Semester - V BCA 2016-2017

Core: 13
MOBILE COMPUTING
M16UCA13
Credit: 4

UNIT - I
Introduction: Applications - A Simplified Reference Model. Wireless Transmission: Frequencies for
radio transmission - Signals - Antennas - Signal Propagation - Multiplexing - Modulation - Spread
Spectrum - Cellular System.
UNIT - II
Medium Access Control: Motivation for a Specialized MAC- Hidden and exposed terminals - Near
and far terminals - SDMA - FDMA - TDMA - Fixed TDM - Classical Aloha - Slotted Aloha - Carrier
Sense Multiple Access - Demand assigned Multiple Access - PRMA Packet Reservation Multiple
Access - Reservation TDMA - Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance - Polling - Inhibit Sense
Multiple Access. CDMA - Spread Aloha multiple access.
UNIT - III
Telecommunication Systems: GSM - Mobile Services - System Architecture - Radio Interface -
Protocols - Localization and Calling - Handover - Security. UMTS and IMT 2000: UMTS releases and
standardization - UMTS System Architecture - UMTS Radio Interface -UTRAN - UMTS Handover.
UNIT - IV
Satellite System: History - Applications - Basics - Routing- Localization - Handover. Wireless LAN:
IEEE 802.11- System Architecture - Protocol Architecture - Physical Layer - Medium Access Control
Layer. Bluetooth: User scenarios - Architecture - Radio Layer - Baseband Layer - Link Manager
Protocol.
UNIT - V
Mobile Network Layer: Mobile IP - Goals, Assumption, and Requirements - Entities and Terminology
- IP Packet delivery - Agent discovery - Registration. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - Mobile
Transport Layer: Traditional TCP - Congestion Control - Slow Start - Fast Retransmit.
TEXT BOOK

Jochen Schiller, "Mobile Communications",2nd Edition, eighth impression, Pearson Education, 2011.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. William Stallings,"Wireless Communication and Networks", 2nd Edition, Pearson Education, 2005.
2. Theodore Rappaport, "Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice", Prentice Hall
Communications,1996.
 UNIT – I
Introduction
In present and future the computers are portable. But the users need to access the
networks. To do this only choice is wireless. People will also be mobile.
Definition for wireless and mobile:
Mobility:
There are two kinds of mobility:
 User mobility
 Device portability
User mobility:
 Refers to a user who has access to the same telecommunication services
at different places.
 Users are mobile and the services also follows(e.g.,) call forwarding in
cellular phones.
Device portability:
 Refers to the movement of communication devices(e.g.,) mobile phones.

Wireless:
The way of accessing the network was by wire. The wires are replaced by
electromagnetic waves through the air.
A communication device can have one of the following characteristics:
o Fixed and wired: ( e.g.,) desk top uses fixed networks.
o Mobile and wired: (e.g.,) laptop connected using telephone and modem.
o Fixed and wireless: this mode is used for installing network in historical buildings to
avoid damage caused due to wiring.
o Mobile and wireless: no cable and the users can roam.
Application:
Although many applications can be benefit from wireless networks and mobile
communications particular application environments seem to be predestined for their use.
1. Vehicle 2. Emergency
3. Business 4. Infotainment
5. Replacement of wired networks 6. Location dependent services
7. Mobile and wireless devices
Vehicle:
 Today’s cars already comprise some, but tomorrow’s cars will compromise
many wireless communication systems and mobility aware applications.
  Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information
are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s.
 For remote areas, satellite communication can be used, while the current
position of the car is determined via the global positioning system (GPS).
 In the future, cars will also inform other cars about accidents via the ad-hoc
network to help them slow down in time, even before a driver can recognize an
accident.
Emergency:
 Imagine the possibilities of an ambulance with a high-quality wireless
connection to a hospital.
 Vital information about injured persons can be sent to the hospital from the
scene of the accident.
 All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and
specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis.
 Wireless networks are the only means of communication in the case of natural
disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes.
Business:
 A traveling salesman today needs access to the company’s database: to ensure
that files on her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the company to
keep track of all activities of their traveling employees, to keep databases
consistent etc.
 With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but
efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure data
consistency.
Replacement of wired networks:
 In some cases, wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks,
e.g., remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings.
 Due to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for
weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental
information.
Infotainment and more:
 Wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any appropriate
location.
 The travel guide tell something about the history of a building, downloading
information about a concert in the building at the same evening via a local
wireless network.
Location dependent services:
Several services that might depend on the actual location can be distinguished:
o Follow-on-services
o Location aware services
o Privacy
o Information services
o Support services
Mobile and wireless devices:
The following list gives some examples of mobile and wireless devices graded by
increasing performance.
 Sensor
 Embedded controllers, Pager
 Mobile phones
 Personal digital assistant
 Pocket computer
 Notebook/laptop
A simplified Reference model:
The reference model of wireless system
The description of the above figure is
 PDA is an example of wireless and portable device. The PDA communicates
with the base station. The base station consists of a radio transceiver and an
internetworking unit connecting the wireless link with the fixed link.
 The communicating partners of the PDA are the conventional computer on the
right hand side.
 The protocol stack is represented beneath the system.
 End systems such as PDA and computer need full protocol stack. Intermediate
systems such as internetworking unit do not need all the layers.
Functions of the layers in wireless and mobile environment:
Physical layer:
 It is the lowest layer in the communication system.
 This layer is responsible for conversion of bits into signals that can be transmitted in the
sender side. The physical layer of the receiver then transforms the signals back into a bit
stream.
 This layer is responsible for frequency selection, generation of carrier frequency, signal
detection, modulation and encryption.
Data link layer:
 The function is to access the medium, multiplex the data streams.
  Correction of transmission errors and synchronization.
 It is responsible for reliable point to point connection between two devices or point to
multipoint connection between one sender and many receivers.
Network layer:
 The function is routing of packets through network.
 The other functions are addressing, device location and handover between different
networks.
Transport layer:
 This layer is used to establish an end to end connection.
 The others functions are QOS, flow and congestion control.

Application layer:
 The top most layer.
 The function are service location , support for multimedia applications, video sitter,
latency.

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION – FREQUENCIES FOR RADIO TRANSMISSION

Frequencies for mobile communication

 VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

 Simple, small antenna for cars
 Deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
 SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
 Small antenna, focusing
 Large bandwidth available
 Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
 Some systems planned up to EHF
 Limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance frequencies)
 Weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.

SIGNALS
 Physical representation of data
 Function of time and location
 Signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
 Classification
o continuous time/discrete time
o continuous values/discrete values
 o analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
o digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
 Signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift j
 Sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:s(t) = At sin(2 p ft t + jt)

Fourier representation of periodic signals

Different representations of signals

 Amplitude (amplitude domain)

 Frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
 Phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase j in polar coordinates)
 Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier transformation Digital
signals need
 Infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
 Modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)

ANTENNAS

Isotropic radiator

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to space for radio
transmission Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) – only a theoretical
reference antenna Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna.

Directed and Sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones (e.g., radio coverage of a
valley)

Antennas: diversity

Grouping of 2 or more antennas

 multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
 switched diversity, selection diversity
o receiver chooses antenna with largest output
Diversity combining

 needed to avoid cancellation

SIGNAL PROPAGATION

Transmission range
 communication possible
 low error rate
Detection range

 detection of the signal possible

 no communication possible

Interference range

Signal may not be detected

 signal adds to the background noise

Signal propagation

 Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)

 Receiving power proportional to 1/d²
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
 Receiving power additionally influenced by

 fading (frequency dependent)

 shadowing
 reflection at large obstacles
 scattering at small obstacles
 diffraction at edges

Multipath propagation

 Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to reflection, scattering,
diffraction
 Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
 Interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
 The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
 Distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
Effects of mobility

Channel characteristics change over time and location

 signal paths change

 different delay variations of different signal parts
 different phases of signal parts

Quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

Additional changes in

 distance to sender
 obstacles further away

Slow changes in the average power received (long term fading)

MULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing in 4 dimensions

 Space (s)
 Time (t)
 Frequency (f)
 Code (c)

Frequency Division Multiplexing – FDM

The oldest used technique used for multiplexing. Possible when the useful bandwidth of the
medium exceeds that of the signals it has to carry. Each signal is modulated on a different carrier
frequency.

This results in shifting the spectrum of the signal around the carrier frequency. Sufficient
guard-band is given so those neighboring signals do not overlap in the frequency domain.

At the receiving end each signal is extracted by first passing it through a band-pass filter and
then demodulating with the same carrier frequency that was used to modulate the signal. The signals
carried using FDM may be analog signals or may be analog signals representing digital data. However
FDM is mostly a technique from the era of analog communications. In FDM a device uses some of the
channel all of the time. FDM is used in radio and television broadcasting. FDM is also used in high
capacity long distance links in the telephone network.
 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) achieves multiplexing by using different carrier
frequencies .Receiver can “tune” to specific frequency and extract modulation for that one channel
.Frequencies must be separated to avoid interference – “Wastes” potential signal bandwidth for guard
channels.Only useful in media that can carry multiple signals with different frequencies – high-
bandwidth required .

Used in:

 The standard of the analog telephone network

 The standard in radio broadcasting
 The standard for video

1. Broadcast
2. Cable
3. Satellite

Frequency Division Multiplexing Diagram

Time Division Multiplexing – TDM

Time division multiplexing is more suitable for digital data. TDM can be used when the data rate
available on a communication link exceeds the data rate required by any one of the sources. In TDM
each source that is to use the link fills up a buffer with data. A TDM multiplexer scans the buffers in
some predetermined order and transmits bits from each source one after the other.

 Requires digital signaling & transmission

 Requires data rate = sum of inputs + framing
 Data rate much higher than equivalent analog bandwidth uses
 Separates data streams in time not frequency
 The standard of the modern digital telephone system

Code Division Multiplexing – CDM

Each channel has a unique code. All channels use the same spectrum at the same time.
Advantages:
 bandwidth efficient
 no coordination and synchronization necessary
 good protection against interference and tapping
Disadvantages:

 lower user data rates

 more complex signal regeneration

MODULATIONS

Digital modulation

 digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)

 ASK, FSK, PSK – main focus in this chapter
 differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

Analog modulation

o shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier Motivation

o smaller antennas (e.g., l/4)
o Frequency Division Multiplexing
o medium characteristics

Basic schemes

 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)

Modulation and demodulation

Digital modulation

Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying.

