Mekdela Amba University

Course name: Principles of Taxonomy

Course code: Biol4022
Course credit: Two lecture hours/week
Target group: Year IV, semester II Biology students
Course status: Compulsory

October 2017E.C/ 2024G.C

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics)
Gimba, Ethiopia
1
 Objectives of the course
Course learning outcomes: Up on successful completion of this course, you will be able to:

 Describe the meaning and etymology of taxonomy.

 Explain early attempts of classifying organisms.

 Describe the modern views of classifying organisms.

 Explain domains of life and hierarchical system of classification.

 Describe the concepts of kingdom.

 Describe binomial nomenclature and its principle.

 Explain different codes of binomial nomenclature.

 Describe the operative principles of nomenclature.

 Explain authorities and their citation mechanisms.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 2
 Introduction
• The word taxonomy derived from two Ancient Greek terms (taxis) “arrangement” and
(nomia) “method”).
• This science study on naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological
organisms based on shared characteristics in terms of its relationship to identification.

• Classification & nomenclature of taxa including its basic principles, rules & procedures.

• It is probably the oldest science where the ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle began the
discussion with taxonomy.

• E.g. Plants classified as poisonous and edible.

• Moreover, taxonomy is a very dynamic, synthetic and basic science to all other sciences.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 3

 What is the science of grouping and naming organisms called?
• TAXONOMY
Who created Taxonomy?
• Aristotle was the first scientist to group organisms based on physical
characteristics.

• Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) a Swedish botanist , came up with the current

system.

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Taxonomy and its scope
• The meaning of taxonomy in Greek: rendering of order and systematics mean to put
together.
• According Lam (1959) and Turril (1964) these two terms are synonyms.

• Taxonomy= ‘Taxis’+’Nomous’ from two Greek words

• Taxis means Arrangement

• Nomous means Law or Rule

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 The term Taxonomy was originally coined by AP de Candolle in 1813.

 Taxonomy is a major part of systematics that includes four components:

 Description, Identification, Nomenclature and Classification (mnemonic device:

DINC); whereas systematics means the study of the diversity, history of organisms
and evolutionary relationships of organisms between.

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 In fact the term systematics includes taxonomy and phylogeny, i.e. description,
identification, nomenclature, classification and gradual development of organisms &
evolutionary process.

• Science of classification of organisms

• Hopes to show relationships among organisms

• It provides universal identification of an organism

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1.2. Narrow and broad meanings of taxonomy
• Narrow sense is restricted to study of classification of formal living things on the basis
of genetic relationship.
• For example. plants-groups or taxon

• While, broad sense concern on description of variation of organisms, investigation of

causes & consequences of variation, manipulation of data obtained to produce a system
of classification w/h was proposed by Enghoff and Seberg (2006).

According to these authors, taxonomy consists of seven types of activities:

1. Recognition, description and naming of taxa (species, genera, families etc., also

2. Comparison of taxa, including studies of relationship (phylogeny)

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3. Classification of taxa (preferably based on phylogenetic analyses)

4. Study of genetic variation within species

5. Construction of tools for identification (keys, DNA barcodes).

6. Identification of specimens (referring them to taxa, using the tools).

7. Inventories of taxa in specific areas or ecosystems (using the tools for identification)

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 Phases of taxonomy
1. Pioneer: - discovery and collection phase, still continue in the tropics.

2. Consolidation phase: - synthesis phase mostly based on morphology of field and

herbarium preparation of floras and form classification systems.

3. Experimental or biosystematics phase: - analysis of wide variety of things such as

reproductive systems, variation patterns, chemical, cytological, genetical relationships
or evolutionary patterns.

4. Encyclopedic or holotaxonomic phase: - analysis and synthesis of all information

and types of data to develop classification systems based on phylogenetic relationships.

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1.3. The objectives of taxonomy
The followings are main objectives of taxonomy:

1. To inventory (written list /complete list) of world’s flora, fauna.

2. To provide a method for identification and communication.

3. To provide a coherent (intelligible) and universal system of classification.

4. To demonstrate the evolutionary implications of plant or animal diversity.

5. To provide a single “scientific” name for every group of flora and fauna in the world,
both existent and fossil.

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Why study taxonomy or systematics?
• The study of systematics provides the scientific basis for defining or determine
/delimiting/ species and infraspecific taxa (subspecies or varieties) and for
establishing that they are distinct from other, closely related and similar taxa.

• Such studies are especially important today in conservation biology.

• In order to determine whether a species or infraspecific taxon of plant, animal or other

is rare or endangered and warrants protection, one must first know the limits of that
species or infraspecific taxon.

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• In addition, understanding the history of evolution and geography may aid in
conservation and management decisions, where priorities must be set as to which
regions to preserve.

• The field of systematics has been the joy of exploring the intricate complexity and
incredible diversity of life.

