Human development and family

empowerment (HDFE) Assignment

Characteristics of Adulthood with social
and emotional Development

Submitted by:- Neha Sabharwal

Roll. Number:- 19/1849

Semester:- 2nd
Adulthood, the period in the human lifespan in which full physical
and intellectual maturity have been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought
of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age, commencing at about 40
years, is followed by old age at about 60 years.

Physically, early and middle adulthood are marked by slow, gradual declines in
body functioning, which accelerate as old age is reached. The muscle mass
continues to increase through the mid-20s, thereafter gradually decreasing. The
skeletal mass increases until age 30 or so, and then begins to decrease, first in
the central skeleton (pelvis and spine) and last in the peripheral skeleton
(fingers and toes). Throughout adulthood there is a progressive deposition of
cholesterol in the arteries, and the heart muscle eventually grows weaker even in
the absence of detectable disease. The production of both male and female
hormones also diminishes with age, though this cannot be directly related to the
gradual diminution in sexual activity that occurs in both males and females
between 20 and 60. There is clear evidence that with increasing age adults
display a slow, very gradual tendency toward decreasing speed of response in
the execution of intellectual (and physical) tasks. Slowing rates of electrical
activity in the older adult brain have been linked to the slowing of behaviour
itself. This decline in the rate of central nervous system processing does not
necessarily imply similar changes in learning, memory, or other intellectual
functions. The learning capacity of young adults is superior to that of older
adults, as is their ability to organize new information in terms of its content or
meaning. Older adults, on the other hand, are equal or superior to young adults
in their capacity to retain general information and in their accumulated cultural
knowledge.
Social Development in Young Adulthood

Social development is the development of social skills and emotional maturity that are
needed to forge relationships and relate to others. Social development also involves
developing empathy and understanding the needs of others. People hold numerous social
roles in life such as friend, wife, husband, mother, father, and so on. Social development are
important because they are a key factor in our psychological and physical well-
being. Throughout our life, we travel with a convoy of social relationships.

In this stage of life, young adults seek independence from family of orientation; engage in
intimate relationships and seek love; choose mates for romantic love and/ or rational love;
and begin building families.

Young adults begin to make individual decisions and develop social relationships through
transitions such as:

o Single to partnered
o School to work world
o No children to children
o Married to divorced
o Relocation
o Death of family members

Social Changes in Early and Middle Adulthood

Perhaps the major marker of adulthood is the ability to create an effective and independent
life. Whereas children and adolescents are generally supported by parents, adults must make
their own living and must start their own families. Furthermore, the needs of adults are
different from those of younger persons.

Although the timing of the major life events that occur in early and middle adulthood vary
substantially across individuals, they nevertheless tend to follow a general sequence, known as
a social clock. The social clock refers to the culturally preferred “right time” for major
life events, such as moving out of the childhood house, getting married, and having children.
People who do not appear to be following the social clock (e.g., young adults who still live with
their parents, individuals who never marry, and couples who choose not to have children) may
 be seen as unusual or deviant, and they may be stigmatized by others (DePaulo, 2006; Rook,
1
Catalano, & Dooley, 1989).

Although they are doing it later, on average, than they did even 20 or 30 years ago, most
people do eventually marry. Marriage is beneficial to the partners, both in terms of mental
health and physical health. People who are married report greater life satisfaction than those
who are not married and also suffer fewer health problems (Gallagher & Waite, 2001; Liu &
2
Umberson, 2008).

Divorce is more common now than it was 50 years ago. In 2003 almost half of marriages in the
United States ended in divorce (Bureau of the Census, 2007), 3 although about three quarters of
people who divorce will remarry. Most divorces occur for couples in their 20s, because younger
people are frequently not mature enough to make good marriage choices or to make
marriages last. Marriages are more successful for older adults and for those with more
4
education (Goodwin, Mosher, & Chandra, 2010).

Parenthood also involves a major and long-lasting commitment, and one that can cause
substantial stress on the parents. The time and finances invested in children create stress, which
frequently results in decreased marital satisfaction (Twenge, Campbell, & Foster, 2003). 5 This
decline is especially true for women, who bear the larger part of the burden of raising the
children and taking care of the house, despite the fact they increasingly also work and have
careers.

