouts of most towns and cities have well-
designed roads connecting homes, schools, parks,
libraries, and office complexes. When a city or town
is planned, the designers anticipate user needs and
come up with an architecture to connect the different
parts of the town and facilitate the quick movement
of people and goods. They take into consideration the
flow of traffic, utilities, and sewage to ensure the city
roads do not get choked, and the residents don’t have The layout of a town.

38 John Von Neumann, “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” https://web.mit.edu/STS.035/www/

PDFs/edvac.pdf (accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 57
to deal with electrical and plumbing disasters every few days. Traffic rules and signs are established
for orderly movement. Once the architecture is laid out, and the parts built in accordance with the
architecture, the town can continue to function like a well-oiled machine.
The motherboard does for a computer what the layout does for a city. The motherboard is a plan to
place various computer parts (CPU, RAM, storage, input and output devices) in the right locations and
connect them to each other, so all the parts get the necessary power and are able to communicate
with each other at their rated speeds. See Figure 16.

FIGURE 16 — A motherboard.

A motherboard not only has designated slots for the core components but it also distributes the right
amount of power to each component. To dissipate the heat generated by high performance CPUs,
motherboards also have mechanisms to attach heat sinks and fans. The motherboard also has data
paths called a bus to move data at high speeds between the components. The motherboard may also
have expansion slots for you to add additional RAM (storage) and GPUs (Graphical Processing Units)
to allow the computer to scale if needed.

CPU
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer and performs all the computations
necessary to execute the user’s command. Modern CPUs implement the Von Neumann architecture
(Figure 15). The core technological marvel that enables CPU capabilities is the transistor. A transistor
is an electronic device that amplifies a signal. To create the binary behavior necessary for computer
operation, the transistors used in computers are highly sensitive and effectively act as switches. When
the input is low, these transistors block the connection (interpreted as 0) and when the input is high,

58 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
the transistors enable the connection (interpreted as 1).39 By rapidly switching between 0 and 1 as
directed by the software instructions, transistors help CPUs perform the necessary computations
for the user. Modern CPUs have many transistors to do complex data processing. CPUs in popular
computers today can have over 100 billion transistors.40
Transistors are one of the world’s most sustained innovations. In 1971, Intel’s first CPU, the Intel 400441
had 2,300 transistors42 and cost $200,43 for a cost of $0.10/ transistor. The transistors in the Intel 4004
were able to switch between 0 and 1 about 740,000 times per second. Performing each instruction
took about 8 switches, and the Intel 4004 was able to complete about 92,000 instructions per second.44
In 2022, the AMD Epyc 7773X45 chip has 26 billion transistors, and sells for ~$9,000, for a cost of
$0.0000003 per transistor. While instructions are now considered a simplistic metric, this chip is likely
to perform the equivalent of 1.8 trillion instructions per second. So, while the cost per transistor has
fallen by a factor of 250,000 between 1971 and 2022,
the capabilities have gone up by a factor of almost
20 million. This revolution in costs and capabilities
is the key enabler of digitally driven changes in our
economy, which make a class like Digital Information
Technologies relevant to our society.
CPUs tend to follow Moore’s law, the observation
made by Gordon Moore (founder and CEO of Intel) in
1965 that the number of transistors on a microchip
doubles approximately every two years. This is seen
in the graph below (Figure 17), the growth in the
number of transistors on microchips for 50 years since A Central Processing Unit (CPU).
1970.

39 There are more detailed explanations online, e.g. “How Transistors Work—The Learning Circuit,”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R0Uy4EL4xWs (accessed June 2023).
40 “Apple unveils M1 Ultra,” https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2022/03/apple-unveils-m1-ultra-
the-worlds-most-powerful-chip-for-a-personal-computer/ (accessed June 2023).
41 “The Intel 4004 Microprocessor and the Silicon Gate Technology,” http://web.archive.org/
web/20211225184908/http://www.intel4004.com/ (accessed June 2023).
42 “The Story of the Intel 4004,” https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/history/museum-
story-of-intel-4004.html (accessed June 2023).
43 “Intel 4004,” Gunkies, https://gunkies.org/wiki/Intel_4004 (accessed June 2023).
44 Margareet Rouse, “Intel 4004,” https://www.techopedia.com/definition/20057/intel-4004
(accessed June 2023).
45 “Nothing Stacks up to EPYC,” https://www.amd.com/en/products/cpu/amd-epyc-7773x
(accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 59
 FIGURE 17 — The exponential increase in transistor counts per microchips doubles every two years.