• This sense of wonder and amazement about the natural world is worth cultivating (or
occasionally revive / rekindle/).

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 Definition of important taxonomic terms
Taxonomy (= Systematic) –

• The science of identifying, naming and classifying organisms, including the study

and description of their variation, the investigation of the causes and consequences of

this variation, manipulation of data obtained to produce system of classification.

• Classification–The arrangement of organisms into groups having common

characteristics; this arrangement should show phylogenetic relationships.

• Identification - Recognition of organisms based on certain characteristics and the

application of name to that organism.

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• Nomenclature - The application of names to organisms in accordance with the rules
of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

• Taxon (pl., Taxa) - A convenient and useful term applied to any taxonomic group at
any rank.

• Description - A listing of morphological characteristics of a particular taxon; these are

referred to as taxonomic characters.

• Diagnostic characters - Taxonomic characters useful in separating a tax on from

other related taxa.

• Flora - Plants growing in a geographic or political area, or the inventory of the plants
of that area.
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• Fauna - Animals growing in a geographic or political area, or the inventory of the
animals of that area.

• Floristics - Descriptive term referring to the investigation of the flora.

• Manual - A book providing an inventory of the plants of an area, including brief

descriptions and keys for identification of the taxa.

• Class- A major taxonomic rank, between order and division /phylum/.

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• Division- The major taxonomic rank within the Plant or Animal Kingdom which is
alternative name for phylum.

• The major taxonomic rank below kingdom.

• Epithet- portion of a binomial name consisting of generic name and a species; or the
intraspecific portion of trinomial consisting of generic name, a species epithet and an
intraspecific epithet, etc.

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• Genus- A group of related species usually clearly separable from other such groups,
or a single species without close relatives; the major taxonomic rank between species
and family. Plural: genera.

• Family- A group of one to many related genera, usually clearly separable from other
such groups; the major taxonomic rank between genus and order.

• Usually, takes the ending with –aceae for plants, and –idea for animals.

• For example,
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• Kingdom- The highest rank in the taxonomic hierarchy.

• Order- A taxonomic grouping of families believed to be closely related (sometimes a

single family with no apparent close relatives); the major taxonomic rank between
family and class.

• Phylum- The major taxonomic rank within the animal Kingdom.

• Alternative name for division, the major taxonomic rank below kingdom.

• Rank- The position or level in the taxonomic hierarchy.

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• Species- A taxon comprising one or more populations of individuals capable of
interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. Plural: species.

• Subspecies- The main rank below species in plants, and the only formal rank below
species in animals.

• Type- A designated representative (voucher) for a plant or animal name. Various

classes of types exist, including: holotype, isotype, syntype, lectotype, neotype, etc.

• Variety- A taxonomic rank below the rank of subspecies used for plants.
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• Taxonomy – etymology

• Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and

meaning have changed over time, while taxonomy is a kind of knowledge

organization system.

• Etymologically "taxonomy comes from Greek taxis: "arrangement, order" and

nomos, "law".

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• The units in taxonomies are termed taxon (plural: taxa).

• "Initially taxonomy was only the science of classifying living organisms, but later the
word was applied in a wider sense, and may also refer to either a classification of
things, or the principles underlying the classification."

• The taxonomy system is based on the facts that have been observed and it includes:

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Adansonian taxonomy:

• This is an early method of classification advocating the grouping of organisms on the basis

on many equally-weighted attributes.

• Phonetic methods: Phonetic method is a method of classification on the criteria of overall

morphological, anatomical, physiological or biochemical similarities or dissimilarities, with

all characters equally weighted and without regards to phylogenetic history.

• In modern taxonomy phonetic methods are used.

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• Phonetic method is also known as cladistic method, evolutionary method, phonetics,

neo Adansonism etc.

• Numerical taxonomy: This type of taxonomy is based on the numerical comparison

of large number of equally weighted characters, scored consistently for all the groups

under consideration, an in which individuals are groped solely on the basis of

observable similarities.

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• Qualitative characters: - characters that can‘t be represented in numerical value such
as Flower color, leaf arrangement and ovary position.

• Quantitative character: - is measurable character, like, leaf size (4 cm).

Measurements of quantitative character yield continuous data.

• Character states: - distinct form of characters; or different expression of a character.

• Analytic characters: - characters of limited occurrence used in identification of

different entities.

• Synthetic characters: - are characters of wide occurrence and help their placement in
higher taxa.

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• Good characters: - are characters which don‘t exhibit wide variation.

• Obligatory hierarchy: - the seven taxonomic ranks: Kingdom, Division/Phylum,

Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.

• Homonyms: are identical names for two different taxa.

• Synonyms: are different names for the same taxon.

• Nomenclature: - The assignment of correct names to taxa; e.g. Homo sapiens.

• Phylogeny: - the natural, evolutionary relationships between groups of living things.

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• Analogous features: morphological characteristics of two or more taxa that are
superficially similar.

