Lecture-5

Internal Combustion Engines

1
Energy Balance of Engine cycle
 Energy Balance of Engine cycle
 In a reciprocating internal combustion engine the fuel is fed into the combustion
chamber where it burns in air converting chemical energy of the fuel into heat. The
liberated heat energy cannot be totally utilized for driving the piston as there are
losses through the engine exhaust, to the coolant and due to radiation. The heat
energy which is converted to power at this stage is called the indicated power, ip
and it is utilized to drive the piston.

 The energy represented by the gas forces on the piston passes through the
connecting rod to the crankshaft. In this transmission there are energy losses due to
bearing friction, pumping losses etc. In addition, a part of the energy available is
utilized in driving the auxiliary devices like feed pump, valve mechanisms, ignition
systems etc. The sum of all these losses, expressed in units of power is termed as
frictional power, fp . The remaining energy is the useful mechanical energy and is
termed as the brake power, bp.
 Chem.Energy Thermal Energy Mech. Work

Losses

Energy in Fuel Heat Not wholly convertible

to drive the piston

Loss to coolant,
radiation and exhaust

Remainder is converted to Power (to drive

the piston), and this is the indicated power.

4
Energy Balance of Engine cycle
Transmission Loss (from piston to crankshaft
via the connecting rod)

Friction loss
Pumping loss fp

 ip fp bp
The brake power is always less than the
indicated power because of frictional losses.
Indicated power (ip), is the power actually
developed in the cylinder.
Brake power (bp), is the output power
measured at the crankshaft.
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Engine Efficiency

Efficiency is the relation between the power

delivered and the power that could be obtained if
the engine operates without loss of power.

 Engine efficiency can be calculated two ways viz.,

 Thermal efficiency and

 Mechanical efficiency.

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Combustion Efficiency
As time available for combustion is very short, a
small fraction of fuel does not react and exits with
the exhaust flow.
A Combustion Efficiency is defined to account for
the fraction of fuel burnt, and typically has values in
the range of 95 % to 98 % when an engine is
operating properly.
Qin  m f Q f c
where mf = mass of fuel
Q f = calorific value of fuel
c = combustion efficiency

 Q̇in  ṁ f Q f c
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Energy distribution
Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of power produced
to the energy in the fuel burned to produce this
power, and can be expressed as
P
th 
ṁf Q f
Depending upon whether it is brake power or indicated
power, the terms brake thermal efficiency or indic ated
thermal efficiency is used. Accordingly, following two
expressions can be used.
bp ip
 b th  ;  ith 
ṁ f Q f ṁ f Q f

where ṁ f = fuel mass flow rate

Q f = calorific value of fuel
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Mechanical efficiency:
bp
m 
ip
Mechanical efficiency usually lies between 80 to
90 %. It can also be defined as the ratio of brake
thermal efficiency to indicated thermal efficiency.

It also follows that

isfc bth
m  
bsfc ith

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Indicated power (ip) can be expressed as

(imep) LAnK
ip 
60×1000

where, ip = indicated power (kW)

imep = indicated mean effective pressure (kN/ m2)
L = length of stroke (m)
A = cross-sectional area of piston (m2)
n = number of power strokes
n=N/2 for four strokes, and n=N for two-strokes
N = crankshaft speed (revolutions per minute)
and K = number of cylinders

12
Brake power (bp) can be expressed as

(bmep) LAnK
bp 
60×1000

Brake power (bp) obtained at the output shaft can

also be related as
2 NT
bp 
60×1000

where bp = brake power (kW)

N = crankshaft speed (revolutions per minute)
and T= engine torque (N-m)
13
 Specific Fuel Consumption: It is defined as the fuel
flow rate or fuel consumption per unit power output,
and can be expressed as
ṁ f
sfc 
P
Depending upon whether it is brake power or
indicated power, the terms brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc), or indicated specific fuel
consumption (isfc) is used. Accordingly,
m˙f
bsfc  & isfc  ṁ f
bp ip
sfc is a measure of how efficiently the fuel supplied
to the engine is used to produce power. Clearly, a low
value of sfc is desirable since for a given power level
less fuel is consumed.
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 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed

•There is a
minimum in the bsfc
versus engine speed
curve

•At high speeds the

bsfc increases due
to increased friction
losses.

