SOLUTIONS

QUICK REVISION POINTS:

It is a homogenous mixture of solute and solvent. Solute + Solvent = Solution
EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Some basic formulae:-
Mass percentage. Mole fraction Molarity (M) =
w/w% 𝑛𝐴 No. of moles of solute/volume
𝑋𝐴 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑊𝐵 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 of solution (L)
= × 100 𝑛𝐴
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝐵 𝑋𝐵 = Unit=mole/litre [mol/L]
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵
XA+XB=1
For liquid solutions Molality (m) =
ppm (parts per million)
%v/v = no. of moles of solute/mass of
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑉𝐵) 𝑊𝐵 solvent (kg)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 ) =𝑊 ×106 Unit=mole/Kilogram [mol/kg]
𝐴 +𝑊𝐵

NOTE: Mole Fraction, Mass Percentage, ppm and Molality are independent of temperature,
whereas molarity depends on temperature. This is because volume depends on temperature.
SOLUBILITY (maximum amount of solute present in a specific amount of solvent at a specified
temperature) of gas depends on:
Nature of gas Pressure Temperature and Solubility of gas
Easily Increases with Increases with decrease in temperature, aquatic species are
liquefiable, increase in pressure more comfortable in cold water rather thanin warmwater
Easy to (HENRY’S LAW) and prefer to stay at lower level away from the upper layer
dissolve of water in summers.
Henry’s law: - Mole fraction of gas in the solution is directly proportional to partial pressure of gas at
constant temperature in the vapour phase.
p  XB p= KHXB ( KH= Henry’s constant )(greater the KHvalue lower the solubility)
APPLICATIONS: Soft drinks are sealed under high pressure to increase solubility of CO2.
To avoid BENDS, the tanks used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium (less soluble
than N2)
ANOXIA problem at higher altitudes due to low pressure, low concentration of O2 in Blood cells.

Vapour pressure: -The pressure exerted by the vapours in the equilibrium with liquid at a given
temperature.
For two volatile liquids For one non-volatile and one volatile liquid
PA = P0AΧA PB = P0BΧB PA = P0AΧA PB =0
Dalton’s partial pressure Dalton’s partial pressure
PTotal= P0AΧA+ PB0ΧB PTotal= P0A(1-XB)+ PB0ΧB PTotal= P0AΧA+0 PTotal= P0AΧA
Composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution: PA = PtotalYA PB = PtotalYB

Raoult’s law: - The partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly proportional
to its mole fraction PA  XA PB  XB

Ideal solutions Non-Ideal solutions

Obeys Raoult’s law over the entire rangeof Don’t Obey Raoult’s law over the entire range
concentration. of concentration.
e.g. Solution of n-hexane and n-heptane
A-A, B-B = A-B interactions A-A, B-B ≠ A-B interactions
PTotal= PA+ PB PTotal= P0AΧA+ PB0ΧB PTotal≠ PA+ PB PTotal≠ P0AΧA+ PB0ΧB
ΔmixH=0 ΔmixV=0 ΔmixH≠0, ΔmixV≠ 0
Can be separated by fractional distillation Cannot be separated by fractional distillation

5 | Page
Non-Ideal solutions
Positive deviation Negative deviation
PTotal > PA+ PB, ΔmixV=+ve, ΔmixH=+ve PTotal< PA+ PB, ΔmixV=-ve , ΔmixH=-ve
A – B interaction is weaker than A – A or B – B A – B interaction is stronger than
interactions. A – A and B – B interaction.
Minimum boiling Azeotrope* Maximum boiling Azeotrope
e.g. Water+ Alcohol, Ethanol + Acetone, e.g. Water+ HNO3, Chloroform + Acetone,
Carbon disulphide + Acetone Phenol + Aniline
Azeotrope* (Greek: boiling without change) Mixtures having same composition in liquid and
vapour phase, boil at a constant temperature and cannot be separated by fractional distillation.