• Binomial nomenclature: is system of nomenclature of Biological organism with two-

word name, the first name genus & the second name species.

• Genus name is always capitalized and abbreviated and species name is lower cased.

• Both are always shown in italics; e.g. Homo sapiens.

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Taxonomic sages of study
• Alpha taxonomy, Beta taxonomy, Gamma taxonomy and Omega taxonomy

Alpha taxonomy (descriptive taxonomy) - concerned with description and designation of

species, typically on the basis of morphological characters.
• It has two phases

i. Exploratory phase: involves in collection and subsequent identification of materials from

limited range of herbarium specimens.

ii. Systematic phase: it involves in collection and identification of materials based on extensive
herbarium and field studies in which wide selection of each taxon is carried out.

Beta taxonomy (macro taxonomy) - arrangement of species into hierarchical systems of

higher categories to taxa.
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Gamma taxonomy- taxonomic aspect concerned with intraspecific population and
with phylogenetic trends.
Omega taxonomy - classifying organisms based on all variable characters.
• It requires highly sophisticated equipment. It has two phases
i. Experimental or biosystematics phase:- analysis of wide variety of things such as
reproductive systems, variation patterns, chemical, cytological, genetical
relationships or evolutionary patterns.
ii. Encyclopedic or holotaxonomic phase:- analysis & synthesis of all information and
types of data to develop classification systems based on phylogenetic relationships.
Generally, phases one & two are often alpha taxonomy, and phase four is often called
omega taxonomy.

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Chapter 2: Historical Development of Taxonomy
• Unit Objectives
• At the end of this unit learners will be able to:

 Explain the role of non-human taxonomists

 Identify the role of folk taxonomic to scientific taxonomic development
 Discuss the contribution of Greek and Roman fathers to the development of
taxonomy
 Explain the events of taxonomy during herbalist period
 Discuss the roles of early taxonomists in taxonomic development

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• Before the development of formal taxonomy by Greeks, taxonomic science passed
through many up and down.

• In the earlier time the ancient hunter-gatherer learned about edible and none edible
plants/ animals.

Non-human taxonomists

• Non-human animals developed skill to identify their enemies that kill them or their
friends.

• Predator recognizes the harmful prey and such type of identification is called animal-
animal recognition.

This shows that non-human animals were taxonomists

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 Preliterate period
• There was little direct knowledge, taxonomists were classified plants edible/non-
edible, safe/poisonous, medicinal/non medicinal, sweet /repulsive, etc.

• Even if no written documents are found, systems of classification reflect knowledge &
philosophical concepts of historical and available technology of the period.

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Folk – taxonomies:

• It is local naming systems.

• It is a vernacular naming system, and can be contrasted with scientific taxonomy.

• Folk biological classification is the way peoples make sense of organize their natural
surroundings/world.

• Theophrastus recorded evidence of Greek folk taxonomy /localized naming systems/

for plants, but later formalized botanical taxonomy were laid out in the 18th C by
Carolus Linnaeus.

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• Folk taxonomies have hierarchical levels similar to formal biological classification.
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species (Berlin, 1992).

• In folk taxonomy, the common levels are life form, generic, specific & varietal.

• Life form: high level category of plants or animals that share some general shape or
characteristic of their morphology.

• Examples: tree, vine, bush, fish, snake, bird, or mammal.

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• Generic: The most common, basic level.

• Examples are dog, oak, grass, rice, ant…

• Folk genera often do not correspond to scientific genera but may correspond to
Linnaean species or families.

• For instance, dog is a folk genus, but grass is Linnaean species.

• Specific: specific name tends to be pneumonic device, e.g., color, shape, utility, etc.
that makes the name easy to remember.

• Varietal: common in crops such as the potato. Examples, Wheat varietal, barley
varietal….
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 Early attempts to classify organisms
Aristotle (384–322 BC)

• He was the first to classify all living things, and some of his groups are still used today,
like the vertebrates and invertebrates, which he called animals with blood and without
blood.

• He further divided animals with blood into live-bearing & egg-bearing.

• Groups without blood recognize today, as insects, crustacean & mollusks.

• Scientist to group organisms based on physical characteristics.

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Aristotle classified organisms into three groups:
1. Sensitive animals

2. Nutritive plants

3. Rational man

• He was the first to form useful system of classification, during 300s BC.

• He is father of natural history who provided the concept of essentialism.

• According to Aristotle, individuals have two sets of properties:

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• Essential: refers fundamental, vital and indispensable characteristics for particular.

• Accidental: arise from extrinsic causes occur by chance/ non-essential among the
members of group.

• Its demerit is difficulty to determine as to what are the essential properties of an

organism.

• Later, Aristotle was replaced by Theophrastus & other naturalists who wrote series of
botany books that were used for many generations.