Despite the challenges of early and middle adulthood, the majority of middle-aged adults are
not unhappy. These years are often very satisfying, as families have been established, careers
have been entered into, and some percentage of life goals has been realized (Eid & Larsen,
2008). 6

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• It is in early and middle adulthood that muscle strength, reaction time, cardiac output, and sensory abilities
begin to decline.
• One of the key signs of aging in women is the decline in fertility, culminating in menopause, which is
marked by the cessation of the menstrual period.
• The different social stages in adulthood, such as marriage, parenthood, and work, are determined by a
social clock, a culturally recognized time for each phase.

EXERCISES AND CRITICAL THINKING

1. Compare your behavior, values, and attitudes regarding marriage and work to the attitudes of your
parents and grandparents. In what way are your values similar? In what ways are they different?
 2. Draw a timeline of your own planned or preferred social clock. What factors do you think will make it
more or less likely that you will be able to follow the timeline?

Social Factors In Late Adulthood

There are a variety of social changes that may occur as we enter late life, including
change in work status or loss of spouse and other significant others. In most industrialized
countries, the age of retirement has been decreasing over the past few decades.
Research on retirement has shown that older adults who retire or go to part-time work
adjust very well to this change, with some even showing improvement in health and well-
being. With retirement come significant changes in time and type of leisure activities, such
as continuing education and volunteering. Retirement also brings a shifting of roles within
the home and social system.

Many older adults are in long-term marriages. The best predictor of the nature of these
relationships in later life is the nature of the relationship in earlier life. This means that
although there are often fluctuations, the nature of relationships tends to be fairly stable
over time. Because the probability of death increases with age, becoming widowed or
losing other loved ones is an inevitable part of late adulthood. Adjustment to bereavement
is therefore often an important part of this time period. Research has shown that
social support and emotional stability are important to bereavement recovery. Family and
friends typically play an important supportive role in later life. It is not necessarily the
number of people in one’s social network, but the quality of the relationships that makes
a difference. In later life, those who have good social support networks, with low social
strain, typically show greater psychological and physical well-being.

Socioemotional Development in Adulthood

Early and middle adulthood is influenced by a number of social and emotional factors,
such as work and interpersonal relationships.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Review the milestones and crises of socioemotional development in early and middle adulthood

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

• There are many social and emotional factors that influence aging. For those in early and
middle adulthood, meaning is often found through work and family life—two areas that
correspond with Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development.
• According to Erikson, intimacy vs. isolation is a stage of psychosocial development in
which people face the crisis of being alone versus being involved in meaningful
relationships.
• Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to
contribute to a state of well-being.
• Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation revolves around a person’s sense of their
contribution to the world.
• Central tasks during middle adulthood can include maintaining healthy life patterns,
raising children or in some way helping future generations, being proud of one’s
accomplishments, or taking care of aging parents.

Key Terms

• generativity: Contributing to the development of others and of future generations;

productivity and creativity; the act of helping society move forward.

Social and Emotional Aspects of Adulthood

There are many theories about the social and emotional aspects of aging. Some
aspects of healthy aging include activities, social connectedness, and the role of a
person’s culture. According to many theorists, including George Vaillant (2002), who
studied and analyzed over 50 years of data, we need to have and continue to find
meaning throughout our lives.

For those in early and middle adulthood, meaning is often found through work (Sterns &
Huyck, 2001) and family life (Markus, Ryff, Curan, & Palmersheim, 2004). These areas
relate to the tasks that Erik Erikson referred to as generativity vs.
stagnation and intimacy vs. isolation.
Relationships in Adulthood

Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to
contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States
identify themselves through their relationships with family—particularly with spouses,
children, and parents (Markus et al., 2004). While raising children can be stressful,
especially when they are young, research suggests that parents reap the rewards down
the road, as adult children tend to have a positive effect on parental well-being
(Umberson, Pudrovska, & Reczek, 2010). Having stable intimate relationships has also
been found to contribute to well-being throughout adulthood (Vaillant, 2002).

A lack of positive and meaningful relationships during adulthood can result in what
Erikson termed the crisis of intimacy vs. isolation in his theory of psychosocial
development. In young adulthood (i.e., 20s and early 30s), people tend to be concerned
with forming meaningful relationships; young and middle-aged adults are subject to
loneliness if they are unable to form meaningful relationships with family, friends, or
community.