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

 Very simple
 Low bandwidth requirements
 Very susceptible to interference

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

 Needs larger bandwidth

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

 More complex
 Robust against interference

Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

 Bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the carrier frequencies
 Special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
 Bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled
 Depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency, original or inverted is
chosen
 The frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
 Even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter

GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM.

Advanced Phase Shift Keying

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):

 Bit value 0: sine wave

 Bit value 1: inverted sine wave
 Very simple PSK
 Low spectral efficiency
 Robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):

 2 Bits coded as one symbol

 Symbol determines shift of sine wave
 Needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK
 More complex

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines amplitude and phase modulation

 It is possible to code n bits using one symbol

 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
 Bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable PSK schemes

SPREAD SPECTRUM

Effects of spreading and interference

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)

 Many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal

Advantages

 Reduces frequency selective fading

 In cellular networks
 o Base station scan use the same frequency range several base stations can detect and
recover the signal
o Soft handover

Disadvantages

 Precise power control necessary

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

Discrete changes of carrier frequency

 Sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number sequence

Two versions

 Fast Hopping:
Several frequencies per user bit
 Slow Hopping:
Several user bits per frequency

Advantages

 Frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period

 Simple implementation
  Uses only small portion of spectrum at any time

Disadvantages

 Not as robust as DSSS

 Simpler to detect

Medium Access Control (MAC)

MAC protocol which were developed for nodes at short distance did not show good
performance for nodes at longer distance so another protocol has to be developed Known as 2p MAC
Protocol.

802.11 protocols were good for devices which had no power supply issue frequent charging were
available to them etc.

1. This protocol based devices were not good for certain operation like monitoring the natural
habitat of wildlife.
2. Sampling the water level of dam.

These applications do not require frequent human intervention and are required to run for a longer
duration.

To fulfill the requirement other protocol was developed sensor network (802.15.4)

 Energy Budgets:-Main points which were discussed in this were how its protocol helps in
saving power by cleverly managing the time when device should sleep when to wake up.

 MAC protocol used in 802.15.4.

 Routing and tree formation in ZigBee: – Routing protocol was developed by Zigbee firm.

Wireless MAC Issues

Wireless medium makes the MAC design more challenging than the wireline networks.

The three important issues are:

1. Half Duplex operation –> either send or receive but not both at a given time

2. Time varying channel

3. Burst channel errors

1. Half Duplex Operation

 In wireless, it’s difficult to receive data when the transmitter is sending the data, because:
 When node is transmitting, a large fraction of the signal energy leaks into the receiver path
 The transmitted and received power levels can differ by orders of magnitude
 The leakage signal typically has much higher power than the received signal ->“Impossible to
detect a received signal, while transmitting data”
 Collision detection is not possible, while sending data
 As collision cannot be detected by the sender, all proposed protocols attempt to minimize the
probability of collision -> Focus on collision avoidance

2. Time Varying Channel

Three mechanisms for radio signal propagation

 Reflection – occurs when a propagating wave impinges upon an object that has very large
dimensions than the wavelength of the radio wave e.g. reflection occurs from the surface of the
earth and from buildings and walls
 Diffraction – occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver is obstructed
by a surface with sharp edges
 Scattering – occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with

3. Burst Channel Errors

As a consequence of time varying channel and varying signals errors are introduced in the
transmission (Very likely) forstrengths wire line networks the bit error rate (BER) is the probability
of packet error is small .For wire line networks the errors are due to random For wireless networks the
BER is as high.For wireless networks the errors are due to node being in fade as a result errors occur in
a long burst. Packet loss due to burst errors – mitigation techniques

 Smaller packets
 Forward Error Correcting Codes
 Retransmissions (Acks)

Location Dependent Carrier Sensing

Location Dependent Carrier Sensing results in three types of nodes that protocols need to deal with:
 Hidden Nodes
Even if the medium is free near the transmitter, it may not be free near the intended receiver
 Exposed Nodes
Even if the medium is busy near the transmitter, it may be free near the intended receiver
  Capture
Capture occurs when a receiver can cleanly receive a transmission from one of two
simultaneous transmissions

MULTIPLE ACCESSES

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Accesses)

It is an ANALOQUE technique in time. Synchronization the transmission bandwidth is

partitioned to frequency slots different users has different RF carrier frequencies, i.e. Each user is
assigned a particular frequency slot. Users/signals are at the receiver by separated out FILTERING if
all frequency slots are occupied then the system has reached its.

TDMA(Time Division Multiple Accesses)

It is a DIGITAL technique requires between users synchronization each user/signal is assigned a

particular (within a time-frame) time slot.

 An access method in which multiple users, data services, or sources allotted different time-
slices to access the same channel.
 Available time-slice divided among multiple modulated-signal sources. These sources use the
same medium, set of frequencies, and same channel for transmission of data.
 GSM Eight radio-carriers (e.g., mobile phones) C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, and C8 in eight
TDMA time-slices, one for each radio carrier.
CELLULAR SYSTEM:
- The following concept holds when cell system follows SDM.
- For mobile communication transmitter is needed.
- The transmitter is called as base station.
- The base station covers certain area called cell.
- The radius of the cell can be from meters, tens of meters, kilometers.
- The shapes of the cells are assumed to be circle or hexagon.
- The real shape depends upon environment, weather and load.
- Never use the same frequency at the same time within the interference range.
Methods to create cell patterns:
Clusters:
Cells are combined to form clusters.
Types:
1. Three cell forming a cluster.
2. Seven cells forming a cluster.
 All the cells within a cluster use a different sets of frequencies. Moreover
still to avoid interference sectorized antenna can be used.
Assignment of frequency to cells
(1) Fixed
(2) Dynamic
Fixed:
Here the frequencies are assigned in advance to the cell cluster and cell respectively.
This method is called as FCA used in GSM.
Disadvantages:
Not efficient in different traffic load condition.
Dynamic:
- Here the frequency can be borrowed and the frequencies can be freely assigned
to cells used in DECT.

- As the frequencies are repeated, the transmission power has to be limited to avoid
interference with the next cell using the same frequency.
- Another method to reduce the interference is to use sectorized antenna.
Borrow of frequency:
- Here when a cell has heavy traffic and its neighbour has light load,
the frequency can be borrowed.
- This scheme is called as borrowing channel allocation (BCL).
Breathe:
- When cellular systems use CDM, the cell planning faces a problem of cell size
depending upon the load, under that scenario the cells are said to breathe.
- The concept of breathe is that the cells can cover a large area under light load
and size shrinks under heavy load.
Advantages of cellular systems with small cells:
(1) Higher Capacity:
a. With SDM the frequency can be reused.
b. Frequency is feasible if the two transmitters are far away.
c. Small cells allow more users.
 (2) Less Transmission Power:
a. Power is problematic for the mobile/hand held devices.
b. The devices which are closer to the base station needs less transmission
power.
(3) Local Interference:
a. In small cells the mobile and base need to cater only the local interference.
b. In the case of large cells they have to cater more interference problems.
(4) Robustness:
a. Cellular Systems are decentralized.
b. If one antenna fails it affects only small area.
Disadvantages:
(1) Infrastructure:
a. Cellular systems need complex infrastructure to connect all base stations.
b. E.g antenna, Location registers, switched are needed, which makes the system
costly.
(2) hand over:
a. As the cell size is small more number of handover is needed.
b. Handover means, when quality is low, the mobile needs to be handed over
from one transmitter to another.
(3) Frequency:
a. As the frequency is reused between transmitters, to avoid the interference the
frequency has to be distributed carefully.
b. More over only limited number of frequencies are available.
 UNIT-II

MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL (MAC):

OVERVIEW:
- MAC comprises all the mechanisms that regulate user access to medium using SDM, TDM,
FDM, and CDM.
- Special MAC is needed in wireless because of hidden and exposed terminals or near and far
terminals.
- One scheme is not purely used in system but mix of schemes is used in reality.

Motivation for a specialized MAC

One of the most commonly used MAC schemes for wired networks is carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). In this scheme, a sender senses the medium (a wire or
coaxial cable) to see if it is free. If the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is free. If the medium
is free, the sender starts transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium. If the sender detects
a collision while sending, it stops at once and sends a jamming signal. But this scheme doest work well
with wireless networks. The problems are:
 Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
 The sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
 It might be a case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
 Furthermore, CS might not work, if for e.g., a terminal is “hidden”
Why to need Special MAC:
- Consider the wired CSMA/CD scheme.
- A sender senses the medium to see if it is free.
- If the medium if busy the sender waits until the medium is free.
- If found free starts transmitting the data and continues to listen the medium.
- If the sender detects any collision, it stops transmission immediately and sends jamming
sequence.
- This scheme does not work in wireless because CSMA/CD does not consider the collisions
in the sender side but considers only at the receiver end.
- This is not a problem with wired because the same signal strength is assumed to be present
all over the wire.
- If collisions occur in the wire, it can be noticed by all.
(1) Problem when used in wireless
- This will not work in the wireless because “signal strength decreases to the square of the
distance of the sender”.
- The sender senses the medium and finds it to be free, the sender starts sending the message
but a collision occurs at the receiver due to second sender.
- This problem is called as hidden terminal problem.
(2) The sender detects no collision and assumes that the data has been transmitted without
errors, but collision might have occurred.
Collision detection is very difficult in wireless. So wired MAC cannot be used for wireless.
More details on why MAC of fired networks fail in wireless scenario.

The fixed MAC when used on wireless faces the following:

(1) Hidden and exposed terminals
(2) Near and far terminals.
HIDDEN AND EXPOSED TERMINALS
Hidden Terminal

- The transmission range of ‘A’ reaches ‘B’ but not ‘C’.

- The transmission range of ‘C’ reaches ’B’ but not ‘A’.
- Transmission range of ‘B’ reaches ‘A’ and ‘C’.
- ‘A’ starts sending to ‘B’, ‘C’ does not receive this transmission.
- ‘C’ also wants to send to ‘B’, and senses the medium is free ‘C’ also starts sending message
to ‘B’ hence resulting in collision at ‘B’.
- ‘A’ cannot detect the collision at ‘B’ and still continues to send message.
- ‘A’ is hidden for ‘C’.
Exposed Terminal:
- Consider the scenario that ‘B’ to sends a message to A, ‘C’ wants to send a message to
some other mobile which is outside the reference of A and B.
- ‘C’ senses that the medium is busy hence it postpones the transmission until it detects the
medium is idle.
- In this scenario ‘C’s waiting is unneeded.
- Causing a collision at ‘B’ does not matter because the collision in too weak to propagates to
A, C is exposed to B.
Near and Far Terminals

- A and B are sending with same transmission power to C.

