Alleviating the Hidden Terminal Problem:

A common measure to alleviate the hidden terminal problem in the MAC layer is the RTS/CTS (Request
to Send/Clear to Send) mechanism.

Explanation:

 RTS/CTS Protocol:

o RTS (Request to Send): Before sending data, a node (A) sends an RTS frame to the
intended receiver (B), indicating the desire to communicate.

o CTS (Clear to Send): The receiver (B) responds with a CTS frame if it is ready to receive
data, signaling that the communication can proceed.
(b) Determine the transfer time of a 22KB file with a mobile data network (a) with a transmission

rate of 10 Kbps and (b) repeat the same for 802.11 WLAN operating at 2Mbps. (c) What is the

length of a file that WLAN can carry in the time that mobile data service carried a 20 KB file. (d)

What do we infer from the answers to the above questions?

Answer :
Pair Description Matched Protocol

i) Available BW of each node divided into two channels DBTMA protocol

ii) The RTS packet is used once as the first packet of the stream D-PRMA protocol

iii) Node that wishes to transmit first acquires the channel MARCH protocol

iv) Contention-based sender initiated single channel protocol MACAW protocol

v) Real-time voice traffics are identified and prioritized over data traffic FAMA protocol

Ques : What are the disadvantages of the BTMA protocol? How are they overcome in the DBTMA
protocol?

Disadvantages of the BTMA Protocol

1. Inefficient Channel Utilization: The busy tone can block other nodes from transmitting even
when they could successfully do so, leading to reduced efficiency.

2. Limited Scalability: In networks with many nodes, busy tones can cause increased collisions and
delays, overwhelming the network.

3. Exposed Terminal Problem: BTMA does not effectively address the exposed terminal problem,
leading to unnecessary blocking of nodes that could transmit without interference.

4. Overhead from Busy Tones: The use of busy tones adds latency and reduces throughput due to
additional signaling overhead.

How DBTMA Protocol Overcomes These Disadvantages

1. Dual Busy Tones: DBTMA uses two busy tones—one for transmission (BTt) and one for reception
(BTr)—to improve channel access management and reduce unnecessary blocking.

2. Protection for RTS Packets: The transmit busy tone protects RTS packets during transmission,
enhancing successful reception and reducing collisions.

3. Continuous Protection for Data Packets: The receive busy tone provides ongoing protection for
incoming data packets, mitigating the hidden terminal problem.
 4. Improved Channel Utilization: Nodes can sense both busy tones, allowing only eligible nodes to
access the channel, which optimizes utilization.

5. Resolution of Exposed Terminal Problem: DBTMA allows nodes to transmit when not in range of
the receiving node, improving overall network performance.

Ques: Consider an area of 1000 sq km to be covered by a cellular network. Let each user requires 25

Khz for communication, and the total available spectrum is 50 Mhz. If cells of area 50 sq Km are

used, how many users can be supported with cluster size of 4? Besides number of users, what

major factors influences decision on cluster size?

6 c. MAC protocol RI-BTMA and DBTMA are categorised under which classification schemes and why?

Answer :

RI-BTMA (Receiver-Initiated Busy Tone Multiple Access):

 Classification: Contention-based protocol with a scheduling mechanism.

 Reason: Utilizes a busy tone initiated by the receiver to manage channel access and reduce
collisions.

DBTMA (Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access):

 Classification: Contention-based protocol with a scheduling mechanism.

  Reason: Employs two busy tones (one for the transmitter and one for the receiver) to manage
channel access, addressing hidden and exposed terminal problems.

Both protocols aim to improve communication efficiency by managing how devices access the
communication channel and reduce the chance of collisions.

7 (a) What is the main difference between the receiver initiated MAC protocols MACA-BI and MARCH

(b) How is synchronization between nodes achieved in the HRMA protocol?