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 The development of taxonomy

Plants: Animals:
Based on size of stem Based on where they lived
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 Theophrastus (about 370–285 BC)
 He was student of Aristotle and Plato who wrote classification in permanent and logical
form for the first time.

 He wrote classification of about 480 plant species in De Historia Plantarum.

 His classification was based on growth form.

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The most significant contribution of Theophrastus includes:

1. Classification of plants into trees, shrubs, sub-shrubs, herbs, annuals, biennuals

and perennials.

2. Distinction between flowering (such as superior and inferior ovaries, free and
sympetalous corollas) vs. non-flowering plants.

3. Differences between external (organs) vs. internal structures.

4. Recognition of different kinds of sexual (ovary position, hypo-, peri- and

epigynous, fruit type, etc) and asexual reproduction.

5. Understood basic anatomy of sepals & petals, modified leaves.

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• Hypogenous: flower in which the perianth & stamens are attached to the receptacle
below the gynoecium; the ovary is superior to these organs and the remaining floral
organs arise from below the point of origin of the carpel.

• E.g. Tomato

• Perigynous: flower refers to having sepals (calyx), petals (corolla) and stamens around
the edge of a cuplike receptacle containing the ovary.

• E.g. Rose or cherry

• Epigynous: refers to flowers having the floral parts such as the petals and stamens
attached to the upper part of the ovary.

• E.g. daffodil, cucumber

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The development of taxonomy

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• Dioscorides was a Greek physician, who travelled in Roman and Greek empires to
gather knowledge about medicinal plants.

• He wrote De Materia Medica, in which he described about 600 species.

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Andrea Caesalpino (1519–1603)

• Italian Scientist, called as "the first taxonomist".

• In 1583 he wrote De Plantis, Worked on 1500 species

• He classified plants based on definite morphological criteria

mainly on the basis of habit, fruits, seeds, ovaries and their position.

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(Swiss Scientists) J. Bauhin (1554-1631) and G. Bauhin (1560-1624)

• Wrote the book Pinax Theatri Botanici in 1623, work is a listing of 6000 species

• The Bauhin brothers included synonyms

• Recognized genera & species as major taxonomic levels.

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• John Ray (1627–1705), English naturalist

• Establishment of species as the ultimate unit of taxonomy

• In 1682, published Methodus Plantarum Nova, which contained around 18000 plant
species.

• Classification was based on many combined characters

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 Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD)
• He was a Roman scholar and naturalist who wrote encyclopaedic books termed Historia
naturalis
• In which he mentioned and categorized plants in terms horticultural practices, 152 crops
for food, fiber, medicinal uses, timber use …. practices.

• Naturalis Historia”, which contains 160 volumes, described about 1,000 useful plants
with Latin names.

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Renaissance (14th -17th C)
• Considered as the beginning of modern science.

• Basically, four distinct periods were recorded in this era.

• 1. Herbalists

• 2. Pre-Linnean period (17th C)

• 3. Linnaean period (18th C) and

• 4. Post Linnean period (Natural systems)

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 Some herbalists were:
1. Otto Brunfels (1464-1534) -Herbarum vivae Eicones, flower perfect and imperfect.
2. Jerome Bock (1469-1554) - Distinguished trees, shrubs and herbs
3. Leonhart Fuchs (1501-1566)-(Fuchsia) De historia stirpium.

• Three of them were Germans, who represented the father of Botany of the period.

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C. Linnaean era (1707-1778)
• Starting period of modern taxonomy

• Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778 ) Swedish Scientist, regarded as the starting points of

modern botanical and zoological taxonomy

• The global flora species Plantarum, published in 1753 and 10th edition of Systema
Naturae in 1758 including global fauna

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• Linnaeus published several books that would transform botany and zoology into
sciences.

• In 1735, he published Critica botanica, with rules for the formulation of generic
names.

• In 1735, Genera plantarum with list of all known genera.

 In 1736, Fundamental botanica and Philosophia botanica in 1751, created rules for
species descriptions, terminology and even instructions on how to build proper
herbarium.

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Terms created like corolla, stamen, filament, anther,
mammalia.

 He gave the foundation for botany & zoology.

 It was now time for subsequent taxonomists to

improve this newborn science.

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Linnaean and post Linnaean Taxonomists
The Linnaean Period (1707-1778)

• A botanist who created classification system of organisms based on their physical

similarities with each other.

• Originally, Linnaeus only had two Kingdoms, or major categories-Plant & Animal.

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Linnaeus- (1707-1778)

• Today he is popular for the following reasons

1. In his “Systema Naturae (1735)” he classified all known plants, animals and minerals).

2. He was incredibly named 12,000 species (7, 700 plants and 4,300 animals).

3. His Genera plantarum - described plant genera as described by Tournefort and followed
Tournefort arrangement but he modified.

• 4. Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, (1656-1708), French botanist and physician, a pioneer in

systematic botany, whose system of plant classification primary emphasis on the classification
of genera, basing his classification entirely upon the structure of the flower & fruit.
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 If the stamen number is
• One = Monandric;
• Two = diandric and

• Three = triandric, etc respectively.