•At lower speeds, the bsfc increases due to

increased time for heat losses from the gas to the
cylinder and piston wall, and thus a smaller ip
•As compression ratio is increased, fuel consumption
decreases due to greater thermal efficiency 15
Air-Fuel/Fuel-Air Ratio:
A ma
Air-Fuel Ratio: 
F mf

A m˙a

F ṁ f

Fuel-Air Ratio:

F m˙f

A ṁ a

16
 Fuel-Air Ratio:
 In the SI engine the fuel-air ratio practically remains a constant
over a wide range of operation. In CI engines at a given speed
the air flow does not vary with load; it is the fuel flow that
varies directly with load. Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is
generally used instead of air-fuel ratio.
 A mixture that contains just enough air for complete
combustion of all the fuel in the mixture is called a chemically
correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio.
 A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct
mixture is termed as rich mixture and a mixture that contains
less fuel (or excess air) is called a lean mixture.
 For most of the hydrocarbon fuels, the stoichiometric air-fuel
ratio is around 15:1. SI engines operate around this ratio during
normal operation. The air-fuel ratio for CI engines vary from
18:1 to 80:1 from full load to no load.
 Chemically Correct or Stoicheometric F/ A: The
mixture that contains optimum proportion of fuel
air ratio.
  Equivalence Ratio
Actual F A Ratio

Stoicheometric F A Ratio

  1; Chemically Correct
 1; Lean Mixture
  1 ; Rich Mixture

SI engines:12  A F 18 SI engines:0.056  F A  0.083

CI engines:18  A F  70 CI engines:0.014  F A  0.056
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Volumetric Efficiency: The power output of an
engine depends directly on the amount of charge
that can be inducted in the cylinder.

This is often referred to as the breathing capacity

of the engine, and is expressed quantitatively as
volumetric efficiency.
It can be defined as the ratio of the volume of air
induced to the swept volume of the cylinder, and
can be expressed as
ma
v 
a v d where, ma = mass of air into the engine in one cycle (kg)
m˙a = mass flow rate of air into the engine (kg/s)
ρa = air density at atmospheric conditions (kg/ m3)
nm˙ a
v  Vd = displaced volume (m3)

 a vd N
N = engine speed (revolutions per minute)
and n = number of revolutions per cycle
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 Volumetric Efficiency:
 It is to be noted that irrespective of the engine whether SI, CI or gas
engine, volumetric rate of air flow is what to be taken into account and
not the mixture flow.

 If ρa is taken as the atmospheric air density, then ηv is the pumping

performance of the entire inlet system. If it is taken as the air density in
the inlet manifold, then ηv is the pumping performance of the inlet
port and valve only.

 The normal range of volumetric efficiency at full throttle for SI engines

is between 80 to 85% where as for CI engines it is between 85 to 90%.

 Gas engines have much lower volumetric efficiency since gaseous fuel
displaces air and therefore the breathing capacity of the engine is
reduced.

20
Volumetric Efficiency:

Actual mass of ch arg e inducted

v 
Theoretical mass of ch arg e inducted

Actual mass is always less than theoretical mass

because of pressure losses in the ducting system
and due to heat transfer (process is not adiabatic).

The volumetric efficiency for a normally aspirated

engine is about 80 %, and this value can be
increased by supercharging or turbocharging
methods.

21
Improving Volumetric Efficiency:

Modifying the intake passages that make it easier

for the mixture to flow through as shown in Figure.
Other changes include reshaping ports to smooth
bends, reshaping the back of the valve heads, or
polishing the inside of the ports.
22
 Engine weight w
 Specific Weight  
Engine power bp

Indicates the relative economy

with which materials are used.

Engine volume Vd
 Specific Volume  
Engine power bp
Indicates the relative effectiveness
with which engine space is utilized.

Engine power bp
 Specific Power  
Piston face area (all pistons) Ap

Measures the effectiveness with which piston

area is used regardless of cylinder size.
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 Road-Load Power

•A part-load power level useful for testing

car engines is the power required to drive
a vehicle on a level road at a steady
speed.

•The road-load power (Pr) is the engine

power needed to overcome rolling
resistance which arises from the friction of
the tires, and the aerodynamic drag of the
vehicle.
Pr  (CR M v g  1 a C D Av S v2 )  S v
2

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 Road-Load Power

Pr  (C R M v g  1
2
 a C D Av S v )  S v
2

where CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 - 0.015)

Mv = mass of vehicle
g = gravitational acceleration
ra = ambient air density
CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 - 0.5)
Av = frontal area of the vehicle
Sv = vehicle speed

Modern midsize aerodynamic cars only

need 5-6 kW (7-8 HP) power to cruise at 90
km/ hr, hence the attraction of hybrid cars!
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 Summary

Specific volume, specific weight and

specific power are the important
parameters for engines used in
transportation vehicles such as boats,
automobiles, airplanes, where keeping
weight to a minimum is necessary. For
land-based stationary engines, weight
is insignificant.

Modern automobile engines usually

have brake power per displa cement in
the range of 40 to 80 kW/ L.
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 Summary

The Honda eight-valve / cylinder V4

motorcycle engine generates about
130 kW/ L, an extra example of a high-
performance racing car engine.

One main reason for continued

development in two-stroke engines is
that they produce 40 % greater power
output per unit weight.

