i ; 7 F data, ‘An Operating System is the interface between the computer hardware and the end-user E rocessing Of ee Tuning applications, file management and handling the memory is all managed by o Se ‘ Mac, Android ete. Are examples of Operating systems which are generally used NOW) History of the Operating System ven the user and the hardware. Itis ine. Various tasks that are ‘memory management, ferface betwe An operating system is a type of software that acts as an i responsible to handle various critical functions of thé computer or any other mac! handled by OS are file management, task management, garbage management, Process management, disk management, I/O management, peripherals management, ete. Functions of Operating lated Security To safeguard user data, the operating system employs password protection and other r= ‘measures. It also protects programs and user data from illegal access. (ors the overall health of the system in vstem’s health, keep track of the time ing critical information Control over System Performance The operating system monit order to optimize performance. To get a thorough picture of the between system responses and service requests. This can aid performance by prov for troubleshooting issues. wumed by Job Accounting The operating system maintains track of how much time and resources are cot different tasks and users, and this data can be used to measure resource utilisation for a specific user or group of users. Error Detecting Aids The OS constantly monitors the system in order to discover faults and prevent a computer system from failing. n between Users and Other Software Coordit well as other software to Operating systems also organise and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, computer users. Memory Management The operat ging the primary memory, often known as the main memory, The main memory consists of a vast array of bytes or words, each of which is allocated an address. Main memory is rapid storage that the CPU can access directly. A program must first be loaded into the main memory before it can be executed. For memory management, the OS performs the following t The OS Keeps track of primary memory — meaning, which user program can use which bytes of memory, memory addresses that have already been assigned, as well as memory addresses yet to be ased ‘The OS determines the order in which processes would be permitted memory aceess and for how long in multiprogramming. Inallocates memory to the process when the process asks for it and deallocates memory when the process exits or performs an /O activity. Process Managementh processing, nd how much pr for this feature ress to the processor a weduling is the name ny tasks; tem determines which processes have a na multiprogramming environment, Process sched sor management, the OS performs the follow The oper y time every process ha of the operating system. For procs Device Management {. Other directories and rating system are: it ther things. The (em is divided into direetories to make navigation and usage more efficient Phe file management tasks performed by an ope! \d the state of each file, among ot Afie files may be found in these directories, Keeps track of where data is kept, user access settings, file system is the name given to all of these features. Serviees by OS ter . in one form or another, provides certain services to the comput Further more, the operating sys h a number of services, which can be summarised as follows system. The OS provides users wi whether they are user or |. Program Execution: The OS is in charge of running all types of programs, ‘ ‘ Be Tereesur that all types of system programs. The operating system makes use of a variety of resourees to ensure functions perform smoothly. & of ins; The operating system is in charge of handling various types 2. Handling Input/Output Opes sktop. Regarding all types of inputs and outputs. the inputs, such as those from the keyboard, mouse, and d operating system handles all interfaces in the most appropriate manner. For instance, the nature of all types of peripheral devices, such as mice or keyboards, differs, and the operating system is responsible for transferring data between them, 3. Manipulation of File System: The OS is in charge of deciding where data or files should be stored, such as on a floppy disk, hard disk, or pen drive, The operating system determines how data should be stored and handled. 4, Error Detection and Handling: The OS is in charge of detecting any errors or flaws that may occur during any task. The well-secured OS can also operate as a countermeasure, preventing and possibly handling any type of intrusion into the computer system from an external source. 5, Resource Allocation: The operating system guarantees that all available resources are properly wlilised by determining which resource should be used by whom and for how long, The operating system makes all of the choices. 6. Accounting: The operating system keeps track of all the functions that are active in the computer system at any one time. The operating system keeps track of all the facts, including the types of mistakes that happened. 7. Information and Resouree Protection: The operating system is in charge of making the most secure use of all the data and resources available on the machine. Any attempt by an external resource to obstruct data or information must be foiled by the operating system, ‘An OS refers to a collection of well-organised applications that manage computerhardy , Ware. It is a form of system software which is responsible for the computer system's flawless operation. Th oe Tere are basically eight types of Operating Systems, Here are all the (yPes of OS along with their pros and 1, Batch Operating System tched together and Batel ; ich processing was quite popular in the 1970s, Similar types of jobs have been ba t a single computer, com) iets : pleted on time using this method, People were very much accustomed to utilising Hown as a mainframe. Now, ei ; Now, more than one individual can have access to this Operating System, and they can submit their jobs to the system for execution. The system places all ofthe jobs in a queue first come, first served, and then -Necutes them one ata time, When all of the jobs are completed, the users receive their respective Outpuls: Batch Jobs "Jobs Jobs Jobs Jobs Monitor Operating System Hardware 2, Multiprogramming Operating System Multiprogramming isa variation of batch processing in which the CPU is Kept busy at all times. CPU time and IO time are two forms of system time required by each process. When a process completes its /O in a svvtiprogramming environment, the CPU can begin the execution of other processes. As a result rnultiprogramming helps in improving the systems eficieney. Read more on Multiprogramming Operating System here. Main Memory Operating System writing output data, aa Program B Program © Execution in ovatjing arcu) progress Secondary Gisk Storage eeu Jobs in multiprogramming systems +3, Multiprocessing Operating Systemssors in a system, cach of Multiprocessing helps in performing parallel computing, There are several proce: be significantly increased which can run multiple processes at the sai . The system’s throughp esses at the same tims systen ighput w Multitasking Operating System ystem. which The asking OS refers to a S multitasking OS refers to a logical extension of the multiprogramming Operating ks allows me ats users fo run many programs at the same time. It enables a user to complete multiple computer ta a ‘ame time. Read more on the Multitasking operating System here. Network Operating System A Netw : scat aah oe OS is a type of Operating System that incorporates software and protocols for communicating with other computers over a networkin convenient and cost-effective manner. Read more on Network OS Real-Time Operating System In this type of system, each job has a deadline by which it must be completed; otherwise, there will be a significant loss, or even if the output is provided, it will be utterly useless. For example, in military applications, if you wish to drop a missile, the missile must be dropped with a specific degree of precision Click here to read more on Real-Time OS. . Time-Sharing Operating System The Time-Sharing OS provides computer resources to numerous programs at the same time in a time- dependent manner. As a result, it aids in providing direct access to the main computer to a large number of users, It's a natural progression from multiprogramming. The CPU is swapped between numerous programs provided by the different users in time-sharing on a seheduled basis Distributed Operating System ‘The Distributed OS is separated into sections and loaded on different machines rather than being placed o: single machine. Each machine has a piece of the distributed OS installed to allow them to communicat 7 Because they must deal with a variety of networking protocols, distributed Operating Systems are fa ro ‘and complex than network Operating Systems, far more. sophisticated, massive, OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTUR) ing systems are large and complex .A common approach is to partition the task into small .dules, rather than have one monolithic system. erating system can be defined the following structures, The opera components, of mo ‘The structure of aN 01 simple structure red approach LayMicro kernels