Social relationships in adulthood: Social relationships are important to overall well-being in early and middle
adulthood. (credit: Philippe Put)

Crises of Adulthood

Both early and middle adulthood come with particular challenges; these challenges are
at times referred to as “quarter-life crises” and ” mid-life crises,” respectively. A quarter-
life crisis typically occurs between the ages of 25 and 30. It often revolves around the
challenges that arise from young adults newly living life on their own and feeling
overwhelmed with new responsibilities; it can also happen after the birth of a child or if a
person graduates from college and cannot find a job in their chosen field. In this stage
of life, young people may worry about their future, wonder if they’ve made poor choices,
or wonder what life might hold for them now.

The main triggers for a mid-life crisis include problems with work, trouble in a marriage,
children growing up and leaving the home, or the aging or death of a person’s parents.
This is likely to occur during Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation, a time when
people think about the contribution they are making to the world. Generativity involves
finding one’s life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities
such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children; those who do not master this task
may experience a feeling of stagnation.

Individuals having a mid-life crisis may experience some of the following:

• a search for an undefined dream or goal;

• a deep sense of regret for goals not accomplished;
• a fear of humiliation among more successful colleagues;
• a desire to achieve a feeling of youthfulness;
• a need to spend more time alone or with certain peers.

Some who experience a quarter- or mid-life crisis struggle with how to cope and may
engage in harmful behaviors, such as abuse of alcohol or drugs or excessive spending
of money. Others may experiment with different aspects of their personality, explore
new hobbies, or otherwise seek out change in their lives.

Finding Meaning Through Work

Many adults find meaning in and define themselves by what they do—their careers.
Earnings peak for many during adulthood, yet research has found that job satisfaction is
more closely tied to work that involves contact with other people, is interesting, provides
opportunities for advancement, and allows some independence (Mohr & Zoghi, 2006)
than it is to salary (Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006).

Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation revolves around a person’s sense of their
contribution to the world. Generativity is about making life productive and creative so
that it matters to others, especially those in the next generation. According to Erikson, a
person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward
develops a feeling of stagnation—a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.
The central tasks during middle adulthood can include expressing love through more
than sexual contacts, maintaining healthy life patterns, helping growing and grown
children to be responsible adults, relinquishing a central role in the lives of grown
children, creating a comfortable home, being proud of one’s accomplishments, taking
care of aging parents, adjusting to the physical changes of middle age, and using
leisure time creatively.
Relationships and Families in Adulthood

Several theories examine how interpersonal relationships form and develop during
adulthood.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Summarize Levinger’s and Knapp’s theories of relational development in adulthood

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

• An interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close association or acquaintanceship

between two or more people that may range from brief to enduring in duration.
• Interpersonal relationships are dynamic systems that change continuously during their
existence. Like living organisms, relationships have a beginning, a lifespan, and an end.
• One of the most influential models of relationship development was proposed by
psychologist George Levinger. His model consists of five stages: acquaintanceship,
buildup, continuation, deterioration, and termination.
• M. L. Knapp developed a model of relational development, consisting of two main stages:
the coming-together stage and coming-apart stage.
• Coming together consists of five phases—initiating, experimentation, intensifying,
integration, and bonding. Similarly, coming apart consists of differentiating,
circumscribing, stagnation, avoidance, and termination.

Key Terms

• interpersonal: Existing between two or more people.

• heterosexual: Sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex.

Interpersonal Relationships in Adulthood

Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to
contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States
identify themselves through their relationships with family—particularly with spouses,
children, and parents. An interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close
association or acquaintanceship between two or more people that may range from brief
to enduring in duration. Like people, relationships change and grow; they may either
improve or dissipate over time. The association between two people can be based on
various factors—love, solidarity, business, or any other context that requires two (or
more) people to interact.

A Nepali Hindu couple in a marriage ceremony: Interpersonal relationships take many forms in many different
cultures.

Interpersonal relationships are dynamic systems that change continuously during their
existence. Like living organisms, relationships have a beginning, a lifespan, and an end.
They tend to grow and improve gradually as people get to know each other and become
closer emotionally, or they gradually deteriorate as people drift apart.

