UNIT 1

Evolution of computer
networking
Evolution of computer networking

Need of a Network:
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected
by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
• The system was simply not advanced in one day; rather took a long
time to be an all the more incredible, productive and dependable
system.
• Advancement of systems administration began path back in 1969’s by
the improvement of first system called ARPANET, which prompted
the improvement of web.
• Distributed Processing :
• Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided
among multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being
responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The
most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
• Performance:
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel
from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time
between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors,
including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less
delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory.
• If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase
throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in
the network.
• Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development,
and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
Evolution of computer networking

• ARPANET(Advanced Research Agency Network):

ARPANET was the network that became the basis for the Internet.
• It was the first network that came into existence in 1969, which was
designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) and US Department of Defence (DoD).
• It was where a bunch of PCs were associated at various colleges and
US DoD for sharing of information and messages and associating
with individuals to share their perspectives.
Evolution of computer networking
• NSFNET (National Science Federation Network):
• In mid 80’s another federal agency, NSFNET (National Science
Federation Network) created a new network which was more capable
than ARPANET and became the first backbone infrastructure for the
commercial public Internet.
• Its main aim was to use network only for academic research and not
for any kind of private business activity. Later, many privately owned
businesses with their very own private systems joined with ARPANET
and NSFNET to make more capable and wide network, the Internet.
Evolution of computer networking
• ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE NETWORKS = INTERNET
Scale of network technology- Transmission
technology
• Casting in computer networks means transmitting data (stream of
packets) over a network.
• Following are the different types of casting used in networking −

• Unicast transmission
• Broadcast transmission
• Multicast transmission
Transmission technology
Transmission technology
Unicast Transmission (One-to-One)
• In Unicast transmission, the data is transferred from a single sender (or a
single source host) to a single receiver (or a single destination host).
• Application:Television networks.
Example
• In the following figure, Host A sends the IP address 11.1.2.2 data to the
Host B IP address 20.12.4.3.

• Source Address = IP address of host A is 11.1.2.2

• Destination Address = IP address of host B is 20.12.4.3
Transmission technology
Transmission technology
Broadcast Transmission (One-to-All)
• In Broadcast transmission, the data is transmitted from one or more
senders to all the receivers within the same network or in other
networks.
• This type of transmission is useful in network management packets
such as ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) and RIP (Routing
Information Protocol) where all the devices must see the data.
• There are two types of broadcast transmission −
• Directed Broadcast
• Limited Broadcast
Transmission technology
Directed Broadcast:
• Directed Broadcast transmits data from one source host to all the
other hosts that exist in some other network.
• It is used in two scenarios −
• When the hosts are responsible for parsing data from broadcast
packets.
• When all the hosts require the same data.
Transmission technology
Transmission technology
• Limited Broadcast: In Limited Broadcast, the data is transmitted from
a single source host to all the other hosts residing in the same
network.
Transmission technology
• Multicast Transmission (One-to-Many):When the data is transmitted
from a single source host to a specific group of hosts having the
interest to receive the data, it is known as multicast transmission.
• Multicast can be more efficient than unicast when different groups
of receivers need to see the same data.
• Example − Multicast is the technique used in Internet streaming of
video or audio teleconference, sending an email to a particular group
of people, etc.
Transmission technology
 Types of Networks
• A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other
that enables the computer to communicate with another computer
and share their resources, data, and applications.
• A computer network can be categorized by their size.
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area
Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other

in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through
a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)

• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an

individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer
devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring
the idea of the Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the
personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones, media
player and play stations.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a

larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN
to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens
and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through
a telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame
Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
• Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)

• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large

geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but
it spans over a large geographical area through a telephone
line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large

geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different
city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet
provides a leased line through which we can connect with another
branch.
• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized.
Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server.
Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted
fast. The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you
to communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share
the software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

• The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as
compared to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are
combined together that creates the security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on
the internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so
the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus
in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a
virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high
as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the
problem is difficult.
Diff b/w LAN,WAN,MAN
Network Devices
• Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical
devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate
and interact with one another.

• Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, router, and NIC,

etc.
Repeater
• A repeater strengthens a signal and resends it to its destination.
Repeaters are used to combat attenuation, bypass interference and
extend the range of a signal.
• They are commonly used within wireless networks but also work with
fiber optics, telephones and TV broadcasting, among others.
 Network Devices -HUB
HUB
• A hub is a physical device used to join multiple devices on the same
LAN.
• For example, a laptop, desktop computer and printer can connect
into a hub's ports with Ethernet cables and be part of the same local
network.
• Unlike a bridge, router or switch, a hub broadcasts messages it
receives from one port to all remaining ports without examining the
frames or isolating the message for the intended destination.
•
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices.
• Hubs do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
• A hub can be used with both digital and analog data
• Security issue?
Network Devices -HUB
Network Devices -SWITCH
SWITCH
• Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs.
• A switch is a multiport device.
• Switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the
virtual circuit capability.
• Switches also improve network security.
• A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the
OSI model.
• Its high-performance device.
• It reduces traffic from bringing the switch to a halt.
How do switches work?

• Switches connect devices on a local area network (LAN).

Such devices are attached to the switch by cables that plug
into a port on the switch. When a device sends data through
the network, the switch receives the data packet and
examines the packet's destination Media Access Control
(MAC) address.
• Think of the MAC address as a unique label for each device
on the network. The switch then determines which port the
destination device is connected to and forwards the packet
to that port.
• If the destination device is not on the same LAN, the switch
forwards the packet to the appropriate router to send it to
the intended destination.
• Each switch maintains a database, called a MAC address
table, that maps MAC addresses to specific switch ports.
When a device on the network communicates with another
device for the first time, the switch adds the MAC address
and corresponding port number to its MAC address table.
From that point on, the switch knows which port to forward
packets to for that MAC address.
Network Devices -ROUTER
ROUTER
• Routers interconnected networking devices using different network topologies.
• Routers are intelligent devices, and they store information about the networks
they’re connected to.
• It is used as packet-filtering firewall example: LANs and WANs use different
network protocols.
• Router are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks.
• Routers establish communication by maintaining tables about destinations and
local connections.
• Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more
heterogeneous networks.
Network Devices -ROUTER
Network Devices -BRIDGE
BRIDGE
• Bridges are used to connect two or more network like LAN.
• The basic role of bridges in network is storing and forwarding.
• They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for
transferring frames.
• Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI
model.
• Bridges are used to divide larger networks into smaller sections by
sitting between two physical network.
Network Devices -BRIDGE
• The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network with the help
of a dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is initially empty,
maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in the LAN and the
addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other
LANs.
• Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been
replaced by switches
Network Devices -BRIDGE
Network Devices -GATEWAY
GATEWAY
• A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks
that may work upon different networking models.
• They work as messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret
it, and transfer it to another system.
• Gateways serve as an entry and exit point for a network as all data must
pass through or communicate with the gateway prior to being routed.
• Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any
network layer.
• Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.
• A gateway is also called a protocol converter.
• A gateway is a network entity, also known as a protocol converter. It
connects the computers of one network to another and defines the
boundaries of the network.
• If two networks with different protocols want to be connected to
each other, both networks need to have gateways that provide a
point of presence and entry for computers from both networks to
communicate. In other words, gateways can join different systems.
Network Devices -GATEWAY
How gateways work

• All networks have a boundary that limits communication to

devices that are directly connected to it. Due to this, if a network
wants to communicate with devices, nodes or networks outside
of that boundary, they require the functionality of a gateway. A
gateway is often characterized as being the combination of
a router and a modem.
• The gateway is implemented at the edge of a network and
manages all data that is directed internally or externally from
that network. When one network wants to communicate with
another, the data packet is passed to the gateway and then
routed to the destination through the most efficient path. In
addition to routing data, a gateway will also store information
about the host network’s internal paths and the paths of any
additional networks that are encountered.
• Gateways are basically protocol converters, facilitating
compatibility between two protocols and operating on any layer
of the open systems interconnection (OSI) model.
Network Topology
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other.
• Types of Network Topology
• Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in
a network.
• There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology,
Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and
Hybrid Topology.
Gateway vs router:

• Before arriving at the router, packets go to the gateway channel first, and
the gateway checks the header information at once. After checking for any
kind of error in the destination IP address and packet. According to the
needs of the destination network, it carries out data conversion and
protocol conversion on the packet, which is also the most critical step.
Finally, the processed packet is forwarded to the router to establish
intelligent communication between the two different networks.