Colligative properties: - The properties of solutions which depend only on the number of particles of
the solute (molecules or ions) dissolved in a definite amountof the solvent and do not dependonthe
nature of solute.
Relativelowering in Elevation in boiling Depression in Osmosis
vapourpressure point freezing point
po-p/po=XB ΔTb =Tb -𝑇𝑏𝑜 ΔTf =𝑇𝑓0 −Tf π = CRT
𝑷𝟎𝑨 − 𝑷𝑺 ΔTb=Kb×m ΔTf =Kf ×m 𝒏
𝜟𝑷𝑨
= = 𝑿𝑩 π = 𝒗RT
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑷𝟎𝑨
[for a very dilute 𝑲𝒃 × 𝒘𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑲𝒇 × 𝒘𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 π=osmotic
𝚫𝐓𝒃 = 𝚫𝐓𝒇 = pressure
solution nB << nA ] 𝑴𝟐 × 𝒘𝟏 𝑴𝟐 × 𝒘 𝟏
Kb = molal elevation or Kf = Molal depression For Isotonic
EBULLIOSCOPIC or CRYOSCOPIC solutions
𝑷𝟎𝑨 −𝑷𝑺 𝒏𝑩 𝒘𝟐/𝑴𝟐
= = constant. constant. π1 = π2
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝒏𝑨 𝒘𝟏/𝑴𝟏
It is the elevation in It is the depression in
boiling point of 1 molal freezing point of 1 and under
solution. molal solution. identical conditions
𝑴 × 𝑹 × 𝑻𝟐𝒃 𝑴 × 𝑹 × 𝑻𝟐𝒇
𝐊𝒃 = 𝐊𝒇 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝑯 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝒇𝒖𝒔 𝑯 C1 = C2

6 | Page
IMPORTANT POINTS:
 Condition for Reverse osmosis: pressure higher than the osmotic pressure is applied on the
solution.The solvent will flow from the solution into the pure solvent through the semi-
permeable membrane (cellulose acetate).It is used in desalination of sea water.
 Antifreeze agent: ethylene glycol used in car radiators at hill stations (Depression in
freezing point)
 De-icing agents: common salt (NaCl) or calcium chloride (CaCl2) is scattered on the roads to
melt ice in cold countries (Depression in freezing point)
Biological and Industrial importance of osmosis:
 Edema: Due to excess intake of salt by a person, the tissues become puffy, it is called edema. It
is due to retention of water in the tissue owing to osmosis.
 The preservation of meat by salting and of fruits by adding sugar protects against bacterial
action. Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water,
shrivels and dies.
 The osmotic pressure method has got advantages over other colligative
properties:
 The measurement of osmotic pressure is around the room temperature
 gives large measurable values for molar masses and
 Molarity of the solution is used instead of molality.
Conditions for normal molar mass (Accurate value)
Solute must be non-volatile, Solution must be dilute and solute should not undergo any association or
dissociation in the solution (non- electrolyte solution).
Abnormal molar mass: Electrolytic Solutions: - When the molar mass of a solute become higher or
lower after its association or dissociation in the solution it is called abnormal molar mass.
Van’t Hoff factor: i = normal molar mass/abnormal (observed) molar mass
No. of Colligative Molar mass ⅈ (Van’t  (extent) If =100% Examples
PROPERTY molecules property Hoff factor) (=1)
Acetic Acid
Greater than ⅈ−𝟏 𝟏
ASSOCIATION in benzene
Less Lowers theoretical ⅈ˂1 𝟏 ⅈ= 𝟏
−𝟏 𝒏
value 𝒏 ⅈ=
𝟐
ⅈ−𝟏
DISSOCIATION more Increases lesser ⅈ˃1 ⅈ=𝒏 AlCl3 (ⅈ = 𝟒)
𝒏−𝟏

Q.NO. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK)

1 12 g of urea is dissolved in 1 litre of water and 68.4 g of sucrose is dissolved in 1 litre of water.
The lowering of vapour pressure in the first case is-
(a) equal to second (b) greater than second (c) less than second (d) double that of second
2 Which solution is isotonic to the blood?
(a)0.75 % by weight of NaCl approximately (b) 0.99 % by weight of NaCl approximately
(c) 0.90 % by weight of NaCl approximately (d) 0.54 % by weight of NaCl approximately
3 An unknown gas X is dissolved in water at 2.5 bar pressure & has mole fraction 0.04 in solution.
The mole fraction of X gas, when the pressure of gas is doubled at the same temperature, will
be-
(a) 0.08 (b) 0.04 (c) 0.96 (d) 0.88
4 The mass of (COOH)2.2H2O, oxalic acid needed to prepare 500 mL of 0.1 molar solution is
(a) 12.6 g (b) 6.3 g (c) 4.2 g (d) 5 g
5 X is dissolved in water. Maximum boiling point is observed when X (0.1 M each) is ………
(a) ZnSO4 (b) CaCl2 (c) NaCl (d) urea
6 The values of KH (in kbar), For gases A, B, C & D are 76, 1.67, 0.41 & 56 respectively –
Which one is least soluble in H2O-
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
7 Identify the law which is stated as: “For any solution, the partial vapour pressure of each
volatile component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.”
7 | Page
 (a) Henry’s law (b) Raoult’s law (c) Dalton’s law (d) Gay-Lussac's Law
8 Four liquids P, Q, R and S boil at 73 C, 87 C, 80 C and 94 C respectively. Which one has the
° ° ° °

highest vapour pressure at 50° C.