Levinger’s Model of Relationships

One of the most influential models of relationship development was proposed by

psychologist George Levinger. This model was formulated to describe heterosexual,
adult romantic relationships, but it has been applied to other kinds of interpersonal
relationships since then. According to the model, the natural development of a
relationship follows five stages:
 1. Acquaintance and Acquaintanceship: Becoming acquainted depends on previous
relationships, physical proximity, first impressions, and a variety of other factors. If two
people begin to like each other, continued interactions may lead to the next stage, but
acquaintance can continue indefinitely. Another example is association.
2. Buildup: During this stage, people begin to trust and care about each other. The need for
intimacy, compatibility, and such filtering agents as common background and goals will
influence whether or not interaction continues.
3. Continuation: This stage follows a mutual commitment to strong and close long-term
friendships, romantic relationship, or even marriage. It is generally a long, relatively stable
period. Nevertheless, continued growth and development will occur during this time.
Mutual trust is important for sustaining the relationship.
4. Deterioration: Not all relationships deteriorate, but those that do tend to show signs of
trouble. Boredom, resentment, and dissatisfaction may occur. Individuals may
communicate less and avoid self-disclosure. Loss of trust and betrayals may take place
as the downward spiral continues, eventually ending the relationship. Alternately, the
participants may find some way to resolve the problems and reestablish trust.
5. Termination: The final stage marks the end of the relationship, either by breakup, death,
or spatial separation and severing all existing ties of either friendship or romantic love.

Knapp’s Theory of Relational Development

Another theory, developed by M. L. Knapp, is known as the model of relational

development. This theory consists of two main stages, each with several parts. The first
stage is known as the coming together phase, and the second stage is known as
the coming apart phase.

Coming Together

Coming together consists of five phases—initiating, experimentation, intensifying,

integration, and bonding.

1. During initiating, first impressions are made; physical factors play a large role in this
phase. People often want to portray themselves as easy to talk to, friendly, and open to
discussion. This phase tends to be superficial as people are trying to make a good first
impression.
2. During experimentation, the two people attempt to find some common ground between
each other’s lives, such as common interests and hobbies. People start to open up more
and ask more personal questions as they get to know one another.
3. During the intensifying phase, people open themselves up fully in the hope of being
accepted by the potential mate. During this phase, people may reveal secrets about
themselves or others in order to test the trust level of potential partners.
4. The integration phase involves people merging their lives together and solidifying a
relationship status.
5. Finally, during the bonding phase, people recognize a commitment to one another
(traditionally through marriage, though many alternative forms of commitment exist) and
the relationship lasts until death, breakup, or divorce.
Coming Apart

Coming apart consists of five stages as well—differentiating, circumscribing, stagnation,

avoidance, and termination.

1. Differentiation involves focusing more on differences rather than similarities. This can lead
to an increasing emotional distance between the parties involved.
2. During circumscribing, the primary focus of the relationship shifts from differences to
setting limits and boundaries on communication between the two people. This further
pushes two people apart.
3. Stagnation is when two people have reached a “stand-off” phase—nothing changes and
neither party is willing to change.
4. Avoidance occurs when people engage in limited communication and take steps to
distance themselves from one another.
5. Finally, during termination, the relationship is ended.

Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood

Growing older means confronting many psychological, emotional, and social issues that
come with entering the last phase of life.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Review the socioemotional changes and crises characteristic of late adulthood

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

• As people age, they become more dependent on others. Older adults may struggle with
feelings of guilt, shame, or depression because of their increased dependency, especially
in societies where the elderly are viewed as a burden.
• Many older adults contend with feelings of loneliness and isolation as their loved ones
pass away, which can negatively impact their health and well-being. Staying active and
involved in life can help to counteract these challenges.
• According to Erikson, the final stage of life is marked by a crisis over integrity vs.
despair. People who believe they have had a positive impact on the world feel a sense of
integrity, while those who feel they have not measured up to certain standards develop a
sense of despair.
• According to Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, people go through five distinct stages of grief upon
dealing with death and dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
Key Terms

• socioemotional selectivity theory: A life-span theory of motivation which maintains that

as time horizons shrink, as they typically do with age, people become increasingly
selective, investing greater resources in emotionally meaningful goals and activities.
• hospice: The provision of palliative care for terminally ill patients, either at a specialized
facility or at a residence, along with support for the family; typically refrains from taking
extraordinary measures to prolong life.

As people approach the end of life, changes occur and special challenges arise.
Growing older means confronting many psychological, emotional, and social issues that
come with entering the last phase of life.

Increased Dependency

As people age, they become more dependent on others. Many elderly people need
assistance in meeting daily needs as they age, and over time they may become
dependent on caregivers such as family members, relatives, friends, health
professionals, or employees of senior housing or nursing care. Many older adults spend
their later years in assisted living facilities or nursing homes, which can have social and
emotional impacts on their well-being. Older adults may struggle with feelings of guilt,
shame, or depression because of their increased dependency, especially in societies
where caring for the elderly is viewed as a burden. If an elderly person has to move
away from friends, community, their home, or other familiar aspects of their life in order
to enter a nursing home, they may experience isolation, depression, or loneliness.