Answer:

(a)

Here’s a comparison of the MACA-BI and MARCH protocols presented in a table format:

Feature MACA-BI MARCH

Initiation Receiver-initiated (sends "Ready to Receive" Receiver-initiated (focuses on channel

Mechanism invitation) handoff)

Simplified two-way handshake (RTR followed by More complex, manages channel changes
Handshake Process data) during mobility

Robustness and Robust against control packet collisions; fewer Addresses mobility challenges; may
Efficiency control packets reduce overhead involve additional signaling

Application Primarily for ad hoc networks with static or semi- Designed for mobile ad hoc networks with
Context static environments frequent channel changes

(b)

In the **Hop-Reservation Multiple Access (HRMA)** protocol, synchronization between nodes is

achieved through **time synchronization** and **frequency hopping**. Nodes synchronize their
internal clocks to ensure they change frequencies simultaneously, following a common hopping pattern.
This coordinated hopping minimizes interference and ensures reliable data transmission. The use of
very-slow frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) radios facilitates this synchronization, keeping the
sender and receiver aligned during communication.

(c) What are the design goals for a MAC protocol for an Ad-hoc wireless network?
Answer:

Design Goals for a MAC Protocol in Ad-hoc Wireless Networks:

 Distributed Operation: Nodes operate independently without centralized control.

 Quality of Service (QoS): Support for prioritizing real-time traffic.

 Low Access Delay: Minimize time to access the communication channel.

 Efficient Bandwidth Use: Optimize usage to maximize performance.

 Fair Bandwidth Allocation: Equitable bandwidth distribution among nodes.

 Low Control Overhead: Reduce control information to avoid congestion.

 Scalability: Handle a large number of nodes effectively.

 Power Control: Adjust transmission power to save energy and reduce interference.

 Time Synchronization: Ensure nodes are time-synchronized for coordinated communication.

 Adaptive Data Rate: Adjust transmission rates based on network conditions.

8 a.

(a) Explain with reasons, which protocol is more bandwidth efficient, RTMAC or MACA/PR?

When comparing bandwidth efficiency between RTMAC (Real-Time Medium Access Control) and
MACA/PR (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance/Protocol for Reservation), RTMAC is generally more
bandwidth efficient. RTMAC uses a TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) approach, which allocates
specific time slots to nodes for transmission, reducing collisions and ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
Each node transmits in its assigned slot without interference.

On the other hand, MACA/PR, while it differentiates between real-time and best-effort packets, still
relies on a contention-based approach for channel access. This method can lead to collisions and
retransmissions, reducing overall bandwidth efficiency.

(b) A particular cellular system has the following characteristics: cluster size = 7, uniform circular

cell size, user density = 100 users/sq km, allocated frequency spectrum = 900 – 949 Mhz, bit rate

required per user = 10 kbps uplink and 10 kbps downlink, and modulation code rate = 1bps/Hz.

Calculate the average cell radius for the above system if FDMA/FDD is used?

Answer ☹(in copy) copilot

Step 1: Calculate Total Available Bandwidth

  Total Spectrum: 900 MHz to 949 MHz = 49 MHz

Total Spectrum=49 MHz=49×106 Hz\text{Total Spectrum} = 49 \text{ MHz} = 49 \times 10^6 \text{ Hz}

Step 2: Calculate Bandwidth per Cell

 Cluster Size: 7

Bandwidth per Cell=Total SpectrumCluster Size=49×106 Hz7=7×106 Hz=7 MHz\text{Bandwidth per

Cell} = \frac{\text{Total Spectrum}}{\text{Cluster Size}} = \frac{49 \times 10^6 \text{ Hz}}{7} = 7 \times
10^6 \text{ Hz} = 7 \text{ MHz}

Step 3: Calculate Bandwidth per User

 Bit Rate per User: 10 kbps uplink + 10 kbps downlink = 20 kbps

 Modulation Code Rate: 1 bps/Hz

Since each user requires 20 kbps, and modulation is 1 bps/Hz, each user requires 20 kHz of bandwidth.

Bandwidth per User=20 kHz\text{Bandwidth per User} = 20 \text{ kHz}

Step 4: Calculate Number of Users per Cell

Users per Cell=Bandwidth per CellBandwidth per User=7×106 Hz20×103 Hz=350 users\text{Users per
Cell} = \frac{\text{Bandwidth per Cell}}{\text{Bandwidth per User}} = \frac{7 \times 10^6 \text{
Hz}}{20 \times 10^3 \text{ Hz}} = 350 \text{ users}

Step 5: Calculate Cell Area

 User Density: 100 users/sq km

Cell Area=Users per CellUser Density=350 users100 users/sq km=3.5 sq km\text{Cell Area} =
\frac{\text{Users per Cell}}{\text{User Density}} = \frac{350 \text{ users}}{100 \text{ users/sq km}} =
3.5 \text{ sq km}

Step 6: Calculate Cell Radius

For a uniform circular cell, the area AA is given by:

A=πr2A = \pi r^2

r=Aπr = \sqrt{\frac{A}{\pi}}

r=3.5 sq kmπ≈1.055 km

8(c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of MAC protocols using directional antennas?