4. In his philosophy of botany (1751)-presented fragments of natural system of

classification with names of 67 orders.

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 Post-Linnaean Taxonomist
• Michael Adanson (1727-1806)

• Adanson produced the book Des plantes in1763 and recognized 58 families, and
developed empirical approach.

• Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836)

• In his Genera Plantarum, he divided plants into three based on the number of cotyledons,

ovary position, presence /absence of the union of petals.

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• These are Acotyledons (all cryptogams), Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.

Dicotyledons could be apetalae, monopetalae and polypetalae.

• In the latter two groups, he used modern familiar characters, like ovary position,
stamen (free/attached to corolla), and petal (free/fused).

Jean Baptist de Lamarck (1744-1829)

Best known for an early theory of evolution by inheritance of acquired characters.

• He wrote a book “Flore Francoise” in 1778 that contained analytic method, i.e.
identification keys similar to dichotomous keys of modern flora.

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 Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778-1841)
• He is Swiss botanist who wrote the book ‘The’orie elementarie de la botanizue (1813).

• He was the first to place Pteridophytes in separate group, he introduced the word
taxonomy, and he set an outline for classification of plants as well as the governing
principles for classification.

• Divided plant kingdom into two based on presence or absence of cambium, vascular
tissues and cotyledons.

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Charles Darwin (1809–1822) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) launched the
evolutionary theory in 1858.

German biologists, Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) and August Wilhelm Eichler

(1839–18878) the construction of evolutionary trees.

 Haeckel proposed the term "phylogeny".

In the 20th century was dominated by extended phenetics, i.e. looking for similarities
and differences to create systematics
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 Questions for self-revision
• 1 . What is non-human taxonomy? • 7. List some herbalists and give their contribution.

• 2. What is folk’s taxonomy? • 8. Discuss the contribution of two Pre-linnean taxonomists.

• 3. What was the contribution of: • 9. Discuss the contribution of Carolus Linnaeus.

• a. Aristotle • 10. Discuss the contribution of the following Post-Linnaean

Taxonomists.
• b. Theophrastus

• c. Dioscorides • a. Michael Adanson (1727-1806)

• b. Antoine L. de Jussieu (1748-1836)

• d. Pliny the Elder
• c. Jean Baptist de Lamarck (1744-1829)
• 4. What were the events of medieval period which assisted
taxonomic development?

• 5. What are the two technological innovations contributed to

•

Renaissance and taxonomic development? •

• 6. Discuss the contributions of herbalists in taxonomic

developments?
By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 61
 Chapter 3: Classification systems
• Unit learning outcomes:

At the end of this chapter you will be able to:

 Differentiate the schemes of classification used over the historical development of taxonomy
 Identify the five basic classification systems
 Investigate the role of Darwin’s work in changing the system of classification
 Realize the basis for each classification systems

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 Classification systems
• What is Classification?
• Classification is the arrangement of organisms into orderly groups based on their
similarities
• Classification is also known as taxonomy
Taxonomists are scientists that identify & name organisms
Benefits of classifying
1. Single, universal name Accurately and uniformly names organisms
2. Avoid confusion (Prevents misnomers such as starfish & jellyfish that aren't really fish
3. Understand how living things are related to one another
4. Uses same language (Latin or some Greek) for all names

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 Early Taxonomists
2000 years ago, Aristotle was the first taxonomist

Aristotle divided organisms into plants and animals

He subdivided them by their habitat ---land, sea, or air

dwellers.

 Drawbacks /shortcomings/ of early taxonomies are

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 Limitations of Early classification
1. Not all organisms fit into Aristotle’s 2 groups (plants or animals)

Examples: Bacteria Fungi

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2. Common names can be misleading

Examples:
A jelly fish isn’t a fish,
but it is a seahorse !

Sea cucumber sounds like a plant

but… it’s an animal!

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics)

66
 3. Common names vary from place to place

Examples:
 puma,
 catamount,
 mountain lion,
 cougar are all names
for same animal

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 4. Same organisms have different names in different countries.

Chipmunk (English)
Streifenhornchen (German)
Tamia (Italian)
Ardilla listada (Spanish)

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 68

Problem with Latin name descriptions?

- Names too long and difficult to remember

- Names don’t illustrate evolutionary relationships

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics)

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• Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)
• 18th century taxonomist

• Classified organisms by their structure

• Developed naming system still used today called the

“father of taxonomy”

• Developed the modern system of naming known as

binomial nomenclature

• Two-word name (Genus & species)

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 Types of classification system
Artificial classification system
Oldest and first approach of classification of plants.

• It is utilitarian /doctrine/, based on arbitrary, easily observable few characters such as habit,
habitat, phenology, number of plant parts (e.g. cotyledons), or floral characters (particularly
the number of stamens and carpels).