This exponential growth has not only given us faster computers but has also made them smaller,
cheaper, and less power hungry. This has enabled form factors such as smartwatches and enabled even
low-income people in developing countries to own computers and smartphones and communicate
over the World Wide Web.

Buying Tip
Before you decide to buy a computer with the latest, most powerful CPU, you
should keep in mind that the CPU is also typically the most expensive part of
your computer. You may never utilize the power of the CPU if you plan to use
the computer just to create Word documents, PowerPoints, write emails, and
browse the web.

RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is much faster than all other kinds of storage devices like hard disk
drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical drives.

60 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
It is used to temporarily store computer instructions that need to be accessed frequently, along with
the data processed by these instructions. For example, when you launch the Chrome browser, the
CPU needs a place to temporarily store the Chrome program as well as the webpages you are viewing
and track all the changes you are making.

Memory Types
Memory comes in many types. In addition to RAM, modern CPUs also have
extra-fast memory within the processor chip called the cache.46 The cache is
designed for instructions and data to be readily available within the CPU for
instant access. In fact, there are multiple levels of cache in modern processors
as seen here.

As of 2020, the cache memory within the processor chip is 10–100 times faster
than RAM memory.47 It takes 1–4 nano seconds to retrieve data from the cache,
and about 100nano seconds to retrieve data from RAM.

If you happen to open many tabs on your browser and

end up consuming all available RAM, your browser will
become slow and might even crash. Computers try to
augment RAM by using space on the hard drive as
an extension of the computer’s RAM. This additional
space is called the page file, or virtual memory.48 Since
the hard drive is usually many times slower than RAM,
your computer’s performance could get noticeably
slower as the page file use increases. In these cases, it
is useful to open the Task Manager to kill some unused
programs and free up RAM to regain computer speed.
Computer memory (RAM).

46 “Intel Processor Identification Utility—Windows Version,” download page, https://www.intel.

com/content/www/us/en/download/12136/intel-processor-identification-utility-windows-
version.html (accessed June 2023).
47 “Latency Numbers Every Programmer Should Know,” https://colin-scott.github.io/personal_
website/research/interactive_latency.html (accessed June 2023).
48 “How to Manage Virtual Memory (Pagefile) in Windows 10,” https://www.tomshardware.com/
news/how-to-manage-virtual-memory-pagefile-windows-10,36929.html (accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 61
 Opening the Task Manager
In Windows, right click the start (or Windows) button on your taskbar to access
the Task Manager. In the Task Manager, the “Processes” tab will clearly identify
the programs that are consuming most memory and CPU. You can also open
the Task Manager by using the “Ctrl+Shift+Esc” keyboard shortcut.
In Figure 18, the Snagit app is consuming the most memory.

FIGURE 18 — Task Manager on Windows.

RAM is typically measured in gigabytes (GBs). A byte is equal to 8 bits. A bit, the unit of computer
information, is a binary digit and takes a value of either a 1 or a 0. For example, the state of a light
bulb—on or off, can indicate a 1 or 0. All information, whether in text, photo, audio, or video format, is
converted into binary format and represented as bytes. Once this translation happens the computer
can store it in RAM and process it in the CPU.
RAM is one of the most critical components to speed up a computer. Your RAM requirement is one of
the key decisions you’ll need to make before purchasing a computer.

62 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
 How Much RAM Do You Need?
Here are the RAM recommendations from Crucial, one of the leading
manufacturers of RAM. 49 & 50

Generally, we recommend 8GB of RAM for casual computer usage and Internet
browsing, 16GB for spreadsheets and other office programs, and at least 32GB
for gamers and multimedia creators. How you use your computer influences
how much RAM you need, so use this as a guideline.