27
 References
1. Crouse WH, and Anglin DL, (1985), Automotive Engines, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Eastop TD, and McConkey A, (1993), Applied Thermodynamics for
Engg. Technologists, Addison Wisley.
3. Fergusan CR, and Kirkpatrick AT, (2001), Internal Combustion Engines, John
Wiley & Sons.
4. Ganesan V, (2003), Internal Combustion Engines, Tata McGraw Hill.
5. Gill PW, Smith JH, and Ziurys EJ, (1959), Fundamentals of I. C. Engines, Oxford
and IBH Pub Ltd.
6. Heisler H, (1999), Vehicle and Engine Technology, Arnold Publishers.
7. Heywood JB, (1989), Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw Hill.
8. Heywood JB, and Sher E, (1999), The Two-Stroke Cycle Engine, Taylor & Francis.
9. Joel R, (1996), Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, Addison-Wesley.
10. Mathur ML, and Sharma RP, (1994), A Course in Internal Combustion Engines,
Dhanpat Rai & Sons, New Delhi.
11. Pulkrabek WW, (1997), Engineering Fundamentals of the I. C. Engine, Prentice Hall.
12. Rogers GFC, and Mayhew YR, (1992), EngineeringThermodynamics, Addison
Wisley.
13. Srinivasan S, (2001), Automotive Engines, Tata McGraw Hill.
14. Stone R, (1992), Internal Combustion Engines, The Macmillan Press Limited, London.
15. Taylor CF, (1985), The Internal-CombustionEnginein TheoryandPractice,Vol. 1 & 2,
The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
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 Web Resources
1. http://www.mne.psu.edu/simpson/courses
2. http://me.queensu.ca/courses
3. http://www.eng.fsu.edu
4. http://www.personal.utulsa.edu
5. http://www.glenroseffa.org/
6. http://www.howstuffworks.com
7. http://www.me.psu.edu
8. http://www.uic.edu/classes/me/ me429/lecture-air-cyc-web%5B1%5D.ppt
9. http://www.osti.gov/fcvt/HETE2004/Stable.pdf
10. http://www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid457.php
11. http://www.tpub.com/content/engine/14081/css
12. http://webpages.csus.edu
13. http://www.nebo.edu/misc/learning_resources/ ppt/6-12
14. http://netlogo.modelingcomplexity.org/Small_engines.ppt
15. http://www.ku.edu/~kunrotc/academics/ 180/Lesson%2008%20Diesel.ppt
16. http://navsci.berkeley.edu/NS10/PPT/
17. http://www.career-center.org/ secondary/powerpoint/sge-parts.ppt
18. http://mcdetflw.tecom.usmc.mil
19. http://ferl.becta.org.uk/display.cfm
20. http://www.eng.fsu.edu/ ME_senior_design/2002/folder14/ccd/Combustion
21. http://www.me.udel.edu
22. http://online.physics.uiuc.edu/courses/phys140
23. http://widget.ecn.purdue.edu/~yanchen/ME200/ME200-8.ppt -

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 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size

 bsfc generally
decreases with
engine size due to
reduced heat losses
from gas to cylinder
wall.

• Note cylinder surface to volume ratio increases with bore diameter.

cylinder surface area 2rL 1

 
cylinder volume r 2 L r
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Lecture-5

Internal Combustion Engines

Dr. Jnana Ranjan Senapati,

Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
31
 Two-stroke Engines:

For same power

generation, air input in a
2-stroke engine is greater
than a 4-stroke engine.

As there is a loss in the

scavenging period, the
term volumetric efficiency
(as applied to a 4-stroke
engine) is replaced by the
terms delivery ratio and
charging efficiency.

32
 Two-stroke Engines:
Cylinder Volume  Swept Volume  Vd
Cylinder Mass   a V d  mc
Mass of Fresh Ch arg e Delivered / Ingested  mi
Mass of Fresh Ch arg e Re tained / Trapped  mt
Mass of Ch arg e Lost ( Short  circuiting )  mi  mt
Mass of Ch arg e Trapped (including Exh. Re siduals )  m tc
mi
Delivery Ratio: dr 
mc
mt
Charging Efficiency: ce 
mc
 dr  ce Because some mixture is
lost out of exhaust port
before it is closed
33
Two-stroke Engines:
Cylinder Volume  Swept Volume  Vd
Cylinder Mass   a V d  m c
Mass of Fresh Ch arg e Delivered / Ingested  m i
Mass of Fresh Ch arg e Re tained / Trapped  mt
Mass of Ch arg e Lost ( Short  circuiting )  mi  mt
Mass of Ch arg e Trapped (including Exh. Re siduals )  m tc

mt
Trapping Efficiency: te 
mi
mt
Scavenging Efficiency:  se 
m tc
mtc 
Relative Charge: rc   ce
mc se
34
Charging Efficiency
= Delivery Ratio x Trapping Efficiency

Charging Efficiency
= Relative Charge x Scavenging Efficiency

Typical values
0.65  dr  0.95
0.50  ce  0.75
0.65  te  0.80
0.75  se  0.90
0.60  rc  0.90

35