(a) P (b) Q (c) R (d) S
9 In reverse osmosis:
(a) a pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied on pure water side
(b) a pressure less than osmotic pressure is applied on pure water side
(c) a pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied on salt water side
(d) a pressure less than osmotic pressure is applied on salt water side
10 An azeotropic solution of two liquids has boiling point lower than either of them when solute-
solvent interactions are:
(a) Equal to solute- solute and solvent- solvent interactions
(b) Stronger than solute -solute and solvent -solvent interactions
(c) Weaker than solute -solute and solvent -solvent interactions
(d) None of the above
11 Which of the following pairs have same units?
(a) Molality & Molarity (b) Molarity & Mole fraction
(c) Cryoscopic constant & Ebullioscopic constant (d) Henry constant & Cryoscopic constant
12 Colligative properties depend on
(a) the nature of the solute particles dissolved in solution
(b) the number of solute particles in solution
(c) the physical properties of the solute particles dissolved in solution
(d) the nature of solvent particles
13 Calculate the mass % of aspirin (C9H8O4) in acetonitrile (CH3CN) when 6.5 g of C9H8O4 is
dissolved in 450 g of CH3CN.
(a) 3.8 % (b)7.2 % (c) 1.4 % (d)6.5%
14 In some cases of saturated solution,the dissolution process is endothermic (∆sol H > 0) then-
(a) solubilty increases with rise in temperature
(b) solubilty decreases with rise in temperature
(c) solubilty first decreases then increases with rise in temperature
(d) solubilty remains same with rise in temperature
15 Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude is due to
(a) low temperature (b) low atmospheric pressure (c) high atmospheric pressure
(d) both low temperature and high atmospheric pressure
ANS. 1 (a) 2(c) 3(a) 4(b) 5(b) 6(a) 7(b) 8(a) 9(c) 10(c) 11(c) 12(b) 13(c) 14(a) 15(b)
ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS (1MARK)
Note: In the following questions (1-5) a statement of assertion followed by a statement
of reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices.
(a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is the correct explanation for
assertion.
(b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but the reason is not a correct
explanation for assertion.
(c) Assertion is a correct statement but the reason is the wrong statement.
(d) Assertion is a wrong statement but the reason is a correct statement.
1 Assertion: Azeotropic mixtures are not formed only by non-ideal solutions and they may have
boiling point either greater than both the components or less than both the components.
Reason: The composition of vapour phase is same as that of the liquid phase of Azeotropic
mixture.
2 Assertion: In solution, Amalgam of mercury with sodium is an example of solid solutions.
Reason: Mercury is solvent and sodium is solute in the solution.
3 Assertion: When a solution is separated from the pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane,
the solvent molecules pass through it from solution side to pure solvent side.
Reason: Diffusion of solvent occours from a region of low concentration solution to region of
high concentration solution.
8 | Page
4 Assertion: Ethanol + Acetone solution does not obey Raoult’s law.
Reason: Raoult’s law is a special case of Henry’s law.
5 Assertion: Molar mass of acetic acid in benzene calculated using colligative property is almost
double the actual value.
Reason: Acetic acid dimerises in solution.
ANS 1 (d) 2(c) 3 (d) 4(b) 5(a)
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
1. What is the value of van’t Hoff factor
(i) For a solution when the solute undergoes association.
(ii) For a solution when the solute undergoes dissociation.
Ans (i) i< 1 (ii) i>1
2. Suman took two glasses of water from a water filter. She cools one glass in a fridge and warms
the other glass on a stove. Which glass of water will hold more dissolved oxygen? Explain using
Henry's law.
Ans Glass kept in a fridge will contain more oxygen. Because according to Henry’s law the partial
pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the
solution. p = KH x
Henry constant is directly proportional to temperature. If temperature increases solubilty of gas
will be decreases.
3. When 2.56 g of sulphur was dissolved in 100 g of CS2, the freezing point lowered by 0.383 K.
B Calculate the formula of (SX). (KF for CS2=3.83 Kkg mol-1, atomic mass of sulphur =32 g mol-1)
Ans ∆TF= Kf Wb x 1000/Mb x Wa
0.383=3.83 x 2.56 x 1000/Mb X 100
Mb=256 S × x =256, 32 × x =256, x=8
4 Give reasons for the following-
(i) Mixture of ethanol and acetone shows positive deviation from Raoult’s Law.
(ii) The preservation of fruits by adding concentrated sugar solution protects against bacterial
action.
Ans (i) The intermolecular interactions between ethanol and acetone are weaker/ the escaping
tendency of ethanol and acetone molecules increases on mixing / the vapour pressure
increases.
(ii) Due to osmosis, a bacterium on fruit loses water, shrivels and dies.
5. Why NaCl solution freezes at lower temperature than water but boils at higher temperature
than water?
Ans When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, the vapour pressure decreases. As a result, the solution
boils at a high temperature while solvent freezes at lower temperature.
6 a) How the osmotic pressure of 5 % aqueous solution of glucose (π1) is related to that of 5 %
aqueous solution of urea (π2)?
b) Why do salt water fish die when they are suddenly transferred to a fresh water aquarium?
Ans a) π1 = π2 (isotonic solutions)
b) Water from aquarium enters in cell causing them to expand and get ruptured.
7 a) Why the colligative property of an electrolyte solution is always greater than that of a non-
electrolyte solution?
b) Ravi wants to put an egg with outer shell removed in a bottle but he is unable to do so as
mouth of bottle is slightly smaller.Suggest one method to help him putting the peeled egg in
the bottle.
Ans a) Due to dissociation of electrolyte the number of ions increases
b) Peeled egg shrinks in saturated brine solution.
8 Why is Benzene insoluble in water but soluble in Toluene?
Ans Polar solute dissolve in polar solvent & non-polar (Benzene) solute dissolved in non-polar
(Toluene) solvent
9 i) How de-icing agent works?
ii) A 500 gm toothpaste sample has 0.18 gm fluoride concentration. What is its concentration in