If this is how you use your computer Here’s how much

memory we recommend

Casual User
Internet browsing, email, listening to music, At least 8GB
or watching videos
Intermediate User
Internet browsing, email, Word Processing, At least 16GB
spreadsheets, running simple graphics
programs, flash games, music, videos
or multitasking
Professional User/Gamer/Graphic Designer
High performance gaming, multimedia At least 32GB
editing, high-definition video, graphic
design/3D modelling, intensive multitasking

Unfortunately, RAM is only operational when it is powered. Even a

momentary power loss clears up the contents in RAM.

There are a variety of RAM types.

49 For enthusiasts interested in building their own computer, here’s a helpful article with some
more details by Tony Polanco, “How much RAM do I need?” https://www.tomsguide.com/
features/how-much-ram-do-i-need-heres-how-to-know (accessed June 2023).
50 “How Much RAM Do You Need For Your Computer Memory?” https://www.crucial.com/articles/
about-memory/how-much-ram-does-my-computer-need (accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 63
 RAM and a Worker’s Pocket of Tools51
You can think of RAM as being analogous to a worker’s pockets. The data and
instructions in RAM are analogous to the tools a plumber or an electrician
carries with them when they perform tasks inside homes. The worker has the
entire set of tools and supplies in their parked truck, but it would take forever
to complete any job if they had to go back to the truck every time they needed
a screwdriver or tape. Instead, having these tools ready at hand speeds up their
work. Similarly, having data and instructions at hand in RAM and cache helps
the CPU speed up execution.

Storage
Computer storage is the technology that stores the
software (e.g., operating system and applications) and
data on the computer. Storage is also popularly known
as hard drives. A critical feature of storage technology
that differentiates it from RAM is that applications and
data are retained in storage even after the power is
turned off. This ability to retain data for long periods
without power or external connectivity allows you
to store software and relevant data (e.g., documents,
games, songs, and movies) in your computer
throughout your school years and beyond. When
the computer is powered on, the computer loads the Disk drives in a typical desktop computer.
operating system from storage into memory. As RAM
cannot store data unless the computer is on, every computer comes with in-built secondary storage
to keep your content safe when it is powered off.
Modern storage devices have reasonably large
capacities and can store all the data and applications
most users need. If your storage needs exceed the
capacity of the built-in storage device, you have a few
options. Most users connect external storage devices
to augment the storage capacity of their computers.
External storage is typically connected to your
computer using a USB cable.
Cloud storage services such as DropBox, Box, OneDrive,
iCloud, and Google Drive are also options to store
personal data for a fee. Cloud services eliminate the
risk of data loss. Cloud services like Backblaze52 offer External storage devices.
even more comprehensive backup capabilities, saving

51 Examples of holders for worker’s tools https://bucketboss.com/ (accessed June 2023).

52 Backblaze offers cloud services, https://www.backblaze.com/ (accessed June 2023).

64 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
all the files on a computer. Both external drives and cloud services can also be used to back up your
data and move it between computers.
Your storage needs depend upon the kind of information you work with. If you work mostly with
text, your typical Word document will be a few kilobytes (1 kilobyte = 1000 bytes) in size. Photos
are usually larger, about 4–5 megabytes (1 megabyte = 1000 kilobytes or 1 million bytes) in size.
Higher resolution photos can be even larger. Audio files are comparable in size to photos, with each
song typically taking up about 5MB (in compressed formats like MP3) and about 50MB in CD quality
uncompressed formats. 4k videos in current smartphones take up about 1 gigabyte (1 gigabyte =
1,000 MB or 1,000,000 bytes) per minute. The table below shows the common prefixes for file sizes.
Memory unit Description
Kilo Byte 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Mega Byte 1 MB = 1024 KB
Giga Byte 1 GB = 1024 MB
Tera Byte 1 TB = 1024 GB
Peta Byte 1 PB = 1024 TB
Hexa Byte 1 EB = 1024 PB
Zetta Byte 1 ZB = 1024 EB
Yotta Byte 1 YB = 1024 ZB
Bronto Byte 1 Bronto Byte = 1024 YB
Geop Byte 1 Geo Byte = 1024 Bronto Bytes