Modules Hybrid systems ture: Simple stra not tha not well-defined structure: The Simple structured operating systems do MS- 1s. Exampli ie systems will be simple ,small and limited system application program ROM BIOS device drivers Se ated. functionality are not well sepa ‘nes, This causes the entire systems In MS-DOS, the interfaces and levels of Ie to access the basic /O routl + In MS-DOS application programs are ab! to be crashed when user programs fail. Example: Traditional UNIX OS Ireonbists of two separable parts: the kernel and the system progr of interfaces and device drivers nagement, and other operating-system = The kernel is further separated into a serie CPU scheduling, memory man « The kernel provides the file system, functions through system calls (the users) Shells and commands compilers and interpreters ‘system libraries interface to the kernel (GPU scheduling systom-cal signals terminal tile system handling swapping block VO page replacement system ‘demand paging character VO system terminal drivers virtual memory kernel interface to the hardware device controllers | memory controllers sks and tapes | physical memory disk and tape drivers, kernel minal controllers ten als1 system is ris the user Layered appr in whieh the opers One method is the layered approach. i the hardware: the highest laye A system ean be made modular inv broken into a number of layers (levels). ‘The bottom layer (layer 0) i interface, up of data and the operations that an implementation of an abstract object made + An operating-system layer is manipulate those dat ayers are selected so The Xl approach is simplicity of construction and debugging ers ations) and services of only lower-level fa in advantage of the k ions (op +The v that each uses fi 1 need to know how 1 layer is implemented only with operations provided by lower-level layers, A layer does not ations are implemented; it needs to know only what these operations do. ~~ é Microkernels: In the mid-1980s, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University developed an operating system called Mach that modularized the kernel using the microkernel approach. This method structures the operating system by removing all nonessential components from the kernel "‘e implementing them as system and user-level programs. + Microkemel provide minimal process and memory management, in {The main function of the microkernel is to provide communication between the client progra idition to a communication facility. and the various services that are also running in user space othe client program and service never interact directly. Rather, they communicate indirectly by exchanging messayes with the microkerel. makes extending the operating system easier. All new services are of the microkernel approach is that i race and consequently do not require modification of the kernel. to inereased systent-function overhead. + One bene! added to user sp: +The performance of microkernel c [ ‘ayehourenModutes: The best best current methodology for operating-system design involves using loadable kernel modules ther at boot time or during * The kernel hy Tun time. et HAS A Set-of core components and links in additional services via modules, +The is running "= Kemel provides core services while other services are implemented dynamically, asthe Kemel is runnin ree services dynamically is more comfortable than adding new features directly t0 the Kernel, which would recompiling the kernel every time a change was made Example: Solaris OS he Solaris operating system structure is organized around a core kernel with seven types of loadable Kernel modules: + Scheduling classes File systems + Loadable system calls * Executable formats =p + STREAMS modules * Miscellaneous * Device and bus drivers Hybrid Systems: ‘The Operating System combines different structures, resulting in hybrid systems that address performance, se 1d usability issues. "They are monolithic, because having the operating system in a si ms + However, they are also modular, so th Example: Linus and Solaris are monolithic (simple) an ity, gle address space provides very efficient ty can be dynamic 10 modular, 1S. new funetio ly added to the kernel, System Call in computing, a system call is a programmatic way in which a computer program requests service from the kernel of the operating system it is executed on. A system call is a way for programs to interact withthe operating system. A Gomputer program makes a system call when it makes a request tothe operating sytemn’s kernel. System eal provides ceenesrvices of the operating system 10 the user programs via Application Program Interface(API), It provides an fierfice between a process and an operating system t0 allow user-level processes to request services of the operating ‘Mstem. System ealls are the only ent points ito the Kee system, All programs needing resources must use syste calls. 1m can interact with the operating system using a system call. A number of services are requested by the the OS responds by launching a number of systems calls to fulfill the request. A system call can be evel languages like C or Pascal or in assembly language. If @ high-level language is used. the em may directly invoke system calls, which are predefined functions pil MW ee vin pane A user prosra rogram, and written inhi operating systtem Calls Is provide a well-defined interface between user programs and the operating system. Prozrany fic functions, and the operating system responds by executing the requeste, System make requests by calling spe service and returning a result. + Protes System calls are used to access privile; operating system uses this privilege to protect the system from ma + Kernel Mode: When a system call is made. the program is temporarily switehed from user mode to kernel mode. In ket and other processes 1d operations that are not available to normal user programs. The jous or unauthorized access. mode. the program has access to all system resources, ineluding hardware, memon + Context Switehi A system call requires a contest switeh, which involves saving the state of the current process the heonel mode to execute the requested service. This can introduce overhead, which can impact s performance Error Handlin System these errors and handle them appropriately + Synchronization System calls can be used to synehronize access to shared resources, such as files or network connections. ‘Th ‘operating system provides synchronization mechanisms, such as locks or semaphores, to ensure that multip a5 programs ean access these resources safely ind swsitehing to, stem HS can return ettor codes to indicate problems with the requested service, Programs must check fy ystem Calls Advant + Access to hardware resources System calls allow programs to access hardware resources such as disk drives, printers. + Memory management System calls provide a way for programs to allocate and deallocate memory. as well as aK mapped hardware devices. + Process management System calls allows programs to create and. terminate communication + Security: System calls provide a way for programs to access privileged resources, such as the ability lo modify system settings or perform operations that require administrative permissions. nd network dev s memory processes, as well asm pler-prowss meract with the operating system, ensuring system versions, System calls provide a standardized interface for programs to consisteney and compatibility across different hardware platforms and opera indows and Unix Examples of a System Call in V System calls for Windows and Unix come in many different forms. These are listed in the table below as follows: Process Windows Quiz Process Control CreateProcess() | Foro NitProcess() (exit WaitlorSingleObject() [wang File manipulation CreateFile() Open) | ReadFile() Read() WriteFile() Write Close()Process oct!) SetConsoleMode() . A process iS basically program i -¢ Management 4) Rew) ReadConsole() write() i WriteConsole() — ection se Geipid() aa Wformation Mainienanes GetCurrentProcess1D0 Getp ° te Alanon execution Serrine a process must sleep) = progress in @ . Pipe sequential Communication aan vine) re nget CreateFileMapping0) shmgetO ‘Mmap() A process iS: defined as an entity which represents, the basic unit of work to be implemented =a sexScuriyDesrinorsu | in the system, chmod) Protection Initializes Umask() a text file and when we execute this progeam It becomes “To put it in simple terms, we write our computer program ‘a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program. jdted into four sections — st mory and it becomes a process, it ean be d n memory ~ Fa process inside When a program is loaded into th heap. text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of Process Components fa such as method/function parameters, return address and local 1StakThe process Stack contains the temporary dat variables. 