- The signal strength decreases to the square of the distance.
- Due to the above B’s signal drowns out A’s signal as a result ‘C’ cannot receive A’s
information.
- The near/far effect is a severe problem of a wireless using CDM.
- All signals should arrive at the receiver with the almost same strength.
- If not the one’s which is closer will have higher strength than the one which is farther away.
- So if separated by code, the closest one would drown the others.
Mechanisms to Access the Medium
1. SDMA
2. FDMA
3. TDMA
4. CDMA
SDMA
- SDMA stands for Space Division Multiple Access.
- SDMA is used for allocating separated space to users of wireless network.
- Application is assigning an optimal base station to a mobile phone.
- MAC algorithm decides which base station is best taking into consideration FDM, TDM,
CDM.
- SDMA is never used in isolation but used with one or more schemes.
- The SDMA algorithm works on cells and sectorized antenna which form the infrastructure.
FDMA
- FDMA stands for frequency division multiple accesses.
- Contain algorithm allocating frequencies to transmission channels according to FDM.
- Allocation can be fixed or dynamic.
- Channels can be assigned to the write Fixed/Dynamic frequency at all times.
- Sender and receiver need to agree on a hopping pattern otherwise receiver could not tune to
the right frequency.
- Hopping patterns are fixed at least for a longer period.
- FDM is used for simultaneous access t the medium by base station and mobile station
cellular networks.
- The 2 directions, mobile station to base station and vice versa are separated using different
frequencies.
- The 2 patterns establish a duplex channel.
- This scheme is called frequency division duplex.
- The both partners need to have to know the frequencies in advance.
- The 2 frequencies are also known as uplink and downlink.
- The uplink is from mobile station to base station or ground control to satellite.
- The down link is from base station to mobile station or from satellite to ground control.

TDMA
- TDMA stands for time division multiplex access.
- TDMA offers flexible scheme, allocates time slots for communication which is controlled
by TDM.
- The receiver need not tune the frequency; can stay at the same frequency.
- Uses only one frequency, many algorithms, exists to control the medium access.
- Here the system listens to many channels separated in time at the same frequency.
- Synchronization between the sender and receiver needs to be achieved.
- MAC address is used as identification.
- The identification makes the receiver identify when message is intended for it.
- Fixed schemes do not need an identification, but flexible.
Types of TDM
(a) Fixed TDMA
(b) Demand Oriented TDMA.
Fixed TDM:
- This is the simplest algorithm for using TDM.
- Here time slots are allocated for channels in the fixed pattern.
- Hence the result is fixed bandwidth.
- Now external synchronization needed.
- Each mobile must know its turn, hence no interference will occur.
- The pattern is to be assigned by the base stations.
The frequency is same.

Advantages:
- Bandwidth is fixed.
- Delay is fixed.
- Constant data rate.
Disadvantages:
- Wastage of bandwidth when the system has no data to transmit.
- Inflexible.
- Not suitable for bursty data.
Demand Oriented TDMA:
The demand oriented TDMA methods are:
1. Classical Aloha
2. slotted Aloha
3. CSMA
4. DAMA
5. PRMA
 6. Reservation TDMA
7. MACA
8. Polling
9. ISMA

CLASSICAL ALOHA:
- Here the TDMA is applied without controlling the access.
- Each station can access the medium without a central arbiter controlling the access and
without co-ordination.
- If two or more stations access the medium at the same time collision occurs and the data
transmitted is too destroyed.
- Aloha is neither co-ordinated nor resolves contention.
- Can be used under light load.

Slotted Aloha:
- In slotted Aloha the time is divided into slots.
- All the senders need to be synchronized.
- When the sender wants to transmit attempts at the beginning of time slot.
- Synchronization is done at the beginning of the time slot.
- Systems are not co-ordinate.
- Through put is doubled from classical Aloha to slotted Aloha.
- Well suited for light load.
- Guarantees for maximum delay and throughput in not given.
Carrier Senses Multiple Access:
- Carrier senses multiple accesses.
- The medium is sensed before the access.
- Hence the name CSMA.
- The concept of sensing and accessing the medium decreases the probability of collision.
- Hidden terminals cannot be detected.
- Hence collision can occur at the receiver.
Types of CSMA.
(i) Non-persistent CSMA:
- Station sense the medium and start sending immediately if the medium is free.
- If the medium is busy the stations waits for a random amount of time and then once again
senses the medium.
- Repeats the above if the medium is found busy.

(ii) P-Persistent CSMA:

- The nodes the sense the medium.
- Transmit with a probability P, when the medium is free and postponing to the next slot with
the probability 1-P.

(iii) 1-Persistent CSMA:

- All the nodes wishing to transmit data, senses the medium and transmits the data as soon as
the medium is idle with probability 1.
- Results in collision if many want to transmit data.
- This method is unfair; hence to introduce fairness the stations waiting for a longer time will
be given the chance.

(iv) CSMA/CA(Collision Avoidance):

- The medium is sensed and if found busy waiting time follows the back off scheme. Thus
avoids the occurrence of collision.
Demand Sense Multiple Access(DSMA):
Demand Assigned Multiple Access (or) Reservation Aloha
- This method uses the concept of Reservation and Fixed TDMA.
- Here there is a fixed reservation period followed and fixed TDMA.
- During the reservation periods the stations can reserve future slots in the transmission
period.
- Collisions can occur during the reservation period only.
-
- This method has 2 phases.
1. Contention phase
2. Transmission phase.
*Contention Phase:
This is the reservation phase.
- This phase follows the slotted aloha scheme.
- During this phase all the stations reverse the future slot.
- Collision occurs during this phase.
- If successful time slot for the future is reserved no other station is allowed to transmit
during this slot.
- The stations need to be synchronized.
- This is an explicit reservation scheme.
*Transmission Phase:
The reserved senders transmit the data during this phase.

Packet Reservation Multiple Access(PRMA):

- PRMA is an implicit reservation scheme.
- The slots are reserved according to the scheme described below;
Scheme:
- Frame is divided into slots.
- The frame is repeated in time with fixed TDM.
- The base station broadcasts the status of each slot to the mobile stations.
- The station’s name is indicated in the slot which is reserved for that station.
- For example of frame 1 it reads as ACDABA-F. This indicates that the 7th slot is free.
- The station wanting the slot competes in an Aloha scheme.
- If more stations compete collision occurs then the base station returns the reservation status
of frame 1 as ACDABA-F.
- Again the stations can compete for the 7th slot.
Reservation TDMA:
- This method allows randomness and freedom.
- The frame has reservation phase followed by transmission phase.
- The reservation has fixed TDM scheme of N mini slots.
- The transmission phase has N.K. data slots for the frame where K is the data slot for 1 mini
slot.
- Guarantees bandwidth and fixed delay.
- Other stations can send in unused slots only.
- The free slots usage can be via round robin or aloha.

Multiple Accesses with Collision Avoidance:

- The previous access mechanism does not handle the problem of hidden terminal.
- MACA has a simple scheme which solves a hidden terminal problem does not need a base
station, follows random access, with dynamic reservation.
- The sender A sends a RTS (Request to send signal to the receiver ‘B’)
- The content of RTS is name of the sender, receiver and duration of transmission.
- RTS is not heard by C. B when free sends CTS (clear to send) signal to A.
- Contents of CTS are the name of the sender same of the receiver, and the duration.
- CTS are heard by A and C. C discards because it is neither the sender nor receiver.
- This CTS indicates that B is involved in transmission and hence C cannot send any message
to B.
- Hence collision is avoided at B thus solving the hidden terminal problem.
- When A and C sends RTS at the same time to B collision occurs. B resolves the contention
by sending acknowledgement CTS to one station.
Exposed Node Problem Solution:
- B sends RTS to A
- C does not react to this message.
- A acknowledges and sends CTS to B.
- CTS from A to B are not heard by C.
- Hence C can start transmission to a different uses, thus avoiding exposed node problem.

Problem faced:
- Overheads in sending RTS and CTS.
- Unsuitable for time critical data packets which is to be transmitted in short duration.
- State diagram for the sender and receiver.

The explanation for the above figure is

- Sender.
- The sender is on the idle state until a user requests for transmission of data.
- The sender issues an RTS and waits for CTS.
- If the receiver gets the RTS and if free sends CTS and waits for data.
- The sender receives CTS and sends data.
- If the sender didn’t receive CTS, the sender world sends RTS after time out.
- If it has received sends the data and waits for acknowledgement and returns to waiting
state.
- If the receiver sends positive acknowledgement the sender and receiver moves to idle stat.
- If the sender receives a negative acknowledgement the sends RTS once again.
- The receiver can indicate that it is busy via Rx busy message.
Polling:
- This scheme is a centralized scheme.
- In this scheme there is one master and many slave stations.
- The master polls the slaves according to any one of the schemes like that of round robin.
- There is contention phase and transmission phase.
- In the contention phase the master can poll the slaves to reserve the transmission phase.
- The transmission is done accordingly.
Inhibit Sense Multiple Access(ISMA):
- The medium is detected by inhibition.
- The base station signals a medium busy via busy tone on the down link.
- When the medium is free the busy tone stops.
- The uplink is not co-ordinates.
- The base station acknowledges the successful transmission.
- In case when the acknowledge is missed the mobile devices can conclude a collision.

CDMA:
- CDMA stands for code division multiple accesses.
- CDMA uses the technique of code division multiplexing.
- CDMA uses the codes to separate the users in code space, thus helping the medium be
shared without interference.
- Characteristics for code:
1. Auto correction
2. Orthogonal.
Orthogonal:
- The code is represented by vector.
- The vectors are said to be orthogonal, if their inner product is zero.

Auto Correction:
The inner product with itself should be large. Such code is called auto correction.
(eg) Barker Code;
(1,-1, 1,-1, 1, 1, 1,-1,-1,-1) * (1,-1, 1,-1, 1, 1, 1,-1,-1,-1) =
(1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1) = 11

Concept of CDMA:
When two senders want to send data. CDMA assigns unique orthogonal sequences Ak =
010011, Bk = 110101.
- A wants to send the bit Ad = 1, B wants to send Bd = 0.
- Both the sender spread their signal using the key as chipping sequence.
As = Ad * Ak As = Signal of the data to be transmitted
= 1 * (-1, 1,-1,-1, 1, 1) = (-1, 1,-1,-1, 1, 1)
B sends the signal
Bs =Bd * Bk
= -1*(1,1,-1,1,-1,1)= (-1,-1,+1,-1,+1,+1)
- Both the signal are transmitted at the same time using same frequency
C=As + Bs= (-2,0,0,-2,+2,0)
- The receiver after receiving, wants A’s data, despreads as C * Ak
(-2,0,0,-2,=2,0)*(-1,+1,-1,-1,+1,+1)
= 2+0+0+2+2+0= 6 > 0
Hence it concludes that the data is 1.
If the despread is<0 the data is 0.
- In the above scenario noise was neglected.
- Noise would add to the transmitted signal ‘C’ which results the difficulty in identifying the
bit.
- Problem faced by CDMA is power has to be adjusted over 1000 times/sec which consumes
lot of energy.
- Sender and receiver are not simple devices.
- When the need to communicate with a devices a different codes are needed.
- Does not support bursty traffic.
Spread Aloha Multiple Accesses:
- Here the CDMA and Aloha are combined to form SAMA.