HDD vs SSD vs Portable Flash Drives

There are two popular storage technologies currently
in use—magnetic disks and solid-state disks. Magnetic
disks store data as changes in magnetization on tracks
on a disk. Solid state disks (SSD) store data as the
charge state of a transistor. Let’s take a quick look at
each type of storage.
Magnetic disks, also called hard disk drives (HDDs), are
a legacy technology that store digital data on glass
A hard-disk drive (HDD).
platters coated with magnetic material. Data is stored
as the direction of magnetism of the material. HDDs
have a reader head that can magnetize portions of the
disk during the writing process and read the direction
of magnetization during the read process. The disks in
an HDD spin as fast as possible, while the head writes
or reads data on the disk. The weight of the rotating
platter makes hard disks heavy, slow, noisy, and
hungry for power. However, at the current time, HDDs
are cheaper than SSDs and can store significantly more
data that SSDs. So, if you plan to store a lot of media
files (songs, movies, and games), hard disk drives may Solid-state drives (SSD).
be a good secondary storage option for you.

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 65
Solid-state drives (SSDs) are a newer type of storage devices that use transistors to store data. The
transistors used in SSDs can save a charge even when not connected to power, enabling them to save
data over long periods. SSDs do not have any moving parts, unlike HDDs. Not having any moving
mechanical parts allows SSDs to be faster, longer lasting, and power efficient. Most newer computers
come installed with SSDs as the primary internal storage.
As of 2020, it takes 16,000 nano seconds (16 microseconds) to read data from an SSD and 2,000,000
nano seconds (2 milli seconds) to read data from a hard disk drive.53 Thus, L1 cache is the fastest, L2
cache is 4 times slower than L1 cache, RAM is 25 times slower than L2 cache, SSD is 160 times slower
than RAM and magnetic disks are 125 times slower than solid state disks.
A popular small version of an SSD is called a portable
flash drive (also known as a USB stick). These devices
are designed to be compact and often given out as
company swag for marketing purposes. If you plug
the flash drive or USB stick into your computer, the
operating system will automatically detect the USB
key as a storage device and the contents of the key
become available in your File Explorer. You can treat
the USB key like a storage device into which you can
add or remove files. USB sticks are useful when you
want to move content from one computer to another.
Flash drives are also called USB sticks or thumb
drives.

File Safety With Portable Drives

Before you remove the USB stick or other external storage device from the USB
port of your computer, you should remember to “Eject” to avoid corrupting the
data on the device. To “Eject,” right click on the USB drive in your File Explorer
and select “Eject.” You’ll get a message stating it is now safe to disconnect the
device. Properly removing the external device ensures that the operating
system has cleaned up and closed files to avoid damaging the contents of the
external storage device.

Bus
The bus in a computer is a communication system that transfers data between a set of components. As
we have seen, the components on a computer operate at vastly different speeds. Buses allow the CPU
to operate at the highest speeds possible, without getting slowed down by the slowest components.
The buses in the earliest computers were simply a set of wires connecting components. Developments
in bus technologies have enabled CPUs to become significantly faster even as peripherals like printers
and keyboards (and human users) have not evolved at a comparable pace. Modern micro-computers
have several buses, each operating at its own speeds.

53 “Latency Numbers Every Programmer Should Know,” https://colin-scott.github.io/personal_

website/research/interactive_latency.html (accessed June 2023).

66 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
 Buses in General
The term “bus” is a general term for a shared connection that maintains uniform
properties across its span to which several consumers are connected in parallel.
Thus, the power distribution lines delivering power at a fixed voltage to
electrical substations can be considered a distribution bus, and the power lines
supplying power to homes in a neighborhood at the constant 120 volts and 60
Hertz can be considered load buses. Similarly in a computer, each bus operates
at the same clock speed and has the same data across its span at any given time.