2ifeap This is dynamically allocated memory toa process during its run time ‘yrext This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter and the conte pracesso' reise. rn and the contents of the the global and static variables. This section contain Ps fe Cyc ra exces, pss though i ren a provess executes, it passes through different states. These stages may differ . ‘nd the names of these states are also not standardized, ges may differ in different operating systems, In general, a proces au scan have one of the following five states at atime, al state when a process is ‘Start This isthe i 1 started/ereated Realy The process is waiting to be assigned 10 a processor. Read “ rocesses it Mfosated to them bythe operating system so that they can run Pe aaa nenatrecara are ranning it by but interrupted bythe schedule 10 assign CPU to some anryecct. Hore oe Siar sine ot 1 other processRunning Once the process by ul the processor exectites its Waitin waiting Termi to the terminated state where i Process to become av Process Control Block Process Control Block is a moves into the waiti been as pstructions. ailable. IE waits to be removed from 2 New Peasy Bur Suspend Ready Block C ‘Suspend wait data structure that con block is also known as a task control block. entry of the process table, ete. It is very important for process manayement as the data structuring for processes is done in tern defines the current state of the operating system, Structure of the Process Control Block The process control stores many data items that are needed for efficient process management items are explained with the help of the given diagram ~ wned to a processor by the OS scheduler. the procs state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as edd or Exit Once the process finishes its execution, oF itis terminated by the operating pgs Terminate ns information of the process related to it. Th ss state is et to running ing for user input, of system. itis moved process contra! of the PCB, trail Some of these datsThe following are the data items ~ Proce Focess State i nated ng, waiting or term new, ready, rum ‘This specifies the process stat Th Number shows the number of the particular process. Pro, iam Counter ‘This contains the address of the next instruction thi executed in the process needs to be index registers. stack Repisters ; , fe accumulators ‘This specifies the registers that are used by the process. They may inelude accumu Pointers, general purpose registets ee. : List or Open Filey ‘These are the different files that are associated with the process CPU Scheduling Information ned in the ‘The process priority, pointers to scheduling queues ete, is the CPU scheduling information that is contained in t SD PCB. This may also include any other scheduling parameters Memory Management Information The memory management information includes the page tables of system used. It also contains the value of the base registers, limit registers etc. 1 the segment tables depending on the memory VO Status Information ‘This information includes the list of /O devices used by the process. the list of files ete, Accounting informatica ‘The time limits, account numbers, amount of CPU used, process numbers information, Ac. are all a part of the PCB accounti Location of the Process Control Block The process control block is kept in a memory area that is protected from the normal user access. This is done because it contains important process information. Some of the operating systems place the PCB at the beginning of the kernel stack for the process as it is a safe location BED 6 rions on the Process » 1. Creation Once the process is created, it will be ready and come into the ready queue (main memory) and v ready for the execution. 2, Scheduling Out of the many processes present in the eady queue. the Operating system chooses one proce ‘Start executing it, Selecting the process which isto be executed next. is known as scheduling eae 43, Execution Once the process is scheduled for the execution, the processor starts exec the blocked or wait state during the execution then in that case the processor starts executing 1 it. Process may e the other processes. me to 4, Deletion/killing Once the purpose of the process gets over then the OS will process (PCB) wil be deleted and the process gets terminated bythe Operating sysens he process, The Context of the Cooperating Process in Operating System Pre-requisites: Process Synchronizationis around the process. How the process goes through several different states. So in is one type of process called as Cooperating Process. In the operating system there In an operating system, everythin this article, we are going to discus are two types of processes: Ion any other re those processes whose task is not depende: Independent Processes aces Independent processes, : ses that depenc! on other processes or processes. They each other by sharing Cooperating Processes are those proc her to achieve a common task in an operating system. These processes interact with the resourees such as CPU, memory, and VO deviees to complete the task. So now let's discuss the concept of cooperating processes and how they are used in operating systems. ng, Process: Communication (IPC): Cooperating processes interact with each other via Inte another se run + Inter-Process Communication (IPC). As they are interacting to each other and sharing some resources with rn yet the synchronization and possibilities of deadlock decreases. To implement the IPC there are many opt such as pipes. message queues, semaphores, and shared memory. ; + Concurrent execution: These cooperating processes executes simultaneously which can be done operating system scheduler which helps to select the process from ready queue 10 go to the running state, Because ution of several processes the completion time decreases resources including, of concurrent exe ie by sharin; . Deadlocks: As cooperating processes shares their resources. there might be a deadlock condition, Dealiack means i pl process holds he for A. in iis coon deadlock oecur in cooperating process To avou! deadlocks. operating systems Ispically ihins such as the Banker's algorithn to manage and allocate resources to processes. + Process scheduling: Cooperating processes runs simultaneously but afler contest switch, which process should be next on CPU to executes. this is done by the scheduler. Scheduler do it by using several scheduling algorithms such as Round-Robin. FCFS, In conclusion, cooperating processes are essential unit to increase the concurrent exe perlormance of the overall system increase: ition and because of it, thCritical Section rocesses, and ° anal section refers to a segment of code that is executed by multiple concurrent coe pee ea thach B¢cesses shared resources. These resources may include hared memory. Sea easy ‘at can only be accessed by one thread or process at a time te void data inconsistency means that once cne thread or process has he executing tread or process exits the that only oie thread or process can we Sritical section must be executed as an atomic operation, which me tered the critical section, all other threads or processes must wait until t Gritical section, The purpose of synchronization mechanisms is to ensure t ©xecute the critical section at a time. ssary to ensure that nization ections The concept of a critical section is central to synchronization in computer systems, as it is neces ™ultiple threads or processes can execute concurrently without interfering with each other. Various synchro Mechanisms such as semaphores, mutexes, monitors, and condition variables are used to implement critical s and ensure that shared resources are accessed in a mutually exclusive manner. The use of critical sections in synchronization can be advantageous in improving the performance of concurrent systems, as it allows multiple threads or processes to work together without interfering with each other. However, Care must be taken in designing and implementing critical sections, as incorrect synchronization can lead to race conditions and deadlocks. Critical Section ‘When more than one processes try to access the same code segment that segment is known as the critical section. The critical section contains shared variables or resources that need to be synchronized to maintain the consistency of data variables. In simple terms, a critical section is a group of instructions/statements or regions of code that need to be executed atomically (read this post for atomicity), such as accessing a resource (file, Input or output port, global data, etc.) In oo, programming, if one thread tries to change the value of shared data at the same time as another thread Mss to read the value (i, data race across threads), the result is unpredictable. The access to such shared variables (shared memory, shared files, shared port, etc) is to be synchronized. Few programming languages have built-in support for synchronization. It is critical to understand the importance of race conditions while writing kernel-mode programming (a device driver, kernel thread, etc) since the programmer can directly access and modify kernel data structures ‘Although there are some properties that should be followed if any code in the critical section 1. Mutual Exclusion: If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be ‘executing in their critical sections. 