Working Principle:
- Users use the same spreading code.
- Sender A and B access the medium at the same time in their narrow band spectrum
resulting in collision.
- The same data can be sent with higher power for shorter period 1 the spread spectrum is
used to spread the signals to increase the bandwidth.

Advantages:
1. Collision is low.
2. Spread spectrum a results in robustness against narrow band interference.
3. Coexistence with other systems in same frequency band.
Disadvantages:
1. Finding the good chipping sequence is difficult.
2. Code is not orthogonal to itself.
 UNIT - III

TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
Global System For Mobile Communications
(GSM: originally from Groupe Special Mobile)
- A digital cellular phone technology based on TDMA.
- GSM was first deployed in seven European countries in 1992.
- GSM defines the entire cellular system.
- Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone operators,
enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world thus is considered a second
generation (2G) mobile phone system.

GSM: Global System For Mobile Communications

Goal:
- provide a mobile phone system that allows users to roam throughout Europe and provide voice
services compatible to ISDN and PSTN.
Generation:
- GSM is in the second generation.
- (i.e.,) replacing the I generation analog systems does not offer the data rates as that of 3rd
generation systems.
Version:
(1) GSM 900: Initially deployed in Europe. Frequency offered is
Uplink  890 to 915 MHz
Downlink  935 to 960 MHz
(2) GSM 1800: Otherwise called as Digital Cellular Systems DCS 1800
(3) GSM 1900: Otherwise called as personal communication service PLS 1900
(4) GSM 400
(5) GSM Rail:
- used in European countries
- used for railroad systems.
Mobile Services:
- GSM allows the integration of voice and data services and also the internetworking with the
existing networks.
- 3 Types of Services:
(a) Bearer Services
(b) Tele Services
(c) Supplementary Services
Reference Model for GSM Services:

- A mobile station MS is connected to the GSM public land mobile network PLMN via u
interface
- PLMN is the infrastructure needed for the GSM networks.
a. This network is connected to transit networks.
b. There will be additional network the Source/Destinations network before another
terminal TE is connected.
(a) Bearer Services
- Bearer services comprises of all services that enable the transparent transmission of data
between the interface to the network.
- Bearer services permit transparent/non transparent, synchronous and asynchronous data
transmission.
Transparent Bearer Services:
- This service uses the functions of physical layer to transmit data.
- Data transmission has a constant delay and throughput if no error occurs .
- FEC is used increase the transmission quality.
Non-Transparent Bearer Services:
- Uses the protocols of layers data link and network to transmit data.
- These services uses transparent bearer service radio link protocol(RPL).
(b) Tele Services
- Tele Services are application specific and need all the 7 layers of ISO/OSI reference model
- Services are specified end to end.
- These tele services are voice oriented tele services.
- Important service is
(a) Telephony Services
(b) Emergency Number
(c) Short Message Service
(d) Enhanced Message Service
(e) Multimedia Message Service
(f) Group 3 Fax
 (c) Supplementary Services
- GSM offer supplementary services.
They are
(a) User Identification
(b) Call Redirection/Forwarding
(c) Closed User Group
(d) Multiparty Communication
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE:
- The architecture of GSM comes in hierarchy, consisting of many entities, interfaces and
subsystem.
- The GSM system consist of three subsystems
(1) The Radio Subsystem (RSS)
(2) Network and Switching Subsystems(NSS)
(3) Operation Subsystem (OSS).
Radio Subsystem
- The Radio System consists of all radio specific entities
- The mobile stations and base station subsystems.
- As they are in the same radio frequency they form a cell.
- Components of RSS:
(i) Mobile Station
(ii) Base Transceiver Station
(iii) Base Station Subsystem
(iv) Base Station Controller.
1. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
- A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by a base station controller (BSC).
- The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile
phones, paging, quality management of transmission and reception over the Air interface and
many other tasks related to the radio network.

2. Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

- A BTS comprises all radio equipment, i.e., antennas, signal processing, amplifiers necessary
for radio transmission.
- A GSM cell can measure between some 100 m and 35 km depending on the environment but
also expected traffic.
3. Base Station Controller (BSC)
- The BSC provides classically, the intelligence behind the BTSs.
- The BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones,
controls handovers from BTS to BTS.
- A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different low capacity
connections to BTSs.
4. Mobile Station:
- MS has all user equipment and software needed for mobile communication.
- MS has user independent hardware and software.
- Subscriber Identity Module(SIM)
Stores all user specific data.
- International Mobile Equipment Identity:
Mobile station can be identified with IMEI.
- Constituents of Simcard:
(i) Has identifiers and tables.
(ii) Personal identity number (PIN)
(iii) PIN unblocking key(PUK)
 (iv) Authentication key ki.
(v) International mobile subscriber Identity (IMSI)
- Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity:
The current location of the MS is found using TMSI.
- Location Area Identification: (LAI)
With the TMSI and LAI the current location can be identified.
Network and Switching Subsystem:
- This subsystem is the heart of GSM.
- Functions:
(1) Connects wireless network with standard public network.
(2) Performs handover between different BSS.
(3) Localization
(4) Charging, accounting and roaming of users.
- Components:
The NSS contains the following switches and databases.
(i) Mobile Services Switching Center (MSSC)
 They are digital ISDN switches.
 Establish connections with other MSC and BSC via A interface.
 Gateway MSC connects to fixed networks
 With Internet Working Functions, MSC can connect to public data Network PDN.
 Handles all signaling needed for connection setup, connection release and handover.
(ii) Home Location Register HLR:
 Important data base.
 Stores user relevant information.
 Has static information and dynamic information.
Static Information:
 Mobile subscriber ISDN number.
 Subscribed services for that number.
 International mobile subscriber identity.
Dynamic Information:
 Current Location Area(LA) of MS.
 Mobile subscriber roaming number(MSRN).
 VLR, MSC.
 When MS leaves the current LA, the information is updated in HLR.
 Usage the information is to located the user.
(iii) Visitor Location Resister:
 VLR is associated to each MSC.
  Dynamic data base.
 Stores all the information needed for the MS currently in LA>
 If new MS comes to LA, the VLR is responsible/copies the info needed form HLR.
Operation Subsystem
 This subsystem contains the functions needed for network operation and maintenance.
 The network entities present are
(1) Operation Maintenance Center:
The OMS monitors and controls all other network entities via 0 interfaces.
Functions
(i) Traffic monitoring.
(ii) Status reporting of network entities.
(iii) Security management.
- OMC uses the concept of telecommunication management and network.
(2) Authentication Center:
 The radio interface is vulnerable to attacks.
 AUC is to protect the user identity and data transmission.
 AUC has the algorithm for authentication, encryption.
(3) Equipment Identity Register:
 Stores the device identification.
 EIR has a data base of stolen devices.
 As the mobile stations can be stolen, this ERI is used to trace the MS.
Radio Interface:
 This interface is the interesting interface.
 This is interesting because it does multiplexing and media access.
 Media access is TDMA and FDMA.
 In GSM 900, 124 channels each 200kHz wide are used for FDMA.
 Of 124 channels 32 is reserved for organizational data and 90 for customers.
 Burst: Data is transmitted in small portion called bursts.
 The guard space is used to avoid overlapping with other bursts due to different delays.
 The TDMA frame:
Types of Bursts:
(1) Frequency Correction Burst: This allows the MS correct the local oscillator to avoid
interference with neighbouring channel.
(2) Synchronization Burst: This allows the synchronization of MS with BTS in time.
(3) Access Burst: This is used for initial connection setup.
(4) Dummy Burst: This is used when no data is available for the slot.
Logical Channels and Frame Hierarchy:
- GSM specifies two groups of logical channels.
(i) Traffic Channels
(ii) Control Channels
Traffic Channels (TCH)
- GSM uses this Traffic Channel to transmit user data.
- Two types of TCH are there
(i) Full-rate TCH (TCH/F) – data rate = 22.8 kBPs
(ii) Half-rate TCH (TCH/H) – data rate = 11.4 kBPs
 Speech quality decreases when TCH/H is used.
 The standard codec are used.
 The voice codecs used 13kBPs, remaining used for error correction of 22.8kBPs.
 To improve the above TFO mode is used. TFO stands for Tandem Free Operation.
 The TFD mode is used to exchange voice data between two MS.
Control Channels
- Many control channels are used to control the medium access, allocate traffic channels,
mobility management.
- Three control channels are available.
(i) Broadcast Control Channel:
- This channel is used to broadcast information to all the MS with in a cell.
- Information transmitted are
e.g. Callid, options for the cell etc.
- The subchannels are
(a) FCCH: Frequency Correction Channel.
- This channel is used for sending information about frequency correction
(b) SCH: Synchronization Channel.
- This channel is used for sending information about time synchronization.
(ii) Common Control Channel: CCCH
- This channel is used for transmitting information related to establishment of a channel between
MS and BS.
Subchannels are
(a) Paging Channel:
When there is a call to the MS, the BTS uses paging channel for paging the correct MS.
(b) Random Access Channel: (RACH)
If the MS wants to setup a call this channel is used to send data to BTS.
(c) Access Great Channel: AGCH
This channel is used to signal an MS that it can use the TCH or SDCCH for further connection
setup.
(ii) Dedicated Control Channel: DCCH
- This channel is alone bi-directional.
- This channel is used to send control related information.