GPU
A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a computing technology designed to run several small programs
simultaneously. While modern CPUs have multiple cores and threads and can run tens of multiple
programs in parallel, GPUs can run thousands of programs in parallel. The overall size of the processor
chip is about the same in both CPUs and GPUs. While CPUs are organized as a small number of highly
capable processors, GPUs are organized as many relatively simple processors with relatively limited
capabilities.54 For most tasks, the complexity of CPUs is sufficient. However, for a small subset of tasks,
mostly in image processing and machine learning (ML), there is a need to perform many simple
operations in parallel. As image processing becomes popular for gaming and machine learning
becomes popular for artificial intelligence, GPUs have become increasingly popular. This is also
reflected in the market caps of the principal CPU manufacturer, Intel ($120bn) and the principal GPU
manufacturer, Nvidia ($400bn).
A lot of young people use personal computers primarily to play video games. Over time, the games
have become hyper-realistic and take place in a fantasy world where artificially created characters
interact with each other. Complex lighting and shadow patterns on high resolution monitors with
fast refresh rates can make these games very realistic. For a while, CPUs were stretched thin dealing
with complex gaming algorithms and high-resolution images designed to simulate a true-to-life
experience.
The computing industry addressed the problem by introducing chips dedicated to processing graphics
and rendering video content on the screen. These chips, known as GPUs work in tandem with the CPU
of the computer. The CPU handles the user input and does all the computations (e.g., Did two objects
collide? What is the location of objects on the screen). So, the CPU is still the overall boss, but it can
send video gaming/image processing workloads to the GPU, which does the computations needed
to render each pixel (e.g., color, shading, brightness) in the frame.55 Modern high resolution gaming
monitors can have over 8 million pixels (3,840 x 2,160) and with frames refreshed 60 times a second
(refresh rates), about 500 million computations are needed each second to just display the images

54 Peter Ashman, “Why do CPUs have so few cores compared to GPUs?” https://qr.ae/pr8Rkp
(accessed June 2023).
55 “What role does the CPU, GPU, and RAM play during gaming?” https://www.quora.com/What-
role-does-the-CPU-GPU-and-RAM-play-during-gaming-I-know-their-functions-and-what-
they-do-but-what-are-they-responsible-for (accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 67
on the screen.56 While this is a lot of computations, all
the computations are similar and simple. These are a The Two Formats of GPUs
perfect fit for GPUs, and therefore CPUs delegate these
computations to GPUs for optimal performance.
GPUs themselves come in two formats: Integrated GPU
(Figure 19) and Discrete GPU (Figure 20). Integrated
GPUs look like just another chip on the motherboard
and cannot be upgraded by the end user. On the
other hand, Discrete GPUs can be purchased, replaced,
and upgraded by the end user. It connects to the
motherboard through an expansion slot on the PCIe
bus and comes with its own cooling fans. Typically,
Discrete GPUs are far more powerful than Integrated
FIGURE 19 — Intel’s integrated GPU.
GPUs.

GPUs for Video Content Creation

Because GPUs were originally designed to handle fast/
high resolution video rendering, they have become
the go-to choice for video content creators, too. If
you like to capture videos, edit them, splice them
with additional audio/video content, then a powerful
GPU on your PC will make your video editing program FIGURE 20 — Intel’s Discrete GPU.
much faster. Whether you are an anime creator, an
Adobe Photoshop user, or a producer of content for
educational purposes, you may consider buying a computer with a powerful GPU or adding one to
your current system.

GPUs for ML and Crypto Mining

Even though GPUs were designed primarily for graphics and video rendering, data scientists working
on machine learning (ML) models also found GPUs useful. The job of going through all photos
uploaded by users to Facebook and removing objectionable content is a difficult and expensive task
for humans. Facebook users upload more than 350 million photos per day. To manually view each one
and determine if it is suitable for consumption can be daunting. Machine learning algorithms are an
effective and cheap way to do the job. As most machine learning algorithms involve a lot of identical
operations (addition and multiplication), GPUs are great ML use cases.
During 2015–2022, crypto mining became very popular. In crypto mining, computers search for
solutions to cryptographic problems for the right to add a block to a chain and get the reward
associated with adding the block to the chain. GPUs can search far more options than CPUs in a given
time. Therefore, during the recent crypto boom, it became difficult for regular users to purchase GPUs
as they were in high demand by crypto miners, who were willing to pay premium prices for these
GPUs.

56 “What is Monitor Resolutions? Resolutions and Aspect Ratios Explained,” https://www.viewsonic.

com/library/tech/monitor-resolution-aspect-ratio/ (accessed June 2023).