• Divides organisms by what is useful at the time e.g. Colour, size, no of legs (analogous
features)

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 71

Parameters of artificial classification system were based upon:

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 72

 Advantages of artificial classification system
• Makes the classification simple and easy

• Less time consuming and manage to classify with little information of one or two
characters only.

• Poorly known plants can be classified easily

• Less instruments of classification are needed

• Very specific to the character of choice

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 73

Disadvantages of artificial classification system
Not universally applicable

Cannot initiate bold prediction

 Since the choice of characters are arbitrary, the exact correlation cannot be
established

 Various unrelated taxa, which are not at all related but, similar in one respect only,
have been placed under the same class.

Cannot establish evolutionary relationships among taxa

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 74

 Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) called ‘father of taxonomy’ published in ‘Genera Plantarum’ (1737) and divided
plants into 24 classes, e.g.

• 1) Monandria --------------------- 1 stamens

• 2) Diandria --------------------- 2 stamens
• 3) Triandria --------------------- 3 stamens
• 4) Tetrandria --------------------- 4 stamens
• 5) Pentandria --------------------- 5 stamens
• 6) Hexanadria --------------------- 6 stamens
• 7) Hepatandria --------------------- 7 stamens
• 8) Octandria --------------------- 8 stamens
• 9) Enneandria --------------------- 9 stamens
• 10) Decandria --------------------- 10 stamens
• 11) Dodecandria ---------------------11-19 stamens
• 12) Icosandria --------------------- 20 or more stamens, attached to calyx
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13) Polyandria ---------- 20 or more stamens, attached to receptacle
14) Didynamia ---------- Didynamous condition (2 long + 2 short stamens)

15) Tetradynamis ---------Tetradynamous condition (4 long + 2 short stamens)

16) Monoadelphia -------------- Monoadelphous condition ()

17) Diadelphia ----------- Diadelphous condition ()

18) Polyadelphia --------- Polyadelphous condition ()

19) Syngenesia ------------ Syngenesious condition ()

20) Gynandria --------- Stamens attached to gynaecium

21) Monoecia ---------- Monoecious condition of plants

22) Dioecia ----------- Dioecious condition of plants

23) Polygamia ----------Polygamous condition of plants, i.e. both unisexyal and bisexual flowers on the same

plants.
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Natural system of classification
• This classification system is based up on several to many characters selected for their
value in positively correlating with character states of groups in ranks containing high
information content.

• This system is therefore polythetic i.e. it places together organisms that have the
greatest number of shared features.

• No single feature is either essential to group membership or is sufficient to make an

organism a member of the group.

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• It is called posteriori classification because of the groupings are made after the
features are observed.

• Grouping organisms in this way produces phenetic/overall similarity systems yet, lack
emphasizing one over the other.

• Generally, features such as anatomy, physiology, pathology, biochemistry,

reproduction and cytology are used to compare the organisms and establish
relationship between them.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 78

Natural classification system were based upon:

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics)

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Advantages of natural classification system
Makes the classification more inclusive

It can be used for bold prediction of ranks and categories for newly identified plants.

 Contains more exclusive information about the taxonomic hierarchy.

 It can help to predict properties of even not-so-closely related species.

 Members of different groups are mostly similar in hereditary pattern.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 80
Disadvantages of natural classification system

The complexity level is more than artificial

 Cumbersome and time consuming.

Less known plants cannot be classified through this system since their characteristics
are not fully defined.

A single property of interest cannot be taken into consideration for classification

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 81

 Difference between natural and artificial classification systems
No Natural classification Artificial classification

1 Sum total of all the characters of its One or a very few characters are taken into
members is taken into consideration consideration
2 Groups together plants most alike in their hereditary May not group together plants most alike in their
constitutions. In general groups together plants most hereditary constitution. May not group together plants
closely related phylogenetically most closely related phylogenetically
3 Contains a great deal of information about its Contains only a few amounts of information about its
members members
4 Can easily incorporate additional information about Cannot incorporate more information about its
its members members
5 Identification can be made easy Identification may be difficult
6 Poorly known plants are definitely placed The placing of poorly known plants are uncertain
7 It is liable to change with increase in our knowledge It is stable and is not changed by increase in our
knowledge

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 82

 Evolutionary classification system

Phyletic
Cladistics Phylogenetic

Phylogenetics is the subfield of evolutionary biology concerned with reconstructing the

evolutionary relationships between species.

• Different datasets strongly support about hypotheses of evolutionary history.

• There are molecular and morphological data and evidences of evolution.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 83

Evolutionary classification system /Phyletic classification system /

• The word Phyletic derives from the Greek to means the line of descent.

• With phyletic classification system biologists group organisms into categories that

represent evolutionary lines descent, not just physical similarities.

• Grouping of organisms according to their evolutionary relationship in a single line of

descendant.