Subchannels
(a) Stand alone dedicated control channel: SDCCH
- Until the MS has not established a TCH with BTS the SDCCH is used for low data rate for
signaling.
(b) Slow associated dedicated control channel: SACCH
- Each TCH and SDCCH has SACCH
- This is used to exchange system information.
(c) Fax associated dedicated control channel: FACCH
- When more signaling information needs to be transmitted this channel is used.
- This channel uses time slots.
 PROTOCOLS:

- The layers are

Physical Layer:
- The physical layer handles all radio specific functions.
Functions:
(1) Creation of burst in any one of 5 format.
(2) Multiplexing burst into a TDMA frame.
(3) Synchronization with BTS.
(4) Detection of idle channel.
(5) Channel quality measurement.
(6) Channel coding and Error detection and correction.
Layer 2:
 For signaling between entities in a GSM network this layer is used.
 The protocol used in LAPDM.
 LAPD stands for link access procedure for D channel.
 LAPDM has no buffers has to follow Um interface patterns.
 Functions are
(1) Reliable data transfer,
(2) Resequencing of data,
(3) Flow control.
Layer 3: Network Layer:
The Network layer has sub layers.
They are
(i) Radio Resource Management:
 This is the lowest sub layer.
  A part of RR is RR’ is implemented in BTS, remaining is implemented by BSC.
 Function of RR
(1) Setup
(2) Maintenance
(3) Release of Radio Channels.
 RR directly access the physical layer.
 The function of RR’ are supported by the BSC via this BTSM.
(ii) Mobility Management:
Functions:
(1) Registration
(2) Authentication
(3) Identification
(4) Location updating
(5) Providing TMSI, IMSI.

Layer 4: Call Management.

This layer contains 3 entities.
(1) Call control
(2) SMS
(3) Supplementary services.
Call Control:
Provides point to point connection between two terminals.
Used for call clearance, change of call parameters.
Short Message Services:
Allows message transfer using control channels.
Supplementary Services:
The supplementary services discussed already is to be reproduce, here.
Functions:
To send in band tone called dual tone multiple frequencies over GSM.
Localization and Calling:
 The important feature of GSM is worldwide localization of users.
 The system always knows where the user is currently and the same phone number valid
world wide.
 To provide this service the GSM periodically updates even if the user does not use the
mobile station.
 The HLR contains the information about the current location.
  The VLR is responsible to inform the HLR about the location change.
 The Roaming can take place within inter-provider or intra-provider.
 For the localization of the MS the following numbers are needed.
(1) Mobile Station International ISDN Number.
(2) International Mobile Subscriber Identity.
(3) Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity.(TMSI)
Mobile Station Roaming Number:
 This is another temporary address.
 This is used to hide identity and location of a subscriber.
 The VLR generates this address on request from MSC and the address is stored in HLR.
 MSRN contains current visitor country code and visitor national destination code.
 This is used to help the HLR to find a subscriber for an incoming call.
Mobile Terminated Case:
 Here the end receiver is a mobile station.
 The steps needed to establish a call is as follows:
1. The user dials a GSM subscriber phone number.
2. The PSTN identifies that the number dialed number belongs to GSM network and forwards the
call to Gateway MSC.
3. The gateway MSC identifies the HLR of the subscriber and signals the call setup to the HLR.
4. The HLR checks whether the number exists and the services are permitted services and
requests MSRN from the current VLR.
5. The HLR receives the MSRN.
6. The HLR determines the MSC responsible for the MS and forwards the information to the
GMSC.
7. The GMSC forwards the call setup request to the MSC indicated.
8. The MSC is responsible for the steps from here after.
9. The MSC requests the VLR to provide the current status of the MS. The MSC Responds the
request.
10. If the MS is available the MSC initiates paging in all cells responsible for.
11. The BTS of all the BSS transmit the paging signal.
12. If the MS answers the VLR performs security check.
13. The MSC response is transmitted to VLR.
14. The VLR asks the MSC to setup a connection to communicate.
Mobile Originated Call:

1. The MS transmits a request for a connection.

2. The BSS forwards the request to MSC.
3. The MSC checks if the user is allowed to setup a call with the requested service and checks the
availability of resources.
 If all the resources are available MSC sets up a connection between MS and fixed .

Handover:
- Handover means handling over the mobile from one cell to another cell.
- Two reasons for handover
(i) When a mobile station moves out of the range of BTS the signal level decreases
continuously and falls below the minimal requirements for communication.
(ii) The traffic in one cell is too high , shifting of some MS to other cells with is lower load.
This is called as load balancing.

Types of Handover in GSM:

(1) Intra cell handover:
- With in a cell, narrow band interference can cause transmission at a certain frequency
impossible.
- The BSC decides to change the carrier frequency.
(2) Inter cell, Intra BSC handover:
- The mobile station moves from one cell to another but remains with in the same BSC.
- The BSC performs a handover, assigns a new radio channel in the new cell and releases the old
one.
(3) Inter BSC, Intra MSC handover:
- The BSC controls only limited cells.
- Handover needs to be done between different BSC.
- This is controlled by MSC.
(4) Inter MSC handover:
- A handover is needed between 2 cells which belong to difference MSC.
- Both MSC performs the handover together.

Message involved when Intra MSC handover takes place:

- The MS sends the measurement report to the BTS.
- The BTSold forwards to BSCold.
- Based on these values, the BSCold may decide to perform a handover and sends HO- Request
to MSC.
- The MSC has the HO-Request, transmits to BSCnew.
- This BSCnew checks if the necessary resources requested can be allocated.
- If yes then activates the physical channel at BTSnew to prepare for the arrival of MS.
- MSC issues handover command which is forwarded to MS.
- The MS access the new BTS.
- The link is established between BTSnew and MS.
- Handover is finished and the resource needs to be released at BSCold and BTSold.
- Finally clear complete message is forwarded from BTSold to MSC to release the resources.
Security:
- GSM offers security services with the confidential information stored in AUC and in the SIM.
- The SIM stores the secret data and is protected with PIN.
The Security services offered by GSM are
(i) Access Control and Authentication:
- The authentication of the valid user for the SIM.
- The user needs a PIN to access sim.
- The subscriber authentication is done based on challenge response scheme.
(ii) Confidentiality:
- User related data are encrypted.
- After authentication the BTS and MS apply encryption on to the data.
- Confidentiality exists between MS and BTS only.
- Hence no end to end security.
(iii) Anonymity:
- To provide user anonymity the data is encrypted and transmitted.
- User ID is not transmitted.
- The GSM provides the TMSI which varies at any time is transmitted.
The algorithms to provide security in GSM are
A3 – Authentication
A5 – Encryption
A8 – Generation of Cipher key.
Authentication:
- To use a GSM service the user should be authenticated.
- Authentication is based on SIM.
- SIM stores the Individual Authentication key the user identification IMSI, algorithm for
authentication A3.
- Authentication uses challenge response method.
- The Access Control AC generates a random number RAND as challenge.
- The SIM in the MS answers with SRES (signed response) as response.
- The AUC performs the generation of RAND, SRES, KC for each IMSI and forwards to HLR.
- The current VLR, requests the appropriate values from HLR.
- For authentication VLR sends RAND to SIM.
- The mobile network and SIM perform the A3 algorithm with RAND and Ki.
- The MS sends the SRES generated by the SIM to VLR.
- The VLR compares the both. If same subscriber is accepted else rejected.
Encryption:
- To have privacy all the user related information messages are encrypted.
- After authentication MS and BSS encrypt using Ki.
- Ki is generated using Ki and a random value using A8.
- The Ki is not transmitted. Hence the SIM and the network calculate the Ki
- MS and BTS encrypt and decrypt using A5 and Ki
- Kc is 64 bit length.
 - Encryption is not strong because of 64 bits, 16 bits are always 0 in Kc

UMTS And IMT-2000:

IMT – International Mobile Telecommunications
– 2000 international telecommunication union ITU made a request for proposals for
radio transmission technologies for IMT.
- IMT allowed user mobility, supporting the idea of universal personal
telecommunication UPT.
- The WRC 1992 identified 1885-2025 and 2110-2200 MHz as the frequency
band for IMT-2000 systems.
- The ITU frequency allocated is 1885-2025 for uplink and 2110-2200 for
downlink.
UMTS
UMTS – universal mobile telecommunications service is a third-generation(3G) broadband,
packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, and multimedia at data rates up to 2 megabits per
second(Mbps).
UMTS Releases and Standardization:
UMTS offers a consistent set of services to mobile computer and phone users, no matter where
they are located in the world.
Once UMTS is fuilly available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the
internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities.
Previous cellular telephone systems were mainly circuit-switched, meaning connections were
always dependent on circuit availability. A packet switched connections uses the internet protocol (IP).
UMTS System Architecture:
Simplified UMTS Reference architecture

 the above figure the simplified UMTS reference architecture.

 This is applied to UTRA, 3 GPP 2000
 The UTRA network UTRAN handles cell level mobility and has Radio Network
subsystem(RNS).
Functions of RNS:
1. Channel Ciphering and Deciphering
2. handover control
3. Radio Resource management
 The UTRAN is connected to the user equipment UE via radio interface
Uu which is similar to Um in GSM.
 The UTRAN is connected to core network CN via Iu interface which is
similar to A in GSM.Functions of CN(Core Network)
1. Inter system handover
2. gateways to other network handover
3. location management
UMTS subdivides the simplified arechitecture into domains
They are
i) User Equipment Domain
ii) Infrastructure Domain
iii) Core Network Domain
User Equipment Domain:
 The user equipment Ue domain is assigned to a single user and all the
functions that are needed to accesss the UMTS services.
 The user equipment domain has (a) USIM domain and (b) mobile
equipment domain.
USIM Domain
 the USIM domain contains the SIM for UMTS, performs encryption, authentication,
stores user related data for UMTS.
 USIM belongs to service provider and contains a micro processor for enhanced program
execution.
Mobile equipment domain:
 The end device is in the mobile equipment domain functions of Radio Transmission,.
Interfaces are located in mobile equipment domain.
 Infrastructure Domain:
 this domain is shared among all users and offers UMTS services.
 This domain consists of
Access network Domains:
- This contains the access to network independent functions.
i) Core network Domain:
The core network domain has 3 sub domains with specific tasks.
1. Serving network domain: has all functions currently used by the user for accessing the UMTS
services.
2. Home Network Domain: all functions related to home network of a user is present.
3. Transmit network domain: this domain is used when the serving network cannot directly contact
the home network.
UMTS Radio Interface:
 The difference between UMTS and GSM comes with radio interface(Uu).
 The duplex mechanisms are used from that of GSM and TDD.
 UMTS uses a chipping rate of 3.8 M chips/sec.

UTRA Mode
1. UTRA – FDD (W-CDMA)
2. UTRA – TDD (TD-CDMA).