68 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
 GPUs—The Florida Connection
One of the world’s leaders in GPU development is Nvidia. One of the three co-
founders of Nvidia is Chris Malachowsky, an alum of the University of Florida.
He received a BS in EE from UF in 1986, and co-founded Nvidia with Curtis Priem
and Jen-Hsun Huang in 1993. In 2020, he gifted $25 million to the University
of Florida to build HiperGator AI, one of the world’s fastest AI supercomputers,
and made it available to students, researchers, and businesses across Florida.57

Input Devices
As computers are designed to interact with humans, they need a mechanism to take our commands
and return responses. An input device is a medium through which we can provide actionable tasks
for computers. Let’s look at some common input devices to understand them better.

Keyboard
A keyboard is the primary input mechanism of a computer. Keyboard commands get translated into
emails, chat messages, clicks on a browser screen, video game movements, or others depending on
the program receiving the input. As the standard English keyboard has the letters Q, W, E, R, T, and Y
on the top row, it is known as QWERTY. See Figure 21. This arrangement, designed for typewriters, was
intended to avoid jamming typebars striking on paper and is, unfortunately, not the most efficient
layout for modern computers.

FIGURE 21 — A standard English keyboard, also known as QWERTY.

For touch typists (those who type without looking at keys), the letters F and J have a small, raised dot.
The dots are meant to help you place your forefingers on the keyboard before you begin typing.

57 “UF Announces $70 Million Artificial Intelligence Partnership with Nvidia,” https://www.uff.ufl.
edu/your-impact/uf-announces-70-million-artificial-intelligence-partnership-nvidia/ (accessed
June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 69
 QWERTY vs Dvorak and the Path Dependence of History58
The QWERTY layout was designed to slow typists down to prevent key jamming
in mechanical typewriters.59 This was done by placing the most popular keys,
e.g., e, t, a in relatively awkward positions, as opposed to convenient locations
in the center of the keyboard. Also, the QWERTY layout makes disproportionate
use of the left hand, which is not the dominant hand for most people. However,
the layout, created in 1873, became popular with typewriters.
August Dvorak created an alternate keyboard layout in 1936 to reduce finger
movement for common words by placing common keys closer to the center of
the keyboard, thereby increasing typing speed, reducing errors, and increasing
comfort. However, the Dvorak keyboard never gained popularity despite the
potential advantages. Another persistent historical artifact is the staggered
arrangement of keys on different rows, which was done to accommodate
the key levers from different rows. This staggering is not needed in electronic
keyboards, but the design persists. Many modern designs can be traced to
historical constraints that no longer apply. Identifying these opportunities to
relax constraints is a potential avenue for innovation.

If you don’t want to adjust to the standard keyboard

size, you may want to consider ergonomic keyboards
designed to fit your fingers (see Figure 22). You can
connect any new keyboard to your desktop or laptop
through USB or Bluetooth.

Mouse and Trackpad

If you look closely at your computer screen, you will see
a small arrow like the one in Figure 23.
This arrow tells the computer where to focus. You can use FIGURE 22 — An ergonomic keyboard.
your mouse/trackpad to shift the point of focus any time.
Your mouse/trackpad typically has two buttons, left and
right. We use the left button to click and select objects,
and the right button is used to open contextual menus
that change based on your location. The mouse also has a
wheel to scroll through multiple pages easily. If you have
a wireless mouse, you can connect it to your device via FIGURE 23 — Cursor arrow.
Bluetooth software.

58 “Dvorak keyboard layout,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvorak_keyboard_layout (accessed

June 2023).
59 However, also see Yasuoka, Koichi; Yasuoka, Motoko, “On the Prehistory of QWERTY,” https://
repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/139379/1/42_161.pdf (accessed June
2023).

70 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
The mouse is popular with desktop computers and office
areas with sufficient desktop space to move the mouse.
Since laptops are often used in tight spaces (e.g., airport
seats) with no room to place a mouse, most modern laptops
come with touchpads to replace the mouse as a tactile input
device. Touchpads or trackpads use a specialized surface to
translate the position of a user’s fingers on the device to a
location on the screen. The screens of modern smartphones
also serve as touchpads.

