Written Assignment Unit 1

BIOL 1122-01 Biology 2 for Health Studies

Instructor: Preeti Shinde

November 16, 2022

One of the fundamental cornerstones of contemporary biological theory is the theory of

evolution. Only after Darwin's book 'On the Origin of Species was published did evolution

become a recognized scientific theory. Darwin and A. R. Wallace proposed that evolution

occurs due to a phenomenon known as natural selection. According to the theory of

evolution, the different species of plants, animals, and other living things on Earth all

descended from earlier species, and their distinguishable differences result from changes

made by subsequent generations (Rye et al., 2016). In the following lines, I will present some

evolution evidence and mechanisms of evolution.

1. Evidence of evolution

1.1. Fossils: The preserved remains of once-living organisms or their traces, dating from a

long time ago, are called fossils. Human-collected fossils provide unique insights into

evolution over long timescales. Hundreds of thousands of fossil organisms found in well-

dated rock sequences represent successions of forms through time and manifest many

evolutionary transitions (National Academy of Sciences, 1999).

The fossil record can assist scientists in reconstructing the evolutionary histories of current

species. For example, some of the well-studied fossils are from the horse lineage. These

fossils have allowed researchers to piece together a sizable, branching "family tree" for

horses and their extinct ancestors. Changes in the lineage leading to modern horses, such as

the conversion of toed feet to hooves, may reflect adaptation to environmental changes (Khan

Academy, n.d.).

1.2. Evidence from molecular biology: The code that converts nucleotide sequences into

amino acid sequences is mainly the same in all organisms. Furthermore, the same set of

amino acids is always present in protein composition across all organisms. This consistency
in structure and function is a strong argument favoring the most diverse organisms sharing a

common ancestor (Khan Academy, n.d.).

Myoglobin and hemoglobin sequences for many mammals, reptiles, birds, fish, worms, and

mollusks have been identified in recent years. These sequences were all related and could be

compared to horse hemoglobin and whale myoglobin. The variations in hemoglobin and

myoglobin among organisms could be categorized into a family tree using the differences

between sequences from various organisms. This tree was in perfect agreement with findings

from paleontology and anatomy regarding the common ancestry of the relevant organisms

(National Academy of Sciences, 1999).

1.3. Homologous structures: are structures with the same basic form in two different species.

To ascertain how closely related two species are to one another on the phylogenetic tree of

life, researchers examine homologous structures Dolphins have pectoral fins that help them

steer as they swim; these are the flippers at their chests. They look very different from a

hippo's forelimbs. Scientists found the same bone structures when comparing the bones in a

dolphin flipper with those in a hippo forelimb and foot (Rye et al., 2016).

2. Mechanisms of evolution.

According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium, the population's allele and

genotype frequencies are inherently stable unless some evolutionary power is operating upon

the population. The Hardy-Weinberg principle supposes conditions without mutations,

migration, or particular pressure for or against genotype, in addition to an infinite population

(Rye et al., 2016). Different Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, when violated, coincide with

various evolution mechanisms.

Mutation: Although mutation is the origin of all genetic variation, most organisms have a

low mutation rate. Therefore, the impact of new mutations on allele frequencies from one
generation to the next is usually minimal. On the other hand, natural selection acting on the

results of a mutation could be a powerful evolutionary mechanism (Rye et al., 2016).

Natural selection is the most well-known mechanism of evolution. It happens when one

allele (or a combination of alleles from various genes) produces an organism that is more or

less fit and capable of persisting and reproducing in a specific environment. If an allele

reduces fitness, its frequency decreases from generation to generation (Ayala, 1978).

Humans have dramatic, diverse, long-distance influences on other organisms' evolution.

Numerous examples, including hunting, fishing, agriculture, harvesting, pollution,

urbanization, biological invasions, and diseases, confirm that humans could be the world's

most significant evolutionary force and effect (Hendry et al., 2017).

680 words.

References:

Ayala, F. J. (1978). The Mechanisms of Evolution. Scientific American, 239(3), 56–69.

Khan Academy. (n.d.). Evidence for evolution (article). Khan Academy. Retrieved November
12, 2022, from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/evolution-and-natural-
selection/a/lines-of-evidence-for-evolution

National Academy of Sciences (1999). Science and Creationism: A View from the National
Academy of Sciences. National Academies Press
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK230201/

Rye, C., Wise, R., Jurukivski, V., DeSaix, J., Choi, J., & Avissar, Y. (2016).
Biology. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-introduction

Hendry, A. P., Gotanda, K. M., & Svensson, E. I. (2017, January 19). Human influences on
evolution, and the ecological and societal consequences. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Retrieved November 16, 2022, from
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2016.0028#:~:text=Humans%20have
%20direct%20effects%20on,dynamics%20by%20influencing%20their%20evolution.