UTRA-FDD (W-CDMA)
- The FDD mode for UTRA uses wide band CDMA(W-CDMA) with direct
sequence spreading.
- Each frame has got logical amd physical channel and their mapping.
Uplink Channels:
1. Dedicated Physical Data Channel:(DPDCH)
 this channel conveys user/signaling data.
 This spreading facture is between 4 and 256
2. Dedicated physical Control Channel(DPCCH)
 In each Connection layer 1 needs exactly one DPCCH.
 This channel conveys control data for the physical layer only.
 Spreading is constant at 256.
 The pilot is used for channel estimation.
Downlink channel:
Dedicated physical Channel:(DPCH)
- the downlink time multiplexes control data and user data
- Spreading factor is between 4 and 512
- Physical Random Access channel PRACH is used for this.
1. Primary synchronization
2. secondary synchronization
3. identification of the scrambling code

UTRA – TDD (TD-CDMA)

- This mode UTRA-TDD separate up and downlink in time using a
radioframe.
Types of frame
i) Symmetrical
ii) Asymmetrical
Frame Structure:

Fig2.22

UTRAN:

1. Radio network subsystems RNS

RNS is controlled by RNC(Radio Network Control)
2. Node B:
The node B controls several antennas which make a radical via FDD/TDD.
The mobile device UE can be Connected to one or more antenna.
3. User Equipment:
UE is the nodes.
Functions
i) perform signal quality measurement
ii) UE has to co-operate during handover and cellselection.
Functions of RNC:
i) call Admission Control:
ii) Congestion Control
iii) Encryption and Decryption
iv) ATM switching and Multiplexing, protocol conversion
v) Radio Resource Control
 vi) Radio Bearer setup and Release
vii) Code Allocation
viii) Power Control
ix) Handover control and RNS relocation
x) Management

Core Network:
CSD Protocol Stack:
- this used the ATM adaptation layers AAL2 for user data transmission.
- RNC implement the RLC and MAC layer.

PSD Protocol Stack:

- Here more protocols are needed.
- Data transport is performed by lower layer
- All the packets destined for UE are encapsulated using GPRS tunneling
protocol
Handover:
UMTS has 2 classes of handover
1. hard handover:
 switching between different antenna/system is performed at a certain point of time.
 Interfrequency Handover
 Intersystem handover
 Intersegment handover

2. Soft Handover
 here the nodes receive the signals from many stations whereby making the handover
soft.

UE can receive signals from upto three antennas which may belong to different node 3.
- The UE combines the received data.
- RNC combines the data stream received from node B.

Handover Types in UMTS

1. Intra node B, Intra RNC

2. Inter Node B, Intra RNc
3. Inter-RNC
 UNIT-IV
Satellite System:-
History:
 satellite communication began after the second world war. Scientists knew that it was
possible to build rockets that would carry radio transmitters into space.
 In 1945, Arthur C. Clarke published his essay on ‘Extra Terrestrial Relays’.
 Only three years later in 1960 the first reflecting communication satellite ECHO was in
space.
 Offered 240 duplex telephone channels or, alternatively a single TV channel.
 While communication on land always provides the alternative of using wires, this is not
the case for ships worldwide maritime communication.
Applications:
 weather forecasting
 satellites for navigation
 global telephone backbone
 connections for remote or developing areas
 global mobile communication

Classical scenario for satellite systems supporting global mobile communication. Depending on its
type, each satellite can cover a certain area on the earth with the satellite is possible for mobile users
via a mobile user link(MUL) and for the base station controlling the satellite and acting as gateway to
other networks via the gateway link satellite links(ISL).

Basics:
Satellite orbit around the earth. Depending on the application, these orbits can be circular or
elliptical.
 the attractive force Fg of the earth due to gravity equals m.g(R/r)2
  the centrifugal force Fc trying to pull the satellite away equals m-r-w2
The variable have the following meaning:
 m is the mass of the satellite
 R is the radius of earth with R=6,370
 The r is the distance of the satellite to the centre of the earth
 g is the acceleration of gravity with g = 9.81 m/s2
Important parameters in satellite communication are the inclination and elevation angles. The
inclination angle is defined as the angle between the equatorial plane and the described by the satellite
orbit.
The elevation angle is defined as the angle between the center of the satellite beam and the
plane tangential to the earths surface.
A so called footprint can be defined as the area on earth where the signals of the satellite can
be received.

Four different types of orbits can be identified as shown in figure 5.6

 geostationary earth orbit
 medium earth orbit(MEO)
 Low earth orbit(LEO)
 Highly elliptical orbit(HEO)

GEO 173:
Distance = 35,786 km. Example: Inmarsat
Advantages:
1.Can cover any spot on the earth
2.Senders and receivers use fixed antenna positions. Hence no adjusting is needed.
3.Lifetime is about 15 years.
4.Does not need handover due to large footprint.
5.Does not exhibit Doppler shift becauses relative movement is zero.
Disadvantages:
1. Northern od souther regions have problems in receiving due to low elevation above the
latitude of 60s.
2. Transmit power needed is high. Hence cannot be used for low/battery powered devices
3. hogh latency needed.
4. the frequency cannot be reused due to large footprint
5. transferring GEO into orbit is expensive

LEO 174:
- Circulate on a lower orbit
- Duration is 95 to 120 minutes
- High elevation for every spot hence high quality communication link.
- Visible on earth for 10 minutes only.
Classification
1. Little Leo: Has low bandwidth 100 b/s.
2. Big Leo: 1,000 bits/sec
3. Broadband: Some MBPs.
Advantages:
1.Transmission rate 2400 bits/sec
2.Low transmit power(1 W)
3.Delay for Packet delivery is low i.e.,10m,s
4.Smaller footprint hence frequency reuse is possible
5.Higher elevation to polar regions, hence better global coverage.
Disadvantages:
1. Needs many satellites to cover the earth
2. Due to short time visibility with high elevation needs additional mechanism for
landover between satellites.
3. Lifetime is 5 to 8 years.
4. Low latency
5. factors are needed for inter-satellite routing. Example: Global Star, Iridium
MEO:
Positioned between LEO and GEO.
Advantages:
1. as the orbit is 10,000 km. needs a dozen satellite to cover the earth
2. Movement is relatively low
3. Coverage is high, hence few handover.
Disadvantages
1. Due to larger distance delay is 70-80 ms.
2. satellites need high transmit power.
Routing:

Routing on earth is done as usual. Routing on satellite has two alternatives:

Alternate 1:
If the satellites offer ISL then the traffic can be routed between satellites.
One user sends data up to a satellite and the satellite forwards it to another satellite which has
the receiver. Here there is only one uplink and one downlink.
Advantages: Reduces the no. of gateways needed on earth.
Alternate 2:
If the ISL is not offered then the traffic is routed to earth and relayed back to satellite.
The user sends data to a satellite but this satellite does not offer ISL hence forwards the data to
the gateway on earth.
Routing is done as usual on the fixed network.
Now the data is send up to the satellites which forwards to the receiver.
- Needs 2 uplinks and 2 downlinks
Localization:
Localization of users in satellite networks is similar to that of terrestrial cellular networks. One
additional problem arises from the fact that now the ‘base stations’.
A home location register (HLR) stores all static information about a user as well as his or her
current location.
 The last known location of a mobile user is stored in the visitor location register (VLR).
A particularly important register in satellite networks is the satellite user mapping register
(SUMR).

Handover:
There are four types of handover in satellite systems.
1. Intra satellite Handover
The user moves from one spot beam to another spot beam of the same satellite.
2. Intersatellite Handover
When a user leaves the footprint of a satellite(or) when the satellite moves away, this
type of handover takes place. Inter satellite handover takes place if they support ISL.
3. Gateway Hnadover
When the mobile and satellite have contact, but the satellite moves away from the current gateway,
this type of handover takes place.
4. Intersystem Handover
This type of handover takes place between different systems.
Wireless LAN:
WLANs use electromagnetic radio waves to transport data between computers in a Local Area
Network (LAN), without the limitations set by “hard wired network cable or phone wire connection”.
Advantages of WLAN over wired LAN
1. Flexibility
2. planning
3. design
4. robustness
5. cost
Disadvantages:
1. QOS
2. proprietary solution
3. restriction
4. safety and security
IEEE 802.11
Introduction to IEEE 802.11:
The IEEE finalized the initial standard for wireless LANs, IEEE 802.11 in june 1997. this initial
standard specifies a 2.4 GHz operating frequency with data rates of 1 and 2 Mbps.
IEEE802.11a
The 802.11a standard specifies operation in the 5GHz band with data rates up to 54Mb/s.
Advantages:
The standard to 802.11b. higher speed physical layer extension in the 2.4GHz Band.its include
having much higher capacity and less RF interference with other types of devices, and products are just
now becoming available throughout 2002.
System Architecture:
Wireless networks can be of either of 2 basic architectures
1. Infra structure based
2. Ad hoc based
Infrastructure based IEEE 802.11 WLAN

 Portal is a bridge to oter wired network

 Wireless modes are called as station represented as STAi.
 These station are connected to the access point Ap
 The stations and the Ap which are within the same radio coverage is form basic service
set(BSSi)
 The BSS are interconnected via a distribution system
 The distribution system connects several BSS via Ap to form a single network
 This network is called Extended Service Set(ESS)
 This ESS has its own identifier ESSID. The ESSID is the name of the network and is
used to separate different network.
Distribution System:
 The distribution system connects the wireless network via the AP with a portal, by
which other LANs can also be connected.
 The distribution system consists of bridged IEEE LAN, wireless Lines or any other
network. Handles data transfer between AP’s
Function of access Point
1. Support roaming
2. period synchronization with in BSS
3. support power management
4. control medium access
Architecture of Ad hoc based IEEE 802.11 WLAN

IEEE 802.11 allows the ad hoc network between station. This ad hoc network is called as
Independent BSS(IBSS). In the above diagram S1,S2,S3 can communicated with each other but not
with S4 and S5.
Protocol Architecture:
 The above architecture shows wireless LAN connected to Ethernet via bridge.
 IEEE 802.11 covers the physical layer and medium access layer
 The physical layer is subdivided into(PCLP) physical layer convergence protocol and
physical medium dependent(PMD) sub layer.
Function of MAC
1. Medium access
2. fragmentation
3. encryption
Functions of PLCP:
1.Provides a carrier Sense signal called channel assessment(CCA).
2.Provides PHY service access point(SAP) independent of transmission technology.
Functions of PMD:
1.Handles modulation and encoding/decoding of signals
Function MAC management:
1. supports association and reassociation of station to access point.
2. supports roaming
3. Controls authentication, encryption, synchronization of ststion with accompoint.
4. Power management
5. Maintain management information basic MIB
Function of PHY management:
1. Channel Tuning
2. Maintain PHY MIB
Functions of station management:
1.Intracts with both management layers and is responsible for higher layer functions.
Physical layer:
 IEEE 802.11 supports three different physical layer: one layer based on infra red and
two layers based on radio transmission.
 All PHY variants include the provision of the clear channel assessment signal(CCA).
 The PHY layer offers a service access point with 1 or 2 Mbit/s transfer rate to the MAC
layer.
 The remainder of this section presents the three versions of a PHY layer defined in the
standard.
Frequency hopping spread spectrum:
 Synchronization: The PLCP preamble starts with 80 bit synchronization, which is a
010101… bit pattern.
 Start frame delimiter(SFD): the following 16 bits indicate the start of the frame and
provide frame synchronization.
 PLCP_PDU length word(PLW): this first field of the PLCP header indicates the length
of the payload in bytes including the 32 bit CRC at the end of the payload.
 Header error check(HLC): Finally, the PLCP header is protected by a 16 bit checksum
with the standard ITU-T generator polynomial.