Increased dependency can also put older adults at risk of elder abuse. This kind of
abuse occurs when a caretaker intentionally deprives an older person of care or harms
the person in their charge. The elderly may be subject to many different types of abuse,
including physical, emotional, or psychological. Approximately one in ten older adults
report being abused, and this number rises in the cases of dementia or physical
limitations.

Despite the increasing physical challenges of old age, many new assistive devices
made especially for the home have enabled more old people to care for themselves and
accomplish activities of daily living (ADL). Some examples of devices are a medical
alert and safety system, shower seat (preventing the person from getting tired in the
shower and falling), bed cane (offering support to those with unsteadiness getting in and
out of bed), and ADL cuff (used with eating utensils for people with paralysis or hand
weakness). Advances in this kind of technology offer increasing options for the elderly
to continue functioning independently later into their lives.
Loneliness and Connection

A central aspect of positive aging is believed to be social connectedness and social

support. As we get older, socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that our social
support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close as, if not closer than, in
our earlier years (Carstensen, 1992). Many older adults contend with feelings of
loneliness as their loves ones, partners, or friends pass away or as their children or
other family members move away and live their own lives. Loneliness and isolation can
have detrimental effects on health and psychological well-being. However, many adults
counteract loneliness by having active social lives, living in retirement communities, or
participating in positive hobbies. Staying active and involved in life counteracts
loneliness and helps increase feelings of self-esteem and self-worth.

Social relationships in old age: Research has shown that social support is important as we age, especially
as loss and death become more common.

Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair

As people enter the final stages of life, they have what Erik Erikson described as a crisis
over integrity versus despair. In other words, they review the events of their lives and try
to come to terms with the mark (or lack thereof) that they have made on the world.
People who believe they have had a positive impact on the world through their
contributions live the end of life with a sense of integrity. Those who feel they have not
measured up to certain standards—either their own or others’—develop a sense of
despair.

Confronting Death

People perceive death, whether their own or that of others, based on the values of their
culture. People in the United States tend to have strong resistance to the idea of their
own death and strong emotional reactions of loss to the death of loved ones. Viewing
death as a loss, as opposed to a natural or tranquil transition, is often considered
normal in the United States. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1969), who worked with the
founders of hospice care, described in her theory of grief the process of an individual
accepting their own death. She proposed five stages of grief in what became known as
the Kübler-Ross model: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

• Denial: People believe there must be some mistake. They pretend death isn’t happening,
perhaps live life as if nothing is wrong, or even tell people things are fine. Underneath this
facade, however, is a great deal of fear and other emotions.
• Anger: After people start to realize death is imminent, they become angry. They believe
life is unfair and usually blame others (such as a higher power or doctors) for the state of
being they are experiencing.
• Bargaining: Once anger subsides, fear sets in again. Now, however, people plead with life
or a higher power to give them more time, to let them accomplish just one more goal, or
for some other request.
• Depression: The realization that death is near sets in, and people become extremely sad.
They may isolate themselves, contemplate suicide, or otherwise refuse to live life.
Motivation is gone and the will to live disappears.
• Acceptance: People realize that all forms of life, including the self, come to an end, and
they accept that life is ending. They make peace with others around them, and they make
the most of the time they have remaining.

While most individuals experience these stages, not all people go through every stage.
The stages are not necessarily linear, and may occur in different orders or reoccur
throughout the grief process. Some psychologists believe that the more a dying person
fights death, the more likely they are to remain stuck in the denial phase, making it
difficult for the dying person to face death with dignity. However, other psychologists
believe that not facing death until the very end is an adaptive coping mechanism for
some people.

Whether due to illness or old age, not everyone facing death or the loss of a loved one
experiences the negative emotions outlined in the Kübler-Ross model (Nolen-
Hoeksema & Larson, 1999). For example, research suggests that people with religious
or spiritual beliefs are better able to cope with death because of their belief in an afterlife
and because of social support from religious or spiritual associations (Hood, Spilka,
Hunsberger, & Corsuch, 1996; McIntosh, Silver, & Wortman, 1993; Paloutzian, 1996;
Samarel, 1991; Wortman & Park, 2008).