2, Progress: If no process is executing in its critical section and some processes wish to enter their critical sections, then only those processes that are not executing in their remainder s: deciding which will enter its critical section next, and this selection cannot be 3, Bounded Waiting: There exists a bound, or limit, on the number of time: allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has made a re before that request is granted = two general approaches are used to handle critical sections: 1. Preemptive kernels: A preemptive kernel allows a process to be preempted while itis running in kernel mode. mpted pg in kernel ections can participate in Postponed indefinitely. s that other processes are ‘quest to enter its critical section’and2. Non preemptive kernels: A non preemptive kernel does not allow a process running in kemel mode to be preempted; a kernel-mode process will run until it exists in kernel mode, blocks, or voluntarily yields control of the CPU. A non preemptive kernel is essentially free from race conditions on kernel data structures, as only one process is active in the kernel at a time. Critical Section Problem The use of critical sections in a program can cause a number of issues, including: Deadlock: When two or more threads or processes wait for each other to release a critical section, it can result in a deadlock situation in which none of the threads or processes can move. Deadlocks can be difficult to detect and resolve, and they can have a significant impact on a program's performance and reliability. Starvation: When a thread or process is repeatedly prevented from entering a critical section, it can result in, starvation, in which the thread or process is unable to progress. This can happen if the critical section is held” for an inusually lorig period of time, or if a high-priority thréad or process is always given priority when_ entering the critical section, ° Overhead: When using critical sections, threads or processes must acquire and release locks or semaphores, which can take time and resources, This may reduce the program's overall performance. e& Entry Section) Sriticar Remainaer Sosen Mutual Exclusion Mutual Exclusion is a property of process synchronization that states that "no two processes can exist in the critical section at any given point of time”. The term was first coined by Dijkstra. Any process synchronization technique being used must satisfy the property of mutual exclusion, without which it would not be possible to get rid of a race condition. - The need for mutual exclusion comes with concurrency. There are several kinds of concurrent execution: 1. Interrupt handlers 2. Interleaved, preemptively scheduled processes/threads 3. Multiprocessor clusters, with shared memory 4. Distributed systems Mutual exclusion methods are used in concurrent programming to avoid the simultaneous use of a common resource, such as a global variable, by pieces of computer code called critical sections « The requirement of mutual exclusion is that when process PLis accessing a shared resource RI, another Process should not be able to access resource R1 until process PI has finished its operation with resource Ri. Examples of such resources include files, 1/0 devices such as printers, and shared data structures, Conditions Required for Mutual Exclusion * According to the following four criteria, mutual exclusion is applicable: 1. When using shared resources itis important to ensure mutual exclusion between various processes There cannot be two processes running simultaneously in either of their critical sections, : 2. Itisnot advisable to make assumptions about the relative speeds of the unstable processes,st another process: 3. For access to the critical section, a process that is outside of it must not oo ot time; multiple 4. Its critical section must be accessible by multiple processes in 2 finite ar Processes should never be kept waiting in an infinite loop. Approaches To Implementing Mutual Exclusion hiontware method: Leave the responsibility to the processes t ly error-prone and carry high overheads. i 2. Hardware method: Specal-purpose machine instructions are used for accessing Par fi santhod is faster but cannot provide a complete solution. Hardware solutions can sence of deadlock and starvation. h the 3. Programming language method: Provide support through the operating system or throug} Programming language. Requirements of Mutual Exclusion At any time, only one process is allowed to enter its critical section. The solution is implemented purely in software on a machine. A process remains inside its critical section for a bounded time only. No assumption can be made about the relative speeds of asynchronous concurrent processes: A process cannot prevent any other process from entering into a critical section. . A process must not be indefinitely postponed from entering its critical section. In order to understand mutual exclusion, let's take an example. Lock Variable hemselves. These methods are usually red resources. This farantee the This is the simplest synchronization mechanism. This is a Softwate Mechanism implemented in User mode. This is a busy waiting solution which can be used for more than two processes. In this mechanism, a Lock variable lockis used. Two values of lock can be possible, either 0 or 1. Lock value 0 means that the critical section is vacant while the lock value 1 means that it is occupied. A process which wants to get into the critical section first checks the value of the lock variable. If it is 0 then it sets the value of lock as 1 and enters into the critical section, otherwise it waits. mugpynchronization Hardware Process Synchronization refers to coordinating the execution of processes so that no two processes can have access to the same shared data and resources. A problem occurs when two processes runnin simultaneously share the same data or variable, 9 There are three hardware approaches to solve process synchronization problems: swap Test() and Set Unlock and lock Test and Set In Test and Set the shared variable is a lock that is initialized to false, The algorithm returns whatever value is sent to it and sets the loc here, as till the lock is set to true, other processes will not be abl However, after one process is completed any other process can swap k to true. Mutual exclusion is ensured fe to enter and the loop continues, 90 in as no queue is maintained.i d then In this algorithm, instead of directly setting the lock to true, the key is first set to true an swapped with the lock. a Similar to Test and Set, when there are no processes in the critical section, allows other processes to enter. Hence, mutual exclusion and progress are ensur: waiting is not ensured for the very same reason Unlock and Lock i nafil i s in the In addition to Test and Set, this algorithm uses waiting[i] to check if there are any processe wait. The processes are set in the ready queue with respect to the critical section. a Unlike the previous algorithms, it doesn’t set the lock to false and checks the ready queue {or oy waiting processes. If there are no processes waiting in the ready queue, the lock is then se and any process can enter. wait and signal Two standard operations, wait and signal are defined on the semaphore. Entry to the critical section is controlled by the wait operation and exit from a critical region is taken care by signal operation. The wait, 2 signal operations are also called P and V operations. the lock turns to false and ed but the bound Semaphores The Semaphore is just a normal integer. The Semaphore cannot be negative. The least value for a Semaphore is zero (0). The Maximum value of a Semaphore can be anything. The Semaphores usually have two operations. The two operations have the capability to decide the values of the semaphores. The two Semaphore Operations are: 1. Wait () 2. Signal () Wait Semaphore Operation e ‘The Wait Operation is used for deciding the condition for the process to enter the critical state or wait for execution of process. Here, the wait operation has many different names. The different names are: 1, Sleep Operation 2. Down Operation 3. Decrease Operation 4. P Function (most important alias name for wait operation) The Wait Operation works on the basis of Semaphore or Mutex Value, Here, if the Semaphore value is greater than zero or positive then th 7 1e Proce: iti Section Area. ss can enter the Criticalit the Critical ‘ocess to exit the If the Semaphore value is equal to zero then the Process has to wait for the Pr Section Area, rs the ; i Processes enter! This function is only present until the process enters the critical state. If the ritical state, then the P Function or Wait Operation has no job to do: re Tf the Process exits the Critical Section we have to reduce the value of Semapho! Signal Semaphore Operation value is The Signal Semaphore Operation is used to update the value of Semaphore. The Semaphore Updated when the new processes are ready to enter the Critical Section. The Signal Operation is also known as: Ds wate up Operation 2. Up Operation 3. Increase Operation 4. V Function (most important alias name for signal operation) We know that the semaphore value is decreased by one in the wait operation when the process left the critical state. So, to counter balance the decreased number 1 we use signal operation which increments the semaphore value. This induces the critical section to receive more and more processes into it. The most important part is that this Signal Operation or V Function is executed only when the process comes out of the critical section. The value of semaphore cannot be incremented before the exit of process from the critical section hi. Types of Semaphores There are two types of Semaphores. They are: 1. Binary Semaphore Here, there are only two values of Semaphore in Binary Semaphore Con ul cept. The two values are land If the Value of Binary Semaphore is 1, then the