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Introduction to Political Science
Lecture 10
Political Life (2)
Interest Groups
As previously mentioned , political life in liberal
democracies , englobes all political activities , whether of
individuals , formal political institutions , as well as
informal political organizations . Being a very important
type of actors among informal organizations , Interest ( or
Pressure ) Groups play influential roles in democratic
societies , where they are able to influence governing bodies
, and thus shaping political decisions and formulating public
policies .
Definition :
- Interest (or Pressure) Groups are informal
organizations which attempt to influence governmental
bodies , or political decision-making process , without
seeking to become part of the government.
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- Interest Groups are political associations formed to
promote a sectoral interest in the political system.
- An interest group is an organization of citizens
sharing certain private goals (or a sectoral interest ) and
agree to influence public policymaking process to achieve
these goals.
- An interest group is a political organization
established to influence political decisions ( legislation or
executive decisions and policies) in a specific area of policy
.
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Some Academics distinguish between “Interest Groups
“and” “Pressure Groups”, and they see that the term
“pressure groups” is referring to a broader category, and
consequently they subdivide pressure groups into two
subgroups:
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(1) Interest Groups (*):
Which are composed of members sharing some
common interests or common objectives of the group
members, like:Labour Unions , Trade Unions, Syndicates ,
Student Unions , Professional Associations ….. etc.
(2) Attitude Groups :
Which are composed of members holding certain
common values, or sharing the same attitudes, which they
are trying to promote, irrespective of their background,
such as Environmentalists who fight to minimize
ecological damage, or those defending human rights, or
those against cruelty to animals.
Distinction between “Political Parties” and “Pressure
Groups”:
It may seem that interest groups resemble political
parties. But interest groups leaders or members are not
necessarily seeking to invade political positions , or to
(*) Known also as protective groups as they aim to protect certain private or sectoral
interests of their members.
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become members of governing bodies , and are not
elected by the general public , nor are they answerable to
the people for their decisions . In spite of that Pressure
groups sometimes may contest elections to gain
representation in the parliament and so are , in such cases
, similar to political parties.
Besides, we can say that while political parties are
seeking public goals, or the interest of the whole society,
pressure or interest groups are seeking private or
sectoral interests.
Pressure Groups and Political Life:
Pressure Groups represent an important element or
actor in the political life of every liberal and democratic
society. Even in countries where social, economic and
political life is dominated by governmental institutions,
interest groups exist, though in muted form. Observers
detected interest groups even in the former Soviet Union
during the conservative Brezhnev years, quarreling , for
example , over whether heavy or light industry will be
emphasized in economic plans.
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Some pressure groups work directly through
executive agencies, whereas others work through the
legislative sector, or even through public opinion.
In modern technological societies , life is maintained by
a multitude of different industries. Besides , there are
differences in the cultural, economic, ethnic and religious
backgrounds of people. These varied categories of people
and enterprises represent the raw material of interest groups.
Pressure Groups are certainly not a new phenomenon
in political life , but the academic recognition of pressure
groups is more recent. The first systematic study of
Pressure Groups was in Arthur Bentley’s “The Process of
Government”, published in 1908 , but widespread academic
interest really dates from the 1940’s , when political science
began to adopt the concept of “power” as its basic concept.
Now the study of pressure groups has been incorporated into
wider analyses of the distribution of power within the
political system.
Because of its highly developed pressure system, the
United States is often defined as a “pluralist democracy”
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in which a multiplicity of interest groups, all pushing their
own claims and viewpoints , creates a balance of opposing
interests that prevents any one group from dominating
the political system.
In this optimistic view, government policy is seen as the
outcome of competition among many groups, which
represent the varied interests of the people.
But in contrast to the previous point of view, other
observers have noted that the members of these groups tend
to be drawn overwhelmingly from the middle and upper
classes, and that group activities are dominated by business
– related interests. The mere fact of competition among rival
interest groups does not guarantee a democratic system
working for the public good. Middle and upper class
interests are disproportionately represented in
comparison to the lower classes, which have relatively
little voice.
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Channels of Access:
How are interests communicated to political decision-
makers?
What are the channels through which this process takes
place?
There are three main mechanisms of interest group
influence found in consolidated democracies, these are:
(1) Direct dealings with Government :
Most interest groups activity, addressing government,
focuses on the bureaucracy, legislatures, Executive
institutions.
(2) Indirect Influence through political parties:
Because both political parties and interest groups are
devices through which society seeks to influence the
government, there is , in practice , overlap between them.
For example, Britain’s labour movement historically
regarded trade unions and Labor Party as two wings of a
single campaign promoting working-class interests.
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Environmental groups in many countries support green
parties.
(3) Indirect Influence through Public Opinion and Mass
Media :
Press, radio and television provide an additional
resource for interest groups. Messages through the Media
address a popular audience (public opinion) rather than
decision-makers. Thus, the media are a central focus for
promotional groups seeking to steer public opinion.
Traditionally, the media are less important to protective
groups, seeking selective benefits for their members with
their more specialized and secretive demands, while
promotional groups view the media as sympathetic to
their cause.