Answer :

in table
Here's a table summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of MAC protocols using directional
antennas:

Aspect Advantages Disadvantages

Requires precise alignment for optimal

Signal Strength Higher gain and better signal strength
performance

Transmission Extended range for longer-distance

Complex neighbor discovery process
Range communication

Can lead to hidden and exposed

Interference Reduced interference from other sources
terminal problems

Improved spatial reuse for simultaneous Dynamic network challenges due to

Spatial Reuse
transmissions mobility

Increased overhead for managing

Security Enhanced security by limiting signal direction
directional communication

Higher throughput with reduced interference Sensitivity to misalignment affecting

Throughput
and better signal quality performance

9. (a) What is dwell time in HRMA? What is its significance?

Answer :

In the Hop-Reservation Multiple Access (HRMA) protocol, dwell time is the period a node stays on a
specific frequency during frequency hopping.

Significance:

 Ensures Collision-Free Communication: Helps maintain collision-free data transmission as nodes

are synchronized.

 Optimizes Throughput: Allows complete packet transmission within a single hop, especially for
larger packets.

 Maintains Synchronization: Essential for time synchronization between communicating nodes,

ensuring coordinated communication.

(b) What are the parameters that characterize the basic functions of a computer network?

Answer :
 1. Security: Ensuring data security.

2. Reliability: Ensuring data and resources availability.

3. Scalability: Allowing for growth in number of devices.

4. Flow of Data: Efficient data transfer.

5. High Performance: Fast processing.

6. Fault Tolerance: Handling network failures.

7. Quality of Service (QoS): Ensuring specific service levels.

8. Compatibility with Hardware and Software Components.

(c) Describe briefly the functions of the Transport layer of the ISO/OSI reference architecture.

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: Breaks down large data packets into smaller segments for
transmission and reassembles them at the destination.

2. End-to-End Communication: Ensures reliable communication between the source and

destination, managing data transfer over the network.

3. Flow Control: Manages data flow between devices to prevent congestion and ensure efficient
data transfer.

4. Error Control: Detects and corrects errors in the data being transmitted to ensure data integrity.

5. Connection Management: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between devices.

6. Multiplexing: Allows multiple communication sessions to occur simultaneously over the same
network channel.

10. (a) Name four ideal characteristics of an ideal routing protocol for ad-hoc wireless network.

Four Ideal Characteristics of an Ad-hoc Wireless Network Routing Protocol:

1. Scalability: Ability to handle an increasing number of nodes without significant performance

degradation.

2. Energy Efficiency: Minimizes power consumption to prolong the battery life of nodes.

3. Robustness: Maintains reliable communication despite dynamic changes and node mobility.

4. Low Latency: Ensures quick data transfer with minimal delay to support real-time applications.

(b) Describe the three major categories of routing protocols based on their routing information
update mechanism with examples.

Answer :

Routing protocols can be categorized into three major types based on their routing information update
mechanisms:

1. Distance Vector Protocols:

 These protocols share routing information with immediate neighbors, focusing on the
distance (usually in hops) to reach a destination. They update their routing tables
periodically, which can lead to slower convergence and potential routing loops.

 Examples: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP).

2. Link State Protocols:

 In this type, routers send information about their own state and the state of their
directly connected links to all other routers in the network. This allows each router to
build a complete map of the network topology, enabling faster convergence and more
efficient routing decisions.

 Examples: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Intermediate System to Intermediate System
(IS-IS).

3. Hybrid Protocols:

 Hybrid protocols combine features of both distance vector and link state protocols. They
maintain a distance vector table while also sharing link state information, improving
efficiency and convergence speed compared to pure distance vector protocols.

 Example: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).