• The router extracts the destination address from the received packet,
determines the network number in the address, and then looks up the
routing table to find the entry matching the destination network. The
routing table determines the next stop, destination, output interface, and
other routing-related parameters that match the current packet. Finally,
the packet is sent to the computer with the best route.
Network Topology
Network Topology-BUS
Bus topology
• It is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable.
• It is bi-directional.
• It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if
the backbone fails the topology crashes.
• In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are
followed by LAN Ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
Network Topology-BUS
Network Topology-BUS
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network will
receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.
• The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).
Network Topology-BUS
Advantages:
• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is
low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in
bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.
Network Topology-BUS
Disadvantages
• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot
of cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then
the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
Network Topology-MESH
• In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via
a particular channel. (Point to point)
• In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol), etc.
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections
Network Topology-MESH
Network Topology-MESH
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which
acts as a central point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
• Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2
Network Topology-MESH
Advantages
• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected
computers.
• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the
nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the
communication between other devices
Network Topology-MESH
Disadvantages
• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices
such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very
difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored
carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
• Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.
Network Topology-RING
• In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional, but it can be
made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
• In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol(software to data
transmission, if message is there) is used by the workstations to
transmit the data.
Network Topology-RING
Network Topology-RING
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.(clockwise direction)
• The data flows in one direction, i.e, it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless
loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node
and having no termination point.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.
Network Topology-RING
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is
passed from one node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Network Topology-RING
Advantages
• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the
network without bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer
Network Topology-RING
• Disadvantages
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number
of nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.
Network Topology-STAR
• In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through
a cable.
• This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the
central node. The hub can be passive(that can receive and transmit
data but cannot initiate communication)
• Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Network Topology-STAR
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node
is connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral
devices attached to the server are known as clients.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network
implementation.
Network Topology-STAR
Network Topology-STAR
Advantages:
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are
cost effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to
the open ports on the hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
• High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Network Topology-STAR
Disadvantages:
• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down,
then all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with
each other.
• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required.
Network Topology-Hybrid
• This topological technology is the combination of all the various types
of topologies we have studied above.

• It is used when the nodes are free to take any form.