Determinants of Pressure Groups Methods:
Methods used in liberal democracies by pressure
groups to realize their aims vary according to:
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(1) The political institutional structure:
The Institutional structure affects the activities of
pressure groups in various ways. For example, Britain has
a unitary system of government with a concentration of
political power at the centre , and in the hands of a
relatively strong executive, and therefore pressure groups
will deservedly regard their efforts as more successful, if
they gain access to ministers and their civil servants than if
they are only able to influence members of parliament.
America has a bicameral legislature in which the Senate
and the House of Representatives are of roughly equal
importance, and with the separation of powers, pressure
groups can aim at playing off one against the other.
The constitutional amendments brought about in
France by the fifth republic in 1958 and 1962 have tended
to shift the attention of the Pressure groups from the
National Assembly to the Administration.
Federalism provides another interesting example of
the effects of different political structures on pressure group
activity. American pressure groups can operate at State
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level to defeat rivals on the federal level , or concentrate at
federal level to win concessions denied to them in the
States.
(2) Relations between pressure groups and political
parties:
The Roman Catholic Church provides an example of
these ties between political parties and pressure groups.
The Church has had close links with the strong Christian
Democratic Parties in Germany and Italy.
(3) The Nature of Party System
The type of party system and the ideology of the parties
have significant effects on pressure group activity.
American congressmen, given the weakness of party
structure, lack of party discipline and the absence of
strong ideological differences between parties, are easier
targets for pressure groups, especially if those groups are
based on the legislator’s own constituency. Congressmen are
very sensitive to local pressures.
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(4) Political Culture:
American political attitudes show a greater political
tolerance for pressure groups than in the case of European
liberal democracies. Direct action and resort to violence may
be more common in some political cultures. French farmers
have a well established reputation for blocking roads to
support their demand against the government. The activities
of the French students and trade unionists during the political
troubles of May 1968 provide further examples of French
attitudes.
(5) The Nature of the issue:
The right issue can mobilize millions , enhance group
cohesion and commitment , and boost donations.
(6) The Nature of the Group itself:
The aims of the group will affect how the group
attempts to realize those aims. Groups with aims hostile to
the political system cannot hope to exert influence on the
administration and legislature in the way legitimized
business groups would do.
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A group that loses faith in the efficacy of political
channels and legitimate modes of action often sees violent
protest as its only alternative.
Interest group with fewer overt powers of sanction and
persuasion often resort to such direct actions as mass rallies,
marches, demonstrations and civil disobedience.
There are other aspects of the group itself that will
affect its methods, among these: group organization,
whether it has a large and permanent bureaucracy , what
type of leadership the group enjoys, the degree of internal
democracy, the size of its membership, the degree of
commitment of its members, the groups strength which
depends on the richness and the socioeconomic status and
influence of its members. The biggest and fastest growing
U.S. interest group is the American Association of
Retired Persons, now claiming 33 million members . “
When AARP speaks, Congress trembles”. The
socioeconomic status of American Jews boosted the
impact of the American – Israeli Public Affairs Committee
(AIPAC) and other Jewish groups.
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This means, paradoxically and unfairly, that
disadvantaged groups with the biggest grievances are among
the least likely to be listened to.
Lobbies and Lobbying:
A “Lobbyist” is a person who is paid to influence a
governing body in order to ensure that an individual’s or
organization’s point of view is taken into consideration, or
that its interest is guaranteed and safeguarded. A more
tactful description might be said to be “ someone who is
engaged in public Affairs “.
Most pressure groups hire professional lobbyists to
promote their interests as intermediaries. Thus lobbying
organizations are technicians of influence, helping interest
groups to achieve their objectives . The word “Lobby” is a
term derived from the hall of Britain’s House of
Commons , where people could, and indeed still do,
approach members of parliament to plead their causes.
Lobbying in many countries is a regulated activity, with
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limits placed on how it is conducted, in an attempt to
prevent political corruption.
Interest Groups and Money:
Money is probably the single most important factor in
interest group success. Money is especially important for
elections, and groups try to secure the victory of
candidates or to favor their causes . Most democracies
have recognized the danger in too close a connection
between interests and candidates, the danger that we will
have “the best Parliament money can buy”. Some
democracies , such as Germany and Sweden, provide for
almost complete public financing of major parties in
national elections. Spain, which rejoined the democracies
in 1977 , subsidizes parties, after the elections, according
to how many votes they received and parliamentary seats
they won .
The United States has been reluctant to go to public
financing of campaigns due to the strong emphasis on
freedom, as well as to the much longer and more expensive
electoral campaigns is U.S compared to other democracies
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due to the weak, decentralized parties and nominating
process. In spite of that, and due to the rising influence of
political actions committees (PAC’s) , the Congress,
through the 1971 legislation, sharply limited the amount of
money that individuals and corporations could contribute
directly to candidates . Every pressure group has to
declare the amounts of money , it has received , and how
they have used it , in an effort to curb the influence of
“big money” in politics.