Process has the capabili area. If the value of Binary Semaphore is 0 then the process does critical section area.2. Counting Semaphore . The two types of Here, there are two sets of values of Semaphore in Counting Semaphore Concept i zero. values are values greater than and equal to one and other type is value equal to as the capability to hi If the Value of Binary Semaphore is greater than or equal to 1, then the process fas BN" TS enter the critical section area. If the value of Binary Semaphore is 0 then the proc the capability to enter the critical section area. This is the brief description about the Binary and Counting Semaphores Advantages of a Semaphore a jtten in the © Semaphores are machine independent since their implementation and codes are wri microkernel's machine independent code area. = it in the © They strictly enforce mutual exclusion and let processes enter the crucial part one at a time (only in ‘case of binary semaphores). © With the use of semaphores, no resources are lost due to busy waiting since we do not need any Processor time to verify that a condition is met before allowing a process access to the crucial area. © Semaphores have the very good management of resources © They forbid several processes from entering the crucial area. They are significantly more effective than other synchronization approaches since mutual exclusion is made possible in this way. Disadvantages of a Semaphore © Due to the employment of semaphores, it is possible for high priority processes to reach the vital area before low priority processes. Se © Because semaphores are alittle complex, its important to design the wait and signal actions in a way that avoids deadlocks. © Programming a semaphore is very challenging, and there is a danger that mutual exclusion won't be achieved, ©The wait () and signal () actions must be carried out in the appropriate order to prevent deadlocks Classical Problems of Synchronization we will discuss about various classical problem of synchronization,Se . manner can be used in other synchronization problems besides Mutual lon, Bel b low are some of the classical problem depicting flaws of process 'Ynchronaization in systems where cooperating processes are present. We will discuss the following three problems: 1. Bounded Buffer (Producer-Consumer) Problem 2. Dining Philosophers Problem 3. The Readers Writers Problem unded Buffer Problem Because the buffer pool has a maximum size, this problem is often called the Bounded buffer problem. + This problem is generalised in terms of the Producer Consumer problem, where a finite buffer pool is used to exchange messages between producer and consumer processes. + Solution to this problem is, creating two counting semaphores "full" and "empty" to keep track of the current number of full and empty buffers respectively. «In this Producers mainly produces a product and consumers consume the product, but both can use of one of the containers each time. « The main complexity of this problem is that we must have to maintain the count for both empty and full containers that are available, Dining Philosophers Problem + The dining philosopher's problem involves the allocation of limited resources to a group of processes in a deadlock-free and starvation-free manner. + There are five philosophers sitting around a table, in whi + 7 ich there i chopsticks/forks kept beside them and a bowl of rice in the Siw philosopher wants to eat, he uses two chopsticks - one from their left aeone from their right. When a philosopher wants to think, he keeps down | both chopsticks at their original place. The Readers Writers Problem «In this problem there are some processes(called readers) that only read the shared data, and never change it, and there are other processes(called writers) who may change the data in addition or instead of reading it. + There are various type of readers-writers problem, priorities of readers and writers. The main complexity with this problem occurs from allowing more than on reader to access the data at the same time. to reading, most centred on relative Monitors Monitors are a higher-level synchronization construct that simplifies process synchronization by providing a high-level abstraction for data access and synchronization. Monitors are implemented as programming language constructs, typically in object-oriented languages, and provide mutual exclusion, condition variables, and data encapsulation in a single construct. 1. Amonitor is essentially a module that encapsulates a shared resource and provides access to that resource through a set of procedures, The procedures provided by a monitor ensure that only one process can access the shared resource at any given time, and that processes waiting €- for the resource are suspended until it becomes available. Monitors are used to simplify the implementation of concurrent programs by providing a higher-level abstraction that hides the details of synchronization. Monitors provide a structured way of sharing data and synchronization information, and eliminate the need for complex synchronization primitives such as semaphores and locks. The key advantage of using monitors for process synchronization is that they provide a simple, high-level abstraction that can be used to implement complex concurrent systems. Monitors also ensure that synchronization is encapsulated within the module, making it easier to reason about the correctness of the system.ficient than lower-level n be less ef an Ive additional overhead, ¥ they may invo vay not be suitable for all types of may be required for optimal However, monitors have some limitations. For example, Synchronization primitives such as semaphores and locks, due to their higher-level abstraction. Additionally, monitors may n SyAchronization problems, and in some cases, lower-level primitives Performance. in itor is supported by The monitor is one of the ways to achieve Process synchronization. The potest Programming languages to achieve mutual exclusion between processes. For exé Synchronized methods. Java provides wait() and notify) constructs. . i cial kind of 1. Itis the collection of condition variables and procedures combined together in a sp module or a package. = : ; itor but 2. The processes running outside the monitor can’t access the internal variable of the monitor can call procedures of the monitor. 3. Only one process at a time can execute code inside monitors. Advantages of Monitor: Monitors have the advantage of making parallel programming easier and less error prone than using techniques such as semaphore. Disadvantages of Monitor: Monitors have to be implemented as part of the jogramming language . The compiler must generate code for them. This gives the compiler the additional burden of having to know what operating system facilities are available to control access to critical sections in concurrent processes. Some languages that do support monitors are Java,C#,Visual Basic Process Schedulers in Operating System Process scheduling is the activity of the process Manager that handles the removal of the running process from the CPU and the selection of another proce: he basis of a particular strategy. p SS on theProcess scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming-operetig eae Such operating systems allow more than one process to be = 4 into th executable memory at a time and the loaded process shares the C ig time multiplexing. Categories in Scheduling Scheduling falls into one of two categories: Non-preemptive: In this case, a process's resource cannot be taken before the process has finished running. When a running process finishes and transitions to a waiting state, resources are switched. Preemptive: In this case, the OS assigns resources to a process for a predetermined period of time. The process switches from running state to ready state or from waiting for state to ready state during resource allocation. This switching happens because the CPU may give other processes priority and substitute the currently active process for the higher priority process. There are three types of process schedulers. Long Term or Job Scheduler It brings the new process to the ‘Ready State’. It controls the Degree of Multi- programming, i.e., the number of processes present in a ready state at any point in time. It is important that the long-term scheduler make a careful selection of both I/O and CPU-bound processes. I/O-bound tasks are which use much of their time in input and output operations while CPU-bound processes are which spend their tim on the CPU. The job scheduler increases efficiency by maintaining a balance between the two. They operate at a high level and are typically used in batch- processing systems. Short-Term or CPU Scheduler It is responsible for selecting one process from the ready state for scheduling it on the running state. Note: Short-term scheduler only selects the process to schedule it doesn't load the process on running. Here is when all the scheduling algorithms are used. The CPU scheduler is responsible for ensuring no starvation due to high burst time processes.The dispatcher is responsible for loading the process selected by the Short-term scheduler on the CPU (Ready to Running State) Context switching is done by the dispatcher only. A dispatcher does the following: i1. Switching context. 2 Switching to user mode, rogram. 