• It aims in the construction of evolutionary trees starting with most primitive and ends

with most advanced group, and to ensure that all organisms share common ancestors.

• It is the strategy of grouping organisms together based on their evolutionary history.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 84
Phyletic classification system

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 85

Difference between phyletic and cladistics
• Phyletic is aimed to construct evolutionary tree starting with most primitive and
ends with advanced groups.

• Cladistics is a method of classification of organisms based on shared derived

characteristics that were not present in their distant ancestors and are assumed to
indicate common ancestry.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 86

Cladistics or phylogenetic classification
• Cladistics is the most popular method of phylogenetic classification system of animal
and plants that uses shared derived characters to establish evolutionary relationships.

• It is a method of exact analysis, using "shared derived traits" (synapomorphies) of

the organisms being studied.

• The word cladistics is derived from the ancient Greek, klados, which means "branch.“

• As the end result of cladistic analysis, tree like relationship-diagrams called

"cladograms" can be drawn up to show different hypotheses of relationships.

• Diagram showing how organisms are related based on shared, derived characteristics

such as feathers, hair, or scales

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 87

Cladistics or phylogenetic classification

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 88

• Phylogenetic or cladistics classification system is the concepts and methods of
determining similarity by constructing branching patterns of evolution.

• The method works as follows:

 Select monophyletic taxa

 Select characters of evolutionary interest.

 Describe and/or measure character states.

 Determine homologies of characters and character states.

• Generate trees or cladograms.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 89

 Definition of terms related to cladistics
Clade: group of taxa consisting of an ancestor taxon and all of its descendant.

Examples:

Vertebrate clade consisting of fish clade encompassing all fish.

Tetrapod clade consisting of all tetra pods.

Outgroups: it is the nearest relative of the group, but, that are not part of the group it self.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 90

Synapomorphy is derived character that is shared by all the members of the clade.

• Using synapomorphies clades define in nested hierarchy of taxa.

• Sister groups is a pair of taxa that are most closely related to each other.

• Humans are most closely related to chimpanzees, so humans and chimpanzees form
a sister group.

• Gorillas form a sister group to the clade containing humans and chimpanzees.
By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 91
Monophyletic : is valid clade, it consists of the ancestor
species and all its descendants.

is a clade comprising an ancestral form and all of its

descendants and so forming evolutionary group.

E.g. all vertebrates are monophyletic since all the taxa are
descended from single ancestor of common vertebrate
species.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 92

Paraphyletic
• Paraphyletic: clade consists of an ancestral
species and some, but not all, of the
descendants species are included in this group.

• Therefore, in paraphylatic group organisms

consist of an ancestral species and some of its
descendant species.

• Paraphyletic group is nearly monophyletic. It is

created based on the symplesiomorphy.

• Some well known paraphyletic taxa are Pisces

and Reptile.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 93

• Polyphyletic: clade includes many
species that lack a common ancestor.
• Or
polyphyletic taxon is a group of organis
ms that lack a common ancestor.
• Polyphyletic group consists of unrelated
organisms those descended from more
than one ancestor.
• It is kind of an unnatural group of
organisms.

• Normally when polyphyletic taxon is

found, it is reclassified since it is a totally
unnatural assemblage.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 94

 Similarities among monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic
• All these terms are used to define taxa of organisms.
• All terms are used to define a group of organisms.
• The most recent common ancestor is considered in all groups.
• All these groups explain the relatedness of the organisms.

What are the differences among monophyletic, paraphyletic

and polyphyletic?

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 95

 There are three basic assumptions in cladistics:

a. Organisms within the group are descended from a common ancestor.

b. There is a bifurcating /divide or fork into two branches/ pattern of cladogenesis.

c. Change in characteristics occurs in lineages /direct descent from an ancestor; ancestry

or pedigree over time

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 96

Examples of a cladogram or phylogenetic tree for various taxa

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 97

Difference between natural and phylogenetic classification systems
No
Natural classification Phylogenetic classification
1 Based on constant characters that exist in Based on evolutionary sequence in addition to
nature several constant characters

2 Plants are placed together on the basis of Natural affinities and relationships of plants
correlation of characters in common are considered in addition to several constant
morphological characters

3 Serves the practical need by functioning Phylogenetic systems are more recent and
adequately as an aid to easy identification based on presumed phylogenetic relationship
hence these are widely used by some countries

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 98

 Phenetic classification system
• It was proposed by Adanson and known as Adansonian or Numerical taxonomy.

• Does not attempt to establish evolutionary linkages but simply the clumping together of organism
based on “overall” degrees of similarity.

• Requires access large data, at least 60 but preferably 80 to 100 that can be correlated on the basis of
similarity.

• Its overall effectiveness is diminished when the data are incomplete.

• This classification system developed based up on numerous characters of equal weight and their
comparison is using computer program.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 99

• According to Harrison (1960), the word "Phenetic" is to mean a relationship by
overall similarity of all available morphological characters.