Camera and Microphone

With the popularity of remote work in the post-Covid
world, most employees use Zoom, Webex, GoTo, Teams, or
Google Hangouts daily to join meetings and conferences.
Often, you’ll be required to keep your video and audio on to
participate and have the feeling of being in a room with other
participants. All these programs depend on the camera and
microphone on your computer to share your video and audio
with other meeting participants. As online meetings become
increasingly important for school and work, the quality of
the camera and microphone are becoming increasingly
important differentiators of laptops. If these devices are
not satisfactory, you can buy and connect an external high-
resolution camera and a high-fidelity microphone to your
computer to improve your remote-working experience.
Join a video call or participate in a video
conference using a webcam.
Output Devices
After a computer accomplishes your tasks, the output
devices will communicate the outcome of the actions. A
monitor is the primary output medium that you will interact
with all the time, whether you watch a movie on Netflix, type
an email to a friend, or work on a spreadsheet.
Since you will spend most of your time on the computer
looking at the monitor, the monitor has a significant impact
on your end-user experience. Fortunately, most modern The screen of a laptop is its primary
monitors provide excellent performance at an affordable visual output.
price. Some extra monitor features may come at a price. For
example, touch screens are interesting, but they also consumer more power and add weight to the
laptop cover. Similarly, large screens are useful during work, but reduce portability. It is therefore
useful to carefully assess your needs before you select a monitor.60

60 Scharon Harding, “How to Buy a PC Monitor,” https://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/monitor-

buying-guide,5699.html (accessed June 2023).

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 71
To improve your productivity, you can attach more than one display screen to your computer (see
Figure 24). You can use the HDMI or USB-C ports on your computer to connect multiple displays.

FIGURE 24 — The use of two screens can improve productivity.

Speakers
Most Laptops and PCs come with built-in speakers to play audio. Most laptops today have very good
sound output, including some models which use four speakers to produce rich, realistic sound. It is
also becoming increasingly common for users to use earbuds or headphones to minimize disturbance
to nearby users. Further, to improve the quality of sound, particularly if you watch videos on YouTube
or listen to music on Spotify, you may attach your own high-fidelity speaker through the USB ports or
use Bluetooth to connect to wireless earbuds.

Conclusion
Have you ever opened the outside case of a desktop to peek at the inside parts? The inside looks like a
tightly placed collection of parts, which may be confusing at first glance (see Figure 25). But now that
you know the key parts of a computer, you should be able to recognize most parts. If your computer
is too outdated or slow, you may even explore opening it up and adding memory to make it faster
and last longer. 99

72 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
 FIGURE 25 — Computer internals.

To make these hardware parts work in a coordinated manner, computers have software which tell
these hardware components what to do. While the operating system (Microsoft Windows, Apple
Mac OS or Linux) is the main software acting as the brain of the computer, you’ll generally need to
install many other end-user applications (e.g., Chrome, Snapchat, Instagram, DropBox, Google Maps,
Spotify, Paint, Snagit, and others) to turn the computer into a versatile assistant.
As seen in Figure 26, end users interact with applications, which request the operating system to have
the hardware to perform the needed tasks to meet user needs.
Any software program is a collection of instructions to the CPU to perform a task. These instructions
are expressed in binary code for the CPU to perform the required operations. Afterwards, the output
is conveyed to us through the correct output device, which translates the 1s and 0s to images, sound,
and text.

FIGURE 26 — The overall architecture of a computer.

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 73
 Chapter Terms and Definitions