3. Jumping to the proper location in the newly loaded pI Medium-Term Scheduler mainly does swapping It is responsible for suspending and resuming the Process a eee (moving Processes from main memory to disk and vi sae ey cements Necessary to improve the process mix or because a ae alfa ita has overcommitted available memory, requiring meron te Cee EEE in maintaining a perfect balance between the I/O boul a the degree of multiprogramming. ‘Comparison among Scheduler Medium Term Scheduler | Short torm schedutar Lone Term Scheduter | sho | Nis aJob schedutor Context Switching In order for a process execution to be continued from time, context switching is a mechanism to store and rest a CPU in the Process Control block. A context switc multiple processes to share a single cpu Using thi operating system must include context switching amon, the same point at a later Ore the state or context of her makes it Possible for is method, A multitasking ig its features, The state of the currently running process is saved j nto the process control block when the scheduler switches the CPU from executin: J One process to another, Thestate used to set the PC, registers, etc. for the process that will run next is then loaded from its own PCB. After that, the second can start processing. —— naw —— = anny ‘iene In order for a process execution to be continued from the same point at a late time, context switching is a mechanism to store and restore the state or context or a CPU in the Process Control block. A context switcher makes it possible for multiple processes to share a single CPU using this method. A multitasking operating system must include context switching among its features. + Program Counter + Scheduling information + The base and limit register value + Currently used register « Changed State « 1/0 State information + Accounting information = Thread in Operating System jential flow of activities being executed in a process; it is also known as trol. Now, thread execution is possible within any OS's e several threads. A distinct programme counter, a stack of 3, Thread is A thread refers to a single sequ the thread of execution or the thread of co! process. Apart from that, a process can hav activation records as well as control blocks are used by each thread of the same proces frequently described as a light technique.; i ina The procedure can be easily broken down into numerous different threads. Multiple tabsin ; or example, can be considered threads, MS Word employs many threads to prepare thread, receive input in another thread, and so on. browser, in one Difference between Process and Thread =2 + fesource iaeersve ED In multipte processing fg Multiple processes without using 3) Why Do We Need Thread? Thread switching does not need All threads can share same set of Open flies, child processes. Multiple threaded processes use change another thread's data + Creating a new thread in a curent process requires significantly less time than creating a new process. + Threads can share common data without needing to communicate with each other. When working with threads, context switching is faster. «Terminating a thread requires less time than terminating a process, Types of Threads 1, User-Level Thread The user-level thread is ignored by the operating system, User threads are done so by the user. The entire process is blocked ifa user execute: are simple to implement and S a user-level operation offhread. User-level 1 thread is completely unaware of the user-level t thread blocking. The kernel-level thread. threads are managed as single-threaded processes by the kernel-level Threads in Java, POSIX, and other languages are examples. Pros + User threads are easier to implement than kernel threads. ve «Threads at the user level can be used in operating systems that do not allow threads at the kernel level: + Itis more effective and efficient. Context switching takes less time than kernel threads. It does not necessitate any changes to the operating system. The representation of user-level threads is relatively straightforward, The user-level process's address space contains the register, stack, PC, and mini thread control blocks. S&S Threads may be easily created, switched, and synchronised without the need for process interaction. Cons Threads at the user level are not coordinated with the kernel. The entire operation is halted if a thread creates a page fault EN 2. Kernel-Level Thread The operating system is recognised by the kernel thread. Each thread and process in the kernel-leve thread has its own thread control block as well as process control block in the system, The operating system implements the kernel-level thread, The kernel is aware of all threads and controls them, The kernel-level thread provides a system call for user-space thread creation and management. Kernel threads are more complex to build than user threads. The kernel thread's context switch time is longer. The execution of the Banky thread can continue in case a kernel thread performs a blocking operation. Solaris, for example.Userspace Kernel space Pros amg All threads are completely aware of the kernel-level thread. +The scheduler may decide to devote extra CPU time to threads with large numerical values. + Applications that happen to block the frequency should use the kernel-level thread. Cons ‘+ Allthreads are managed and scheduled by the kernel thread. ‘+ Kemel threads are more complex to build than user threads. + Kernel-level threads are slower than user-level threads. Components of Threads 1. Stack space 2. Register set 3. Program counter mm Benefits of Threads + Enhanced system throughput: The number of jobs completed per unit time increases whe divided into numerous threads, and each thread is viewed as a job. As a result, the system's likewise increases. «Effective use of a Multiprocessor system: You can schedule multiple threads i you have many threads in a single process. Faster context switch: The thread context switching time is shorter than the The process context switch adds to the CPU's workload, Responsiveness: When a process is divided into many threads, then the process can be responded to as quickly as possible. Communication: Multiple-thread communication is straightforward ‘address space, while communication between two processes is limite mechanisms. «Resource sharing: Code, data, and files, for example, can be shared that threads cannot share the stack or register. Each thread has itso n the process is throughput in multiple processors when Process context switching time. a nd each of them completes its execution, because the threads use the same 1d to a few exclusive communication among all threads in a process. Note WN stack and register,Difference between User-Level & Kernel-Level Thread S.N. User-Level Threads Kernel-Level Thread 10 User-level threads are faster to create and _Kernel-level threads are slower t¢ 2 manage. create and manage. 2 Implementation is by a thread library at the Operating system supports, user level. creation of Kernel threads. 3 __User-level thread is generic and can run on Kernel-level thread is specific to any operating system. the operating system. 4 Multi-threaded applications cannot take Kernel routines themselves can be advantage of multiprocessing, multithreaded. Schedule Processes Scheduling is important in many different computer environments. One of the most important areas is scheduling which programs will work on the CPU. This task is handled by the Operating System (OS) of the computer and there are many different ways in which we can choose to configure programs. Process Scheduling allows the OS to allocate CPU time for each process. Another important reason to use a process scheduling system is that it keeps the CPU busy at all times. This allows you to get less response tira for programs. Considering that there may be hundreds of programs that need to work, the OS must launch the program, stop it, switch to another program, etc. The way the OS configures the system to run another in the CPU is called “contest switching’ Ifthe OS keeps context switching programs in and out of the provided CPUs, it can give the user a tricky idea that he or she can run any programs he or she wants to run, all at once. So now that we know we can run 1 program at a given CPU, and we know we can change the operating system and remove another one using the context switch, how do we choose which programs we need. run, and with what program? That's where scheduling comes in First, you determine the metrics, saying something like “the amount of time until the end’. We will define ths metric as “the time interval between which a function enters the system unt itis completed”. Second, you decide on a metrics that reduces metrics. We want our tasks to end ve evcw as possible.CPU Scheduling Algorithm n the CPU to use while duling is to ensure that g which process will ow processes available junction of the CPU sche s at least selected one of the 70 binding processes program is to CPU scheduling is the process of decidin: another process is suspended. The main ft whenever the CPU remains idle, the OS ha: in the ready-to-use li In Multiprogramming, if the long-term sche then most of the time, the CPU remains an idl improve resource utilization. . Af most operating systems change their status from performance to walting always be a chance of failure in the system. So in order to minimize this excb® = needs to schedule tasks in order to make full use of the CPU and avoid the possi deadlock. Ubjectives of Process Scheduling Algorithm: * Utilization of CPU at maximum level. + Keep CPU as busy as possible. + Allocation of CPU should be fair: + Throughput should be Maximum, /.e. Numb: exécution per time unit should be maximized. «Minimum turnaround fime, ie. time taken by a process to the least.” 