• Thus, similarity/resemblance is determined based on set of phenotypic 155

characteristics of organisms.

• The following methods/approaches are used for determining the similarity of the
studied organisms.

• Selection of taxa-called Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) for study. Such as

species, genera or families.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 100

• Selection of character states (minimum of 60 and 80-100 are desirable for
comparison).

• Description or measurement of character states.

• Ranking of all OTUs into the categories of the taxonomic hierarchy.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 101

3.3. The use of molecular data (DNA, RNA and protein or amino acids) for
the construction of phylogeny & interpretation of evolutionary relatedness

• Chromosome chemistry: remarkable similarity at the biochemical level is found in

chemistry of chromosomes. The chromosomes of all living organisms basically
consist of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) & proteins (histones protamines).
• Amino-acid sequence analyses: amino acids sequence from different species have
revealed great similarities.
• Of course, specific differences occurred underlying mutations, changes in nucleotide
base pairs, have evolution.
• Evidences from comparative cytology indicates that all forms of life are related
comes from the cellular level.
• Cell is the unit of structure for all living organisms (except viruses) is thought to
reflect the basic relationship among living forms.

• This relationship is even further emphasized by the fact that it has been possible for
biologists to construct a picture of the “generalized”.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 102

 Evidences from genetics
• The science of heredity, deals with the variability of plants and animals.

• Hereditary variations provide the raw material of evolution.

• There are mainly two sources of hereditary variations namely recombination and
mutation.

• While recombinations after hybridization yield new combinations, mutations will

create new genetic material which never existed earlier.

• Evidences from comparative physiology and biochemistry

• Protoplasm chemistry protoplasm, other biochemical process analysis of the living
matter in the protoplasm show resemblance.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 103

• Enzyme Similarities large number of animals and plants contain identical enzymes.
Several enzymes found in the digestive tract are common in a variety of animals.

• Hormonal Similarities Like enzymes, hormonal similarities are also found in all
vertebrates. For example, thyroid hormone is commonly found in all vertebrates

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 104

3.4. The use of morphological & behavioral data for the construction of
phylogeny and interpretation of evolutionary relatedness

• Fossil record (palaeontology) provides direct evidence of organic evolution and gives
details of evolutionary relationships of many lines of descent.
• While different biological disciplines such as comparative anatomy, taxonomy,
embryology, physiology, biochemistry, genetics & biogeography provide indirect
evidence of evolution.
• Fossils are remains or impressions of organisms preserved from the geologic past.
• They are virtually anything or derived from a prehistoric organism.
• This includes bones, wood, shells, teeth, skin, pollen, tracks, burrows & even faece or
dung.
• Fossil record provides us evidence that there were organisms that have become
extinct.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 105

Homology
• Homology is the similarity between various organs of different organisms and it is based
on common embryonic origin or common ancestry.

• Homologous organs are those which have the common origin and are built on the same
fundamental pattern.

• But they perform different functions and have different appearance.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 106

• These organs are variously modified in adaptation to different functions.

• The theory of evolution suggests that hereditary characters become gradually

modified and these modifications make the organism better suited for the changed
conditions of life.

• Homology is found in every organ system from pisces to mammals.

• For example, whale’s /seal’s/ front flipper, bat’s wing, cat’s paw, horse’s front leg,
human hand, bird’s wing, though superficially dissimilar & adapted for quite different
functions (grasping, running, flying, swimming, etc.)

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 107

Analogy (Homoplasy)
• In the study of comparative anatomy, structures are often found that have the same
function and are superficially alike, such as the wing of bird and wing of a butterfly,
yet are quite different in origin and in structural design.

• Such structures which are non-homologous but with similar functions are said to be
analogous organs or structures.

• They have arisen in the evolutionary process through adaptations of quite different
organisms to similar modes of life.

• The analogy, thus, refers to the relationship between structures which though differ
anatomically but have superficial similarity due to similar functions.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 108

Evidences from comparative embryology
• One of the most fascinating sources of evidence for the validity of Darwin’s theory of
evolution has come from studies of comparative embryology.

• The suspicions of a common ancestry for very diverse sets of organisms from
comparative anatomical studies have been supported by embryological data.

• Comparative embryological studies have revealed that there was one developmental
pattern that could be viewed as having undergone a series of branching.

• All multicellular animals start their development as a single zygote, and through a
series of mitotic divisions, increase in cell number until a blastula is formed.

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 109

 Unit Questions
• 1. Discuss the difference between artificial and natural classifications.
• 2. What is operational taxonomic unit (OTU)?
• 3. What are the advantages of numerical taxonomy?
• 4. Discuss the contribution of some phyletists.
• 5. What is cladistics in taxonomy?
• 6. Discuss analogous and homologous evidence of evolution
• 7. List and explain evolution and speciation

By Alemu M. (MSc. in Genetics) 110