Bit: A binary digit and a unit of computer Graphical Processing Unit (GPU): Electronic
information; a bit takes a value of either a 1 or a 0 circuit technology designed to speed up the
creation of images displayed on a device such as
Bluetooth: A technology designed for computer monitor
exchanging data wirelessly between electronic
devices over short distances Hard Disk Drive (HDD): A type of computer
storage device that uses rotating disks coated
Bus: In a computer a bus is a communication with magnetic material to store data permanently
system that transfers data between a set of
components High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI):
A hardware connection technology designed to
Byte: A byte consists of eight binary digits and transmit digital audio and video signals through
is commonly used to store various types of data, a cable between HDMI compatible devices
such as text, images, audio files, and program
code Input Device: A device such as a computer
mouse or keyboard that delivers data and is able
Central Processing Unit (CPU): An electronic to manipulate components of the computer
circuitry component of a personal computer that
is designed to interpret, process, and execute Keyboard: In relation to computer peripherals,
instructions from hardware or software programs a physical or digital device capable of
communicating with a connected computer
Computer Architecture: The way a computer system through assigned key inputs
is designed, including its various hardware
components and how they work together Machine Learning (ML): Programmed
to perform tasks; it determines the overall parameters where data is passed through
functionality and performance of the computer statistical models in which the model increases
system accuracy with more data; this presents itself in
the form of intelligence that is artificial
Crypto Mining: Using computational power
of a computer to solve complex problems that Moore’s Law: A “law” proposed by Gordon
produces money in the form cryptocurrency Moore, Intel co-founder, stating that the number
such as bitcoin of transistors in microchips would double
every two years due to advancing computing
Gigabyte: A unit of digital information that performance
represents one billion bytes; it is commonly used
to measure the storage capacity of computer Motherboard: Computer component that acts
memory and storage devices, such as hard disk as a dock, is responsible for controlling core
drives, solid-state drives, and memory cards computer processor, and connecting various
other pieces of computer hardware

74 Chapter 5—Microcomputers
Mouse: In relation to computer peripherals, a Smartphone: A portable computer that
hand-held input device capable of detecting can connect to the Internet through cellular
user manipulation through motion to facilitate networks and offers a range of features such as
interactions with computer systems web browsing, email access, social media apps,
multimedia playback, and various downloadable
Optical Drive: A type of computer hardware applications
that uses lasers to read data from or write data to
optical discs, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs Smartwatch: A microcomputer that you can
wear on your wrist
Output Device: Computer hardware such as a
computer monitor or mobile device screen that Solid-State Drive (SSD): A type of computer
is designed to convert information into a visual storage device that has no moving parts and uses
display easily understood by humans flash memory to store data permanently

Personal Computer (PC): Also referred to Transistor: A basic electronic component used
as a microcomputer; a device that processes in computer architecture to amplify and switch
computing functions that serve one or multiple electronic signals; it acts as a tiny switch that
personal or business purposes controls the flow of electrical current by using
a small voltage input to control a larger current
Portable Flash Drives: Small, portable devices, output
easily connected to a computer via USB ports,
that store digital data using flash memory Universal Serial Bus (USB): A standard used by
the computing industry to specify how hardware
Random-Access Memory (RAM): Sometimes in devices can connect, communicate, and supply
called the memory of a computing device such power across personal computers
as a smart phone or PC; a component within a
computing device capable of temporarily storing Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology
data that can be accessed by the CPU whenever that enables electronic devices, such as
processing is required computers, smartphones, and tablets, to connect
and communicate with each other via a wireless
medium

Chapter 5—Microcomputers 75
 Chapter Case

Gaming Consoles Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Atari is a company founded in 1972 that developed an iconic gaming console which
enabled millions of users to play games such as “Pong,” “Asteroids,” “Centipede,”
and “Missile Command.” According to atari.com, “Atari played an integral role
in the development of the arcade game, game console, and personal computer
industries.”. In 1977 Atari released the Atari 2600 gaming console (also called the
Atari Video Computer System) which featured microprocessor-based hardware
that included swappable gaming cartridges capable of storing Kilobytes (KB) of
gaming information. Additionally, the gaming console included a motherboard
which could control hardware components such as a CPU, RAM, input devices (joy
sticks), and output devices.
More than 50 years has passed since Atari was founded and gaming consoles today
have been innovated far beyond the computing capabilities of the 1977 Atari 2600.
Use the Internet to research any gaming console system (ex. Microsoft Xbox, Sony
PlayStation, etc.) of your choice. Answer the following questions based on the
results of your online research:

Question 1: List the hardware specifications for the gaming console of your
choice. Be sure to list as many hardware components as you can (ex.
CPU, memory, input devices, output devices, etc.). After listing each
hardware component, briefly describe what the component is used
for. Finally, provide a weblink to document where you retrieved the
information.
Question 2: Write a short paragraph describing what you imagine gaming
consoles will be capable of doing 50 years in the future.

76 Chapter 5—Microcomputers