+Data and Statistics

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,

analyzing, and interpreting data in order to
make decisions.  Branches of Statistics
Data consists of information coming from The study of statistics has two major
observations, counts, measurements, or branches: descriptive statistics and
responses. inferential statistics.
A population is the collection of all outcomes, Descriptive statistics - Involves the
responses, measurement, or counts that are of organization, summarization, and display of
interest. data.
A sample is a subset of a population. - Deals with the collection and
presentation of data and summarizing
Populations & Samples
values that describe the groups
Population - A population is defined as a group characteristics.
of people, animals, places, things, or ideas.
Example: The birth rate for World in 2023
Sample – A sample is a sub- group of the
was 17.464 births per 1000 people, a 1.15%
population.
decline from 2022.
Parameters & Statistics
Inferential statistics - Involves using a
A parameter is a numerical measure that sample to draw conclusions about a
describes a characteristic of a population.. population.
Examples: - Deals with predictions and inferences
a. The population mean IQ of the students based on the analysis and interpretation
in a certain university is 105. of the result of the information gathered
b. The average weekly income for all by statistician.
students is $405. (Because the average Example: individuals sleeping less than 6
of $325 is based on a sample, this is a hours are more likely to answer science
sample statistic.) question incorrectly than individuals who
A statistic is a numerical measure that sleep at least 8 hours.
describes a characteristic of a sample.  Types of Variables
Examples: A variable is a numerical characteristics or
a. The sample mean IQ of 35 students in a attribute associated with the population
certain university is 105. being studied.
b. A recent survey of a sample of 450 I. Qualitative Data (categorical)
college students reported that the - Consists of attributes, labels, or
average weekly income for students is nonnumerical entries.
$325. (Because the average of $405 is Example: gender, eye color, political
based on a population) preferences, religion, blood type, name,
civil status, year level, profession.
 II.Quantitative Data (numerical- - Calculated using names, labels, or
valued) qualities. No mathematical
- Consists of numerical measurements or computations can be made at this level.
counts. - It classifies elements in two or more
Example: height, age, pulse rate, categories or classes.
number of children, speed, scores from
Example: Colors in the US flag, Names of
a test)
students in your class, Subjects in primary
 Quantitative date variables can be classified
level, Political reference
as follows
 Discrete Variables - obtained by counting. II. Ordinal Scale of Measurement
- Data at the ordinal level of
Example: number of students, number of
measurement are qualitative or
persons with covid, total scores
quantitative.
 Continuous Variables - obtained by - Arranged in order, but differences
measuring. between data entries are not
Example: temperature, distance, meaningful.
Weight, density, area, mass
Examples: Class standings (freshman,
Example: sophomore, junior, senior), top 20 songs on
the radio
The grade point averages of five students are
listed in the table. Which data are qualitative III. Interval Scale of Measurement
data and which are quantitative data? - Data at the interval level of
measurement are quantitative. A zero
entry simply represents a position on a
scale; the entry is not an inherent zero.
- Arranged in order, the differences
between data entries can be calculated.
Example: Temperatures, Years in timeline,
money

Qualitative data - Student’s name IV. Ratio Scale of Measurement

- Data at the ratio level of measurement
Quantitative data- Student’s GPA (Discrete are similar to the interval level, but a
variable) zero entry is meaningful.
 Scales of Measurement - A ratio of two data values can be formed
- The level of measurement determines so one data value can be expressed as a
which statistical calculations are ratio.
meaningful. The four levels of Example: Ages, Grade point averages,
measurement are: nominal, ordinal, Weights, total scores
interval, and ratio
I. Nominal Scale of Measurement
- Data at the nominal level of
measurement are qualitative only.
 Methods of Collecting Data E. REGISTRATION METHOD - Examples of
A. INTERVIEW METHOD data gathered using this method are
1. Direct Method-personally interviews those that are obtained from NSO, LTO,
the respondent DepEd, CHED and other government
2. Indirect Method-Uses a medium (e. agencies.
g. telephone/android phone) to F. MECHANICAL DEVICES - The devices
interview that can be used when gathering data
B. QUESTIONNAIRE – is a list of well- for:
planned questions written on paper, a. social and educational researches:
which can be either personally camera, projector, videotape, tape
administered or mailed by the recorder, etc.
researcher. b. chemical, biological and medical
1. Guided- Response type - (there are researches: CT scan, ultrasound,
choices to choose from in answering) microscope, x-ray machine
2. Recall Type c. astronomy and atmospheric
researches: barometer, computer, radar
machines, satellites and camera

3. Recognition Type
4. Dichotomous type
5. Multiple Choice Type
6. Multiple Response Type
7. Free Response Type
8. Rating Scale Type

C. EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION METHOD

- Use in psychological and
anthropological studies
-Data obtained by seeing, hearing,
touching, smelling and tasting.

D. TEST METHOD - Widely used in

psychological research and psychiatry
Example: Aptitude test, achievement
test and other standardized test.
 C. NON- SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING –
There is a bias in the selection and
 Sampling Techniques
there is no recognized probability
that one member will be included in
the sample.
1. Purposive Sampling - also known as
selective, judgmental or subjective
sampling
where; -specific people, specific events,
n=sample size specific data

N= number of cases 2. Quota Sampling- the selection of

e=margin of error sample is made by the interviewer,
who has been given quotas to fill.
A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING – each
member of the population has a -most commonly used in opinion
known probability of being selected polls.
in the sample 3. Convenience Sampling – this
1. Simple Random Sampling – all technique is resorted to by
members of the population have researchers who needs information
equal chances of being included in the FASTEST WAY POSSIBLE.
the study. 4. Snowball Sampling - This technique
a. Lottery Sampling – Most common is sometimes called the “chain
and the easiest method of referral sampling”
random sampling -in this technique, the researchers
B. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING - a sample in chooses a possible respondent for
which each member of the the study at hand.
population is assigned a number. A
starting number is randomly selected
and sample members are selected at
regular intervals.
1. Stratified Random Sampling -
This method is applied when the
population is divided into
different classes wherein each
class must be presented in the
study.
2. Cluster Sampling - A cluster
sample has all members from
randomly selected segments of a
population. This is used when the
population is too large.