• It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can

be a combination of various types of topologies seen above.
Network Topology-Hybrid
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes
to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected
with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
• For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank
and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these
two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Network Topology-Hybrid
Network Topology-Hybrid
Advantages
• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according
to the requirements of the organization.
• Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in
such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and
weakness of the network is minimized.
Network Topology-Hybrid
Disadvantages
• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the
design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive
as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
Protocol and Standard
• In Order to make communication successful between devices , some
rules and procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and
receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are called as
Protocols . Different types of protocols are used for different types of
communication.
Protocol and Standard
• Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are
needed for exchange of information among devices. It is important to
follow Standards which are created by various Standard Organization
like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.
• Types of Standards :
• Standards are of two types :
(A) De Facto Standard.
(B) De Jure Standard.
Protocol and Standard
• De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact
” or “By Convention”.
• These are the standard s that have not been approved by any
Organization , but have been adopted as Standards because of it’s
widespread use.
• For example : Apple and Google are two companies which
established their own rules on their products which are different .
Also they use some same standard rules for manufacturing for their
products.
Protocol and Standard
• De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or
“By Regulations” Thus , these are the standards that have been
approved by officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc.
• These are the standard which are important to follow if it is required
or needed.
• For example : All the data communication standard protocols like
SMTP , TCP , IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we
needed them.
Connection-oriented and Connection-less
Services
• A connection-oriented service is used to create an end to end
connection between the sender and the receiver before transmitting
the data over the same or different networks
• In connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted to the
receiver in the same order the sender has sent them.
• It uses a handshake method that creates a connection between the
user and sender for transmitting the data over the network. Hence it
is also known as a reliable network service.
• Example Model: Telephone system
Connection-oriented and Connection-less
Services
Connection-oriented and Connection-less
Services
• A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes
along different route paths from the source to the destination
address.
• Connectionless service is used in the network system to transfer
data from one end to another end without creating any connection.
So it does not require establishing a connection before sending the
data from the sender to the receiver.
• It is not a reliable network service because it does not guarantee the
transfer of data packets to the receiver, and data packets can be
received in any order to the receiver.
Connection-oriented and Connection-less
Services
• Therefore we can say that the data packet does not follow a defined
path.
• In connectionless service, the transmitted data packet is not received
by the receiver due to network congestion, and the data may be lost.
• Example: Postal system
Difference between Connection-oriented
and Connection-less Services
Data Transmission Mode
• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another
device is known as transmission mode.
• The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
• Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the
transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
• The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer(OSI).
Data Transmission Mode
Data Transmission Mode
Simplex mode
• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
• A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send
the data.
• This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require
any corresponding reply.
• The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows
them to transmit back.
• Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the
data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
• The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel
can be utilized during transmission.
Data Transmission Mode
Data Transmission Mode
Advantage of Simplex mode:
• In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a
time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode
• Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication
between devices.
Eg: Radio Broadcast
Data Transmission Mode
Half-Duplex mode
• In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit
and receive the data as well.
• Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
• The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at
a time.
• In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error
occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
• A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first
party listens.
• Client server communication
Data Transmission Mode
Data Transmission Mode
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:
• In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data
and also can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel during the transmission of data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
• In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then
another has to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the
right time.
Data Transmission Mode
Data Transmission Mode
In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow
in both the directions. Both the stations can send and receive the message
simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic
moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the
opposite direction.
• The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between
devices.
• The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone
network. When two people are communicating with each other by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Data Transmission Mode
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
• Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:
• If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the
capacity of the communication channel is divided into two parts.
Data Transmission Mode
Serial and Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission
• In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another
computer in bi-direction, one bit flows at one clock pulse.
• In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time having a start
and stop bit.
Serial and Parallel Transmission
Parallel Transmission
• In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously
from one computer to another computer.
• Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the
bits and it is used for short distance.
Serial and Parallel Transmission
Serial transmission is used when:
• Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer.
• It is also used in cases where the amount of data being sent is relatively
small.
• Example: Data is exchanged in Modem, Mouse, etc. in serial data
transmission method.
Parallel transmission is used when:
• A large amount of data is being sent.
• The data being sent is time-sensitive.
• And the data needs to be sent quickly.
Serial and Parallel Transmission
What is Synchronous and Asynchronous
Transmission: Introduction
• Serial data transfer methods include both synchronous and
asynchronous transmission. Both transmission systems rely on clock
pulses for synchronization.
• There are two forms of transmission in computer networking:

• Synchronous Transmission
• Asynchronous Transmission
Synchronous Transmission:

• Synchronous data transmission is a data transfer method in which

data signals are sent continuously without start /stop or gaps.
• It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
• The receiver the count the bits as they arrive and group them in eight
bits units.
• This kind of communication is typically employed when significant
amounts of data must be moved from one location to another.
Asynchronous Transmission:

• Asynchronous transmission, also known as start/stop transmission,

uses flow control to convey data from the sender to the receiver.
• Send one start bit (0) at the beginning and one of stop bits (1) at the
end of each byte
• The total number of bits with the character bits plus the start and
stop bits is ten.
Synchronous and Asynchronous
Transmission
Synchronous and Asynchronous
Transmission
SIGNAL
• A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for
carrying data from one system or network to another. The signal is a
function that conveys information about a phenomenon.
• In electronics and telecommunications, it refers to any time-varying
voltage that is an electromagnetic wave which carries information. A
signal can also be defined as an observable change in quality such as
quantity.
• There are two main types of signals:
• Analog signal
• Digital signal
SIGNAL
Analog Signal
• Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying
quantity represents another time-based variable.
• These kind of signals works with physical values and natural
phenomena such as earthquake, frequency, volcano, speed of wind,
weight, lighting, etc.
SIGNAL
Characteristics:
• These type of electronic signals are time-
varying
• Minimum and maximum values which is
either positive or negative.
• It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
• Analog Signal works on continuous data.
• The accuracy of the analog signal is not
high when compared to the digital signal.
• It helps you to measure natural or
physical values.
• Analog signal output form is like Curve,
Line, or Graph.
SIGNAL
Digital Signal
• A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence
of separate values at any point in time.
• It can only take on one of a fixed number of values.
• This type of signal represents a real number within a constant range
of values.
SIGNAL
Characteristics:
• Digital signals are time separated
signals.
• This type of electronic signals can
be processed and transmitted
better compared to analog signal.
• Digital signals are versatile, so it is
widely used.
• The accuracy of the digital signal is
better than that of the analog
signal.
SIGNAL
NETWORK MODEL
• It is a combination of software, hardware.
• For data communication to take place and two or more users can
transmit data from one to other, a systematic approach is required.
• This approach enables users to communicate and transmit data
through efficient and ordered path.
• It is implemented using models in computer networks and are known
as computer network models.
• There are 2 types of models
• 1. OSI Model
• 2. TCP/IP Model
OSI MODEL
OSI Model
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
that describes how information from a software application in one
computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
OSI MODEL
OSI MODEL
Physical Layer
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• Line Configuration:
• It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.

• Data Transmission:
• It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
OSI MODEL
Data-Link Layer
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or
more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device
that resides on a local network.
OSI MODEL
Network Layer
• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to
the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the
internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to
the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the data from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).
OSI MODEL
Transport Layer
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
• The Transport layer ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller
units known as segments. This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer
as it provides a point-to-point connection between source and destination
to deliver the data reliably
> It uses 2 protocols like
• 1. TCP/IP
• 2. UDP
OSI MODEL
Session Layer
• It is a third layer in the OSI model.
• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
• 1. Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.

• 2. Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the

data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of
data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
OSI MODEL
Presentation Layer
• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
• presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
The main functions of this layer are
• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression
OSI MODEL
Application Layer
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,
etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
OSI MODEL
Application Layer
The main functions are
• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer
allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the
files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.
TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Reference Model

• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
• It is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network
devices on the internet.
• TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private computer
network .
It has 4 layers
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Interface
TCP/IP Reference Model

• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

• It is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network
devices on the internet.
• TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in a private computer
network .
>> It has 4 layers
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Interface
TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Reference Model

1. Network Layer
• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. This
layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram
into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into
physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.
TCP/IP Reference Model

2. Internet Layer
• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
>> Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses
known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and
higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork
routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which
the data is to be transmitted.
TCP/IP Reference Model

Data Encapsulation and Formatting:

• An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol. An IP
protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP
datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission
unit (MTU).
• If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol
splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local
network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router.
At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original
message.
TCP/IP Reference Model

• Routing
• When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN,
MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery.
• When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the
IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
TCP/IP Reference Model

ARP Protocol ( Address Resolution Protocol).

• ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical
address from the IP address.
>>The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
• ARP request: to find physical address of the device in network,
• ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply.
TCP/IP Reference Model

• ICMP Protocol ( Internet Control Message Protocol.)

>> An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
• ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is
reachable or not.
• ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination
device is responding or not.
• The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the
problems, not correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies
with the sender.
TCP/IP Reference Model

3. Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.
• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram
protocol and Transmission control protocol.
TCP/IP Reference Model

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
• UDP protocol is used in applications where the speed and size of data
transmitted is considered as more important than the security and
reliability.
• UDP protocol adds checksum error control, transport level addresses, and
information of length to the data received from the layer above it.
• Services provided by User Datagram Protocol(UDP) are connectionless
service, faster delivery of messages, checksum, and process-to-process
communication.
TCP/IP Reference Model

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• TCP protocol provides transport layer services to applications.
• TCP protocol is a connection-oriented protocol.
• A secured connection is being established between the sender and
the receiver. For a generation of a secured connection, a virtual
circuit is generated between the sender and the receiver.
• The data transmitted by TCP protocol is in the form of continuous
byte streams. A unique sequence number is assigned to each byte.
With the help of this unique number, a positive acknowledgment is
received from receipt.
TCP/IP Reference Model

4.Application Layer
• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact
with the communication system.
• For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while
web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP
protocol is an application layer protocol.
TCP/IP Reference Model

Main protocols used in the application layer:

HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol.
• This protocol allows us to access the data over the world wide web. It
transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video.
• It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to
use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from
one document to another.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol
• It is a framework used for managing the devices on the internet by
using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
TCP/IP Reference Model

SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol.