7 . . There should be a minimum waiting time and the process should not starve in the ready queue. a - a : «Minimum response time. It means that the time when a process produces the first response should be as less a5 possible. so what are the different terminologies to take care of in any CPU Scheduling algorithm? ma) 5 vial Time: Time at which the process arrives in the ready queue. Completion Time! Time at which process completes its execution. Burst Time: Time required by a process for CPU execution. ; Turn Around Time: Time Difference between completion time and arrival time. ple I duler selects multi n f an effective le. The function o| .g then there may the OS bility of er of processes that complete their finish execution should be Jurn Around Time = Completion Time ~ Arrival Time Waiting Time(W.T)/Time Difference between turn around time and burst time waiting Time = Turn Around Time - Burst Time Things to take care while designing a CPU Scheduling algorithm? oe Different CPU Scheduling algorithms have different structures and the choice of a articular algorithm depends on a variety of factors. Many conditions have been raised to compare CPU scheduling algorithms.The criteria include the following: e CPU as busy as m is to keep th z -time system, it +—-CPU utilization: The main purpose of any CPU algorith K 00 but in a real: possible. Theoretically, CPU usage can range from 0 to varies from 40 to 90 percent depending on the system load. + Throughput: The average CPU performance is the number o| completed during each unit. This is called throughput. The output on the length or duration of the processes. i + Turn round Time: For a particular process, the important conditions are how pee no takes to perform that process. The time elapsed from the time of process delivery to time of completion is known as the conversion time. Conversion time is the amount o time spent waiting for memory access, waiting in line, using CPU, and waiting for 1/0. + Waiting Time: The Scheduling algorithm does not affect the time required to complete the process once it has started performing. It only affects the waiting time of the process i.e. the time spent in the waiting process in the ready queue. | + Response Time: In a collaborative system, turn around time is not the best option. The process may produce something early and continue to computing the new results while the previous results are released to the user. Therefore another method is the time taken in the submission of the application process until the first response is issued. This measure is called response time. What are the different types of CPU Scheduling Algorithms? There are mainly two types of scheduling methods: f processes performed and may vary depending + Preemptive Scheduling: Preemptive scheduling is used when a process switches from running state to ready state or from the waiting state to the ready state. + Non-Preemptive Scheduling: Non-Preemptive scheduling is used when a process terminates , or when a process switches from running state to waiting state. 7 adetthng| “| Reman Saas] Eee seats cee fae Different types of CPU Scheduling Algorithms 1, First Come First Serve: FCFS considered to be the simplest of all operating system scheduling algorithms. First come first serve scheduling algorithm states that the process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU first and is implemented by using FIFO queue. [cpu scheduling oCharacteristics of FCFS: , hms. * FCES supports non-preemptive and preemptive CPU scheduling algorit! + Tasks are always executed on a First-come, First-serve concept. * _FCFS is easy to implement and use. it time is quite high. + This algorithm is not much efficient in performance, and the walt time is quite hig) Advantages of FCFS: + Easy to implement + First come, first serve method Disadvantages of FCFS: + FCFS suffers from Convoy effect. . + The average waiting time is much higher than the other algorithms. _ + FCFS is very simple and easy to implement and hence not much efficient. To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer to our detailed article On First come, First serve Scheduling. 2. Shortest Job First(SJF): Shortest job first (SJF) is a scheduling process that selects the waiting process with the smallest ‘execution time to execute next. This scheduling method may or may not be preemptive. Significantly reduces the average waiting time for other processes waiting to be executed. The full form of SIF is Shortest Job First. Characteristics of SJF: ge + Shortest Job first has the advantage of having a minimum average waiting time among all operating system scheduling algorithms. + Itis associated with each task as a unit of time to complete. + It may cause starvation if shorter processes keep coming. This problem can be solved using the concept of ageing. ‘Advantages of Shortest Job first: + As SIF reduces the average waiting time thus, it is better than the first come first serve scheduling algorithm. «SIF is generally used for long term scheduling Disadvantages of SJF: «One of the demerit SJF has is starvation. {Many times it becomes complicated to predict the length of the upcoming CPU request" ‘ to our detailed article To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer on Shortest Job First. 3. Longest Job First(LIF): rst (SJF), as the name ; ; it job fir aan Longest Job First(LUF) scheduling process is just opposite of Sein largest burst time is suggests this algorithm is based upon the fact that the process processed first. Longest Job First is non-preemptive in nature. Characteristics of LIF: i the process ‘Among all the processes waiting in a waiting queue, CPU is always assigned to the P' having largest burst time. , ro broken using ECFS ie. the process If two processes have the same burst time then the tie is that arrived first is processed first. : UF CPU Scheduling can be of both preemptive and non-preemptive types. Advantages of LIF: + No other task can schedule until the longest job or process executes completely. «All the jobs or processes finish at the same time approximately. Disadvantages of LIF: + Generally, the LIF algorithm gives a very high average waiting time and average turn-around time for a given set of processes. + This may lead to convoy effect. To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer to our detailed article on the Longest job first scheduling. 4. Priority Scheduling: Preemptive Priority CPU Scheduling Algorithm is a pre-emptive method of CPU scheduling algorithm that works based on the priority of a process. In this algorithm, the editor sets the functions to be as important, meaning that the most important process must be done first. In the case of any conflict, that is, where there are more than one processor with equal value, then the most important CPU planning algorithm works on the basis of the FCFS (First Come First Serve) algorithm, Characteristics of Priority Scheduling: «Schedules tasks based on priority. When the higher priority work arrives while a task with less priority i IS exer ic priority work takes the place of the less priority one and Y 1S executed, the higher ‘The latter is suspended until the execution is complete. Lower is the number assigned, higher is the priority level of a process,Advantages of Priority Scheduling: The average waiting time is less than FCFS + Less complex Disadvantages of Priority Scheduling: ty CPU scheduling algorithm is has to wait for a longer amount ition problem. * One of the most common demerits of the Preemptive prior the Starvation Problem. This is the problem in which a process Of time to get scheduled into the CPU. This condition is called the starva! , iled article To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer to our detal ©n Priority Preemptive Scheduling algorithm. 5. Round robin: lound Robin is a CPU scheduling algorithm where each process is cyclically assigned a fixed See slot. It is the preemptive version of First come First Serve CPU Scheduling algorithm. Round Robin CPU Algorithm generally focuses on Time Sharing techniqué. Characteristics of Round robin: + It's simple, easy to use, and starvation-free as all processes get the balanced CPU allocation._ + One of the most widely used methods in CPU scheduling as a coré. ce ca + Itis considered preemptive as the procésses are given to the CPU for a very limited time, Advantages of Round robin: + Round robin seems to be fair as every process gets an equal share of CPU. + The newly created process is added to the end of the ready queue. earn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer to our detailed article ‘on the Round robin Scheduling algorithm, 6. Shortest Remaining Time First: Shortest remaining time first is the preemptive version of the Shortest discussed earlier where the processor is allocated to the job closest to process with the smallest amount of time remaining until completion is select job first which we have completion. In SRTF the ‘ted to execute, Characteristics of Shortest remaining time first: + SRTF algorithm makes the processing of the jobs faster than S, it ven if saTE agente aks JF algorithm, given it's overheadSJF and consumes the CPU's = The context switch is done a lot more times in ‘SRTF than in 4 diminishes its advantage valuable time for processing. This adds up to its processing time an of fast processing. Advantages of SRTF: + In SRTF the short processes are handled very fast. ion wh 4 jen a process * The system also requires very little overhead since it only makes a decision wt PI completes or a new process is added. Disadvantages of SRTF: ation. tinually added. to our detailed article + Like the shortest job first, it also has the potential for process starv Long processes may be held off indefinitely if short processes are cont To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer on the shortest remaining time first. 