Direct sequence spread spectrum:

 Synchronization
 Start frame delimiter
 Signal
 Service
 Length
 Header error check

Infra red:
 The PHY layer, which is based on infra red (IR) transmission, uses near visible light at
850-950 nm.
 The standard does not require a line-of-sight between sender and receiver, but should
also work with diffuse light.
 Proprietry products offer, e.g., up to 4 Mbit/s using diffuse infra red ligt.

Medium Access Control Layer:

 the MAC layer has to fulfill several tasks. First of all, it has to control medium access.
But it can also offer support roaming, authentication, and power conservation.
 The basic services provided by the MAC layer are the mandatory asynchronous data
service.
  The asynchronous service supports broadcast and multi-cast packets, and packet
exchange is based on a ‘best effort’ model, i.e., no delay bounds can be given for
transmission.
 The first two methods are also summarized as distributed coordination function(DCF),
the third method is called point coordination function(PCF).
 The Mac mechanisms are also called distributed foundation wireless medium access
control(DFWMAC).
 Short inter-frame spacing
 PCF inter-frame spacing
 DCF inter-frame spacing

Basic DFWMAC-DCF using CSMA/CA

 The mandatory access mechanism of IEEE 802.11 is based on carrier sense multiple
access with collision avoidance, which is a random access scheme with carrier sense
and collision avoidance through random backoff.
 If the medium is busy, nodes have to wait for the duration of DIFS, entering a
contention phase afterwards. Each node now choose a random backoff time within a
contention window and delays medium access for this rando amount of time.
 The basic CSMA/CA mechanism is not fair, Independent of the overall time a node has
already waited for transmission; each node has the same chances for transmitting data in
the next cycle. To provide fairness, IEEE 802.11 adds a backoff timer.

MAC frames
 Frame control: the first 2 bytes serve purposes. They contain several sub-fields as
explained after the MAC frame.
 Duration/ID: if the field value is less than 32,768, the duration field contains the value
indicating the period of time in which the m,edium is occupied. This field is used for
setting the NAV for the virtual reservation mechanism using RTS/CTS and during
fragmentation.
 Address 1 to 4: the four address fields contain standard IEEE 802 MAC address, as they
are known from other 802.x LANs.
 Sequence control: Due to the acknowledgement mechanism frames may be duplicated.
 Data: the MAC frame may contain arbitary is used to filter duplicates.
 Checksum: Finally, a 32 bit checksum is used to protect the frame as it is common
practice in all 802.x networks.
MAC Management:
 synchronization: functions to support finding a wireless LAN, synchronization of
internal clocks, generation of beacon signals.

Beacon transmission in a 802.11 infrastructure network

Beacon transmission in a 802.11 ad-hoc network

 Power management: functions to control transmitter activity for power conservation,
e.g., periodic sleep, buffering, without missing a frame.
 Power management in IEEE 802.11 infrastructure network
 Roaming: functions for joining a network , changing access points, scanning for access
points.
 Management information base(MIB): all parameters representing the current state of a
wireless station and an access point are stored within a MIB for internal and external
access. A MIB can be accessed via standardized protocols such as the simple network
management protocol(SNMP).

BLUE TOOTH
Introduction:
A study group under IEEE 802.11 discussed wireless personal Area network under the following
criteria for blue tooth.
1. Market potential
What is the market for the available technology?
2. Compatibility
Compatible with IEEE 802
3. Distinct Identity
Topics like low cost ,low power which are not addressed in 802.11 is addressed.
4. Technical Feasibility
Building of Prototypes was considered important.
5. Economic Feasibility
The cost should be shared than the existing ones.
User Scenarios:
1. Connection of peripheral devices
- Now the treads is that the devices are connected to the system without wires.
- They need battery for power supply
2. Support of ad hoc networking
 - To build the network for short duration any plan blue tooth can be used.
- Because small devices may not have WLAN adapters.
- Hence it can be done via blue tooth.
-
3. Bridging of networks
- Using Pico nets a mobile phone can be connected to laptop
- Mobile phones cannot have full WLAN adapters, hence is needs a blue
tooth.

-
Architecture:
Pico net:
A Pico net is a collection of Blue tooth devices
1. One device in the Pico net as a master (M)
2. Other device are connected to a master as slave(s)
3. Each pico net has a unique hopping pattern
4. Two additional types of devices are present in the Pico Net
a. Parked Device: They are the device which can not actively participate in the
Pico Nets but can be reactivated.
b. Stand by device: Device which do not participate are called stand by device.

M=Master
S=Slave
 P=Parked
SB=Standby

Functions of Pico Net:

1. M aster sends its clock and devices ID to all the other nodes as hopping sequence.
2. All the blue tooth devices either master/slave or terminal/base station with the same
hopping sequences from a pi conet.
3. The unit which sends the clock becomes the master and others are slaves
4. The hopping pattern is determined by the device ID which is 48 bit unique identifier world
wide.
5. The phase in the hopping pattern is determined by the master clock.
6. Stand by device do not need address. Thus Pico net formed.
Scatternet:
 Groups of Pico nets are called scatter net. The units which are in need of real data exchange
share the same Pico net.
 Hence many Pico nets with overlapping can exit simultaneously.
 After synchronization it acts a slave in that Pico net
 The remaining devices in the Pico net communicates as usual
 The master can also leave the Pico net and act as a slave in another piconet.

Communication between different Pico nets takes place jumping between the nets.
Radio Layer:
- Radio layer define the carrier frequencies and output power.
- Blue tooth devices will be integrated into mobile devices and rely on battery power
- Blue tooth has to support multimedia data.
Base band Layer:
- Complex layer
- Function: perform frequency hopping for interference mitigation and medium access, defines
physical links and pocket formats.
- Within each slot the master or one of 7 slaves transmit data.
- After transmission the radio returns to the frequency required for hopping because every salve
will not have transmission, and cannot react on multi bit transmission.
- This is needed for synchronization.

The component of a blue tooth packet at base band layer

Link Manager Protocol:

Manages the aspect of radio link between master and slave.
- Function covered by LMP
1. Authentication paring and expansion:
- Basic authentication is handled by base band
- LMP has to control the exchange of random number and signed responses.
- The result is a link key.
2. Synchronization:
- Clock offset is updated each time a packet is received from the master.
- Devices exchange timing information between 2 adjacent Pico nets.
3. Capability Negotiation:
- Version of LMP can be exchanged
- Information about the supported features.
4.Quality of service negotiation:
- Parameters control the QOS are poll interval, latency, transfer capability
- Master can limit the no of slots available for slave.
 UNIT V

MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Mobile IP:
The new version of mobile IP does not involve major changes in the basic architecture but correct
minor problems.
Goals:
A host sends an IP packet with the header containing a destination address with other fields. The
destination address not only determines the receiver of the packet.
Requirements:
Several requirements accompanied the development of the standard:
- Compatibility
- Transparency
- Scalability and efficiency
- Security
Entities and terminology:
The following defines several entitles and terms needed to understand mobile IP as defined.
- Mobile node(MN):
A mobile node is an end-system or router that can change its point of attachment to the
internet using mobile IP
- Correspondent node(CN):
One partner is needed for communication.
- Home Network:
The home network is the subnet the MN belongs to with respect to IP address.
- Foreign network.
- Foreign agent(FA)
- Care-of-address(COA)
- Home agent(HA)
IP Packet delivery:
 o The above diagram illustrates packet delivery and from the MN using the example
network.
o A correspondent node CN wants to send an IP packet to the MN.
o CN does not need to know anything about the MN’s current location and sends the
packet as usual to the IP address.
Discovery
In this phase, the mobile node finds that it is in a foreign network and searches for a foreign
agent. This can be done in two ways by agent Advertisements and agent solicitation.

Agent Advertisement
Agent advertisements are used to discover the home and foreign agents while moving from one
network area to network. The process is similar as when the internet nodes detect routers by ICMP
router discovery protocol (RFC 1256). Therefore the same RFC 1256 is used for agent discovery
with the support of mobility by attaching special extensions to ICMP messages. The Home Agent
and Foreign Agent periodically send a router advertisement ICMP messages in the form of beacon
frames. In this way they show their willingness to act as Mobile IP routers.

When the mobile node receives the advertisement; it compares the network part of the agent’s
IP address with the network part of its own IP address (Home address). A mismatch in network parts
indicates that mobile node is in a foreign network. The foreign agent provides foreign- agent
care-of-address through agent advertisement which is the address of foreign agent itself. Many nodes
can share the same care-of-address which reduces demand of already scarce IPv4 addresses and also
IPv6 addresses looking at the sprawl of mobile computing devices. It also reduces bandwidth
because foreign agent is end of the tunnel therefore messages from foreign agent to mobile node are
not encapsulated.

The following Extensions are applied to ICMP router Advertisement and are shown in Figure 1

Original ICMP Packet

…
type =16 length Sequence number
registration R B H F M G r T reserved
lifetime
COA 1
COA 2
…
Figure 1: Agent Advertisement Packet with Mobility
Extension

Mobile-IP extension
1) Type = 16
2) Length = number of COA provided with the message. It is equal to 6+4*(no. of
addresses)
 3) Registration lifetime = maximum lifetime specified by the agent in seconds which
the node can request during registration.
4) Sequence No. = total no. of advertisements sent during initialization.
5) The flags after registration lifetime explain the features of advertisement. They are
described as:
R-bit: registration with this agent is required even when the mobile node uses a co- located
COA.
B-bit: The Foreign agent is busy to take any registrations
H-bit: Agentis home agent
F-bit: Agent is foreign agent
M-bit: Minimal encapsulation is used for encapsulation
G-bit: Generic routing encapsulation is used
r-bit: was initially set to V in first version of mobile IP (RFC 2002) suggested use of header
compression and should be ignored.
T-bit: reverse tunneling.
The fields following the flags lists the COAs advertised.
The foreign agent should advertise at least one CoA. Home agents do not broadcast care-of-
addresses but they still broadcast mobility agent advertisements which the mobile node knows when
they return to their home network.