• The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple
mail transfer protocol.
• This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System.
• An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host to the
internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of
addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address
is known as Domain Name System.
TCP/IP Reference Model

TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network.

• It establishes the connection between the local computer and remote
computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol.
• FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the files
from one computer to another computer.
OSI v/s TCP
Transmission media
Transmission media
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the
information from the sender to the receiver.
• Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
• The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
• It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
• In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
• In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
Transmission media
• The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre
optics, atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
• The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined
by the characteristics of medium and signal.
• Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless
media.
• In wired media, medium characteristics are more important
• In wireless media, signal characteristics are more important
Transmission media
• Different transmission media have different properties such as
bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
• The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI
reference model, i.e. Physical layer.
Transmission media
Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:
• Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
• Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the
signals will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
• Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a
signal when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of
some unwanted signal.
Transmission media
Transmission media
Guided Media
• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are
transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.
Transmission media
>>Types Of Guided media:
Twisted pair
• Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with
each other.
• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
• The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern. The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined
by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot
decreases noise interference.
Transmission media
Transmission media
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one
another.
• This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose.
• It is used for telephonic applications.
Transmission media
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of
attenuation
Transmission media
Shielded Twisted Pair
• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding
the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
Transmission media
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair
• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not
very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It has a higher attenuation.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Transmission media
Disadvantages
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
• It has a higher attenuation rate.
Transmission media
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV
wire is usually a coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to
each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh.
• The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the
inner conductor from the outer conductor.
• The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Transmission media
Transmission media
Coaxial cable is of two types:
• 1. Baseband transmission: It is
defined as the process of
transmitting a single signal at
high speed.
• 2. Broadband transmission: It is
defined as the process of
transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Transmission media
Advantages of Coaxial cable
• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable
• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire
network.
Transmission media
Fibre Optic
• Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
• Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic
that are used to send the data by pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
• Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Transmission media
• Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow
strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A
core is a light transmission area of the fiber.
The more the area of the core, the more light
will be transmitted into the fiber.
• Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is
known as cladding. The main functionality of
the cladding is to provide the lower refractive
index at the core interface as to cause the
reflection within the core so that the light
waves are transmitted through the fiber.
• Jacket: The protective coating consisting of
plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose
of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength,
absorb shock and extra fiber protection.
Transmission media
Advantages
• Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth
as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as
compared to copper cable.
• Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
• Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer
distance as compared to copper cable
Transmission media
• Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the
copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can
cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
• Thinner and Lighter: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight
so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
Transmission media
Unguided Transmission
• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves
without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as
wireless transmission.
• In unguided media, air is the media through which the
electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
• Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Transmission media
1. Radio waves
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all
the directions of free space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all
the directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received
by any receiving antenna.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Transmission media
Applications Of Radio waves
• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and
many receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio
wave.
Transmission media
Advantages Of Radio transmission
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile
cellular phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
• Radio tr.ansmission provides a higher transmission rate
Transmission media
2.Microwaves
Transmission media
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
• Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the
focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave
transmission antenna to another.
• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the
range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
• Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to
be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly
focused.
• In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to
another antenna which is km away.
• It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on
the towers are the direct sight of each other.
Transmission media
Characteristics of Microwave
• Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is
from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
• Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps. o Short
distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
• Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a
longer distance.
• Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by
environmental conditions and antenna size
Transmission media
Advantages of Microwave:
• Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
• It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
• Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains
as the installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
• Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave
transmission
Transmission media
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission
• Any malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own
antenna.
• Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using
microwave transmission.
• Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is
susceptible to weather condition. This means that any environmental
change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
• Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of
microwave transmission.
Transmission media
3.Infrared
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for
communication over short ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer
between two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer
between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
Transmission media
Characteristics of Infrared:
• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very
high.
• The infrared communication in one room cannot be interrupted by
the nearby rooms.
• An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because
the sun rays will interfere with the infrared waves.