7. Longest Remaining Time First: The longest remaining time firstis a preemptive version of the longest job first scheduling algorithm. This scheduling algorithm is used by the operating system to program incoming processes for use in a systematic way. This algorithm schedules those processes first which have the longest processing time remaining for completion. Characteristics of longest remaining time first: Among all the processes waiting in a waiting queue, the CPU is always assigned to the process having the largest burst time. If two processes have the same burst time then the tie is broken using FCFS ie. the process that arrived first is processed first. - UF CPU Scheduling can be of both preemptive and non-preemptive types. Advantages of LRTF: + No other process can execute until the longest task executes completely. + All the jobs or processes finish at the same time approximately. Disadvantages of LRTF: «This algorithm gives a very high average waiting time and_average turn-around time for a given set of processes. «This may lead to a convoy effect. To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer to our detailed article on the longest remaining time first.Multiple Queue Scheduling: 5 has its own Processes in the ready queue can be divided into different classes where each oes ad Scheduling needs. For example, a common division is 2 foreground interactive) Pose ry ackground (batch) provese These two classes have different scheduling nec Situation Multilevel Queue Scheduling is used. ‘System processes |—> Quewe Daten Processes [>Qveee ee Low Priority The description of the processes in the above diagram is as follows: 1c run, generally termed as System Process. type of process in which there should be the + System Processes: The CPU itself has its process ts + Interactive Processes: An Interactive Process is a same type of interaction. «Batch Processes: Batch processing is generally a technique in the Operating system that collects the programs and data together in the form of a batch before the processing starts. Advantages of multilevel queue scheduling: «The main merit of the multilevel queue is that it has a low scheduling overhead. manygifsadvantages of multilevel queue sched + Starvation problem + Itis inflexible in nature To learn about how to implement this CPU scheduling algorithm, please refer to our detailed article on Multilevel Queue Schedulin 410, Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling: el Feedback Queue Scheduling (MLFQ) CPU Scheduling is like Multilevel Queue Multile k jing but in this process can move between the queues. And thus, much more efficient than schedull r raultilevel queue scheduling. Characteristics of Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:jgned to a queue on nly a queues. ing algorithm, processes are permane! has the advantage of low . 1 multilevel queue-scheduling tthe: ot allowed to move between entry to the system, and processes are n\ , is the processes are permanently assigned to the queue, this setup scheduling overhead, | But on the other hand disadvantage of being inflexible. Advantages of Multilevel feedback queue scheduling: + Itis more flexible | + Itallows different processes to move between different queues Disadvantages of Multilevel feedback queue scheduling: + Italso produces CPU overheads + Itis the most complex algorithm. Multiple-Processor Scheduling multiple-processor scheduling multiple CPU's are available and hence Load Sharing becomes possible. However multiple processor scheduling is more complex as compared to single processor scheduling. In multiple processor scheduling there are cases when the processors are identical ie. HOMOGENEOUS, in terms of their functionality, we can use any processor available to run any process in the queue. Why is multiple-processor scheduling important? Multiple-processor scheduling is important because it enables a computer system to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, which can greatly improve overall system performance and efficiency. How does multiple-processor scheduling work? Multiple-processor scheduling works by dividing tasks among multiple processors in a - computer system, which allows tasks to be processed simultaneously and reduces the overall time needed to complete them. Approaches to Multiple-Processor Scheduling - One approach is when all the scheduling decisions an i Soomro es a esi deco nV procesing ar hand by 2 the user code. This is simple and reduces the need of data sharing, This enti eon called Asymmetric Multiprocessing. A second approach uses symmetri me Scenarios Multiprocessing where each processor is self scheduling, All Processes i F common ready queue or each processor may have its own private queu rat beina processes. The scheduling proceeds further by having the scheduler for chee examine the ready queue and select a process to execute. SeProcessor Affinity - ocessor On which it is Processor Affinity means a processes has an affinity for the Pr ron ain effects On Currently running. When a process runs on a specific processor there vere the cache fOr the cache memory. The data most recently accessed by the process Forte ie satisfied in the processor and as a result successive memory access by the process are 0! ante of the the cache memory. Now if the process migrates to another processor, the con ee Cache memory must be invalidated for the first processor and the cache fe! e SS Processor must be repopulated. Because of the high cost of invalidating an‘ Ne ee caches, most of the SMP(symmetric multiprocessing) systems try to avoid eee some Processes from one processor to another and try to keep a process running on Processor, This is known as PROCESSOR AFFINITY. There are two types of processor affinity: Soft Affinity - When an operating system has a policy of attempt Tunning on the same processor but not guaranteeing it will do so, soft affinity. 2. Hard Affinity - Hard Affinity allows a process to specify a subset of proce: it may run, Some systems such as Linux implements soft affinity but also provide some system calls like sched_setaffinity( that supports hard affinity. ing to keep a process this situation is called ssors on which Load Balancing — Load Balancing is the phenomena which keeps the workload evenly distributed across all processors in an SMP system. Load balancing is necessary only on systems where each processor has its own private queue of process which are eligible to execute. Load balancing is unnecessary because once a processor becomes idle it immediately extracts a runnable matt) cess from the common run queue. On SMP(symmetric multiprocessing), it is important to keep the workload balanced among all processors to fully utilize the benefits of having more than one processor else one or more processor will sit idle while other processors have high workloads along with lists of processors awaiting the CPU. There are two general approaches to load balancing : 1. Push Migration - In push migration a task routinely checks the load on ea: P ; ; ch and if it finds an imbalance then it evenly distributes load on each processors precessor the processes from overloaded to idle or less busy processors, SOving) 2. Pull Migration - Pull Migration occurs when an idle processor busy processor for its execution. Pulls a waiting task from a‘Scheduling in Real Time Syste Real-time systems are systems that carry real-time tasks. These tasks need to be performed immediately with a certain degree of urgency. In particular, these tasks are related to control of certain events (or) reacting to them. Real-time tasks can be classified as hard real-time tasks and soft real-time tasks. - A hard real-time task must be performed at a specified time which could otherwise lead to huge losses. In soft real-time tasks, a specified deadline can be missed. This is because the task can be rescheduled (or) can be completed after the specified time, In real-time systems, the scheduler is considered as the most important component which is typically a short-term task scheduler. The main focus of this scheduler is to reduce the response time associated with each of the associated processes instead of handling the deadline. If a preemptive scheduler is used, the real-time task needs to wait until its corresponding tasks time slice completes. In the case of a non-preemptive scheduler, even if the highest priority is allocated to the task, it needs to wait until the completion of the current task. This task can be slow (or) of the lower priority and can lead to a longer wait.