Agent Solicitation

The mobile node can also broadcast an agent solicitation based on RFC 1256 for router
solicitations. It will be answered by the foreign agent. A mobile node can search the foreign
agent using agent solicitation. To avoid flooding of the network, three solicitations are sent per
second as it enters a new network. This gap can be large for dynamic networks with moving
mobile nodes or the app’s which require continuous packet stream. If a node does not get reply for
agent solicitation, it decreases the rate of solicitations to avoid flooding of network.

If the mobile node moves to a network that has no foreign agents or all the agents are busy it can
acquire a temporary address through DHCP (RFC 2131) .The mobile node acts as its own foreign
agent and the address obtained as known as co-located care-of-address.

Registration

Once the care-of-address is achieved through the two steps describe as above the mobile node
registers it with its Home agent and informs about the current location where the packets
intended for it can be forwarded. The mobile node sends a registration request to the Home Agent
with its Care-of–address information. The Home Agent receives this request and accepts or reject it
andaccordingly sends a registration reply back to the mobile node. The process of registration
request depends on the location of COA.
It involves four steps
a. The Mobile node sends a registration request to foreign agent and at
the same time requests for forwarding services.
b. FA forwards the registration request to the Home agent of that mobile
node.
c. HA either accepts or rejects the request and sends a registration reply to the
FA.
d. FA relays this reply to the mobile node.

Duringthe registration process, the Home agent maintains mobile binding containing
the Home address, Care-of-address and registration lifetime. This is called binding of
the mobile node. Registration lifetime is negotiated during registration process
and represents validity of registration in seconds. It cannot be greater than
provided with agent advertisement. The registration is valid till that period and is
automatically deleted after the lifetime expires. The MN registers again before the
binding period expires when it moves to another foreign network or when it returns to
the Home network. This prevents mobility bindings of the nodes which are no longer
used.

The registration can be unsuccessful if there are too many tunnels at HA and it cannot
handle more requests or when there is authentication failure or HA is not reachable
to FA.
UDP packets used for the registration requests and reply. UDP header for registration
request contains the following fields

0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type 1 S B D M G R T x lifetime
home
address
home agent
COA
Identification
extensions …
Figure 4: Registration request format

 Type = 1 for registration request

 8 bits per flag as follows
• S bit is set if MN wants previous mobility bindings to be
retained hence permitting simultaneous binding.
• B bit is set if MN wishes to receive broadcast messages which the
HA receives in Home network.
• D bit indicates that MN uses co-located address hence take part

74
 in tunnels decapsulation at the end point.
• M bit indicates that the mode of encapsulation is minimal
encapsulation.
• G bit indicates generic routing encapsulation.
• T bit indicates reverse tunneling from the FA
• r & x are set to zero
• Life time = validity of registration in seconds. A zero indicates the
deregistration and all the bits set to one indicates infinite time.
 Remaining fields are
• Source address of packet which is interface address of MN.
• Destination address is that of FA or HA depending on type of COA.
• COA of the MN at the new agent.
• Identification which is generated by mobile node to uniquely
identify a request and match it with registration reply. This field
protects against replay attacks of registrations.
• Extensions contain parameter for authentication.

Registration message between mobile node and home agent should be

authenticated to prevent any malicious node to disrupt the traffic between mobile
node and foreign agent using bogus care-of-address. Using 128-bit secret key and
HMAC-MD5 hashing algorithm, a digital signature is generated. Each mobile node
and home agent shares a common secret which makes digital signature unique and
allows the agent to authenticate the mobile node.

Registration Reply:

0 7 8 15 16 31
type = 3 code lifetime
Home address
Home agent
COA
Identification
extensions …
Figure 5: Registration reply format

Tunneling and encapsulation:

 A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packet between a tunnel
endpoint.

75
  Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet
header and data and putting it into the data part of new packet.
 The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the data part of another
packet called decapsulation.
Dynamic host configuration protocol
 The dynamic host configuration protocol is mainly used to simplify the
installation and maintenance of networked computers.
 DNCP is based on a client/server model as shown in diagram.
 DNCP clients sends a request to a server to which the server responds.
 A client sends requests using MAC broadcasts to reach all devices in the
LAN.
 DNCP relay might be needed to forward requests across inter-working units
to a DHCP server.

DCHP is good candidate for supporting the acquisition of care-of-address for

mobile nodes.

76
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
An IP address can be defined as a unique numeric identifier (address) that is
assigned to each computer operating in a TCP/IP based network. Manually
configuring computers with IP addresses and other TCP/IP configuration parameters
is not an intricate task. However, manually configuring thousands of workstations
with unique IP addresses would be a time consuming, and cumbersome experience.
When you manually assign IP addresses, you increase the risk of duplicating IP
address assignments, configuring the incorrectsubnet masks, and incorrectly
configuring other TCP/IP configuration parameters.
This is where the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) becomes
important. The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a service that does the
above mentioned tasks for administrators, thereby saving simplifying the administration
of IP addressing in TCP/IP based networks. TCP/IP configuration was basically a
manual process before the DHCP protocol was introduced. One of the main
disadvantages of manually assigning IP addresses to hundreds of computers is that it
could result in the assigned IP addresses not being unique.
In a TCP/IP based network, to uniquely identify computers on the network, each
computer must have a unique IP address. To communicate on the Internet and private
TCP/IP network, all hosts defined on the network must have IP addresses. The 32-bit IP
address identifies a particular host on the network.
circumstances:
DHCP server, you assign that computer a static IP address.
When you configure computers as important network servers such
as domain controllers, or DNS servers; you manually assign the IP
address to these computers.
DHCP functions at the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack. One of
the primary tasks of the protocol is to automatically assign IP addresses to DHCP
clients. A server running the DHCP service is called a DHCP server. The DHCP
protocol automates the configuration of TCP/IP clients because IP addressing occurs
through the system. You can configure a server as a DHCP server so that the DHCP
server can automatically assign IP

77
 Addresses to DHCP clients, and with no manual intervention. IP addresses that
are assigned via a DHCP server are regarded as dynamically assigned IP addresses. The
DHCP server assigns IP addresses from a predetermined IP address range(s), called a
scope. The functions of the DHCP server are outlined below:
 Dynamically assign IP addresses to DHCP clients.
 Allocate the following TCP/IP configuration
information to DHCP clients: o Subnet mask
information.
Default gateway IP addresses.
Domain Name System (DNS) IP addresses.
Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) IP addresses.
You can increase the availability of DHCP servers by using the 80/20 Rule if you
have two
DHCP servers located on different subnets.
The 80/20 Rule is applied as follows:

Allocate 80 percent of the IP addresses to the DHCP server

which resides on the local subnet.
Allocate 20 percent of the IP addresses to the DHCP Server on the
remote subnet.
If the DHCP server that is allocated with 80 percent of the IP addresses has a failure,
the remote DHCP server would resume assigning the DHCP clients with IP
addresses.

Because the DHCP service is a very important service in a TCP/IP based

network, the following implementations are strongly recommended.

Small networks should have at least one DHCP server.

Large networks should have multiple
implementations of DHCP servers. This
implementation configuration enables the following
benefits:
o Fault tolerance is provided.
o The address space can be split.

78
 The framework for the DHCP protocol is defined in RFC 2131. The DHCP
protocol stems from the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) protocol. BOOTP enables clients
to boot up from the network instead of booting up from the hard drive.
The DHCP server has a predefined pool of IP addresses, from which it allocates
IP addresses to DHCP clients. During the boot process, DHCP clients request IP
addresses, and obtain leases for IP addresses from the DHCP server.
When the DHCP client boots on the network, a negotiation process called the
DHCP lease process occurs between the DHCP server and client. The negotiation
process comprises of four messages, sent between the DHCP server and the DHCP
client.

Two messages from the client.

Two messages from the DHCP server.

Mobile ad-hoc networks

The ad-hoc setting up of a connection with an infrastructure is not the main issue.
These networks should be mobile and use wireless communications. Examples for the
use of such mobile, wireless, multi-hop ad-hoc networks, for simplicity are:
- Instant infrastructure
- Disaster relief
- Remote areas
- Effectiveness

Routing:
In wireless networks using an infrastructure , ells have been defined. Within a cell,
the base station can reach all mobile nodes without routing.
The very simple example already shows some fundamental differences between
wired networks and ad-hoc wireless networks related to routing.

- Asymmetric links
- Redundant links

79
 - Interference
- Dynamic topology
Ad-hoc networks using mobile nodes face additional problems due to hardware
limitations. using the standard routing protocols with periodic updates wastes battery
power without sending any user and disables sleep modes.
Destination sequence distance vector:
- Destination sequence distance vector(DSDV) routing is an enhancement to
distance vector routing .
- DSDV can be considered historically is among the protocols currently.
- Distance vector routing is used as routing information protocol(RIP) in wired
networks.
- DSDV now adds two things to the distance vector algorithm.
- Sequence numbers
- Damping
Dynamic source routing:
Dynamic source routing(DSR) divides the task of routing into separate problems
- Route discovery
- Route maintenance
The basic principle of source routing is also used in fixed networks. Dynamic
source routing eliminates all periodic routing updates and work.
The basic algorithm for route discovery can be optimized in many ways.
- A node can cache path fragments from recent requests.
- A node can also update this cache from packet herders forwarding other packets.
- A node could request an explicit acknowledgement
Mobile transport layer
Traditional TCP:
Several mechanisms of the transmission control protocol that influence the
efficiency of TCP in am mobile environment.
Congestion control:
A transport layer such as TCP has been designed for fixed networks with fixed
end-systems.

80
 Congestion may appear from time to time even in carefully designed networks.
Slow start:
- The behavior TCP shows after the detection of congestion is called slow start.
- The sender always calculates a congestion window for a receiver.
Fast Retransmit:
 The sender can continue with the current congestion window. The sender
performs a fast recovery from the packet loss.
 The other reason for activating slow start is a time-out due to a missing
acknowledgement.
 TCP using fast retransmit /fast recovery interprets this congestion in the
network and activities the slow start mechanism.

81
GLOSSARY:

1. What is mobile computing?

Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and
video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be
connected to a fixed physical link. The main concept involves −

 Mobile communication
 Mobile hardware
 Mobile software

2. What are two kinds of mobility?

User mobility
Device portability
3.

82