9 | Page
 ppm?
Ans i) It lowers the freezing point of water.
ii) Ppm= parts per million= 0.18 x 106/500 =360 ppm
10. Which type of deviation is shown by Carbon tetrachloride and chloroform mixture? Give reason.
Ans Positive Deviation, A-A & B-B interactions are stronger than those of the A-B interactions,
increase in vapour pressure.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
1 a) Give reasons.
i) Scuba divers develop bends.
ii) Feeling of weakness and discomfort in breathing at high altitude.
b) Why does soda water bottle kept at room temperature fizz on opening?
Ans i) Scuba divers cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases, when divers come towards
surface, pressure decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of
bubbles of nitrogen in the blood & develops bends.
ii) At high altitude pressure is decreases, solubility of gases also decreases. This causes person
to become weak & discomfort in breathing.
iii) Soda water bottles are sealed under pressure.
2 a) What is the degree of dissociation for 0.1M Ba(NO3)2 if i (Van’t Hoff factor) is 2.74.
b) Arrange the following solutions in increasing order of Van’t Hoff factor.
0.1M CaCl2, 0.1M KCl, 0.1M C12H22O11, 0.1 M Al2(SO4)3
Ans a) α = i- 1/n-1 2.74-1/3-1 1.74/2=0.87where,n=3
b) 0.1M C12H 22O11< 0.1M KCl < 0.1M CaCl2 < 0.1 M Al2(SO4)3
3 A glucose solution which boils at 101.04oC at 1 atm. What will be relative lowering of vapour
pressure of an aqueous solution of urea which is equimolal to given glucose solution? (Given: Kb
for water is 0.52 K kg mol-1)
Ans ΔTb = Kb m ΔTb = 101.04-100 = 1.04oCor
m= 1.04 /0.52 = 2 m
2 m solution means 2 moles of solute in 1 kg of solvent. 2 m aqueous solution of urea means 2
moles of urea in 1kg of water. No. of moles of water = 1000/18 = 55.5
Relative lowering of V.P. = X2 (where X2 is mole fraction of solute)
Relative lowering of V.P. = n2/n1+n2 (n2 is no. of moles of solute, n1 is no. of moles of solvent)
= 2/ 2+55.5 = 2/57.5 = 0.034
4 i) Why freezing/melting point of a substance used as a criterion for testing the purity of a
substance?
ii) Measurement of osmotic pressure is preferred for the for the determination of molar masses
of macromolecules such as protein & polymers. Give two reasons.
Ans i) Freezing/Melting point changes due to impurities.
ii) Its value is large even for very dilute solutions, so polymers having poor solubility can use
this method to find their molar mass. Proteins & polymers are unstable at high temperatures.
5. Find the vapour pressure of water and its relative lowering in the solution which is 50 g of
urea (NH2CONH2) dissolved in 850 g of water. (Vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8
mm Hg)
Ans Mole of urea = 50/60 =0.833, Moles of water = 850/18 = 47.222
Mole fraction of urea(xB) = 0.0173
(P0A – PA) /P0A = xB, (23.8-PA)/23.8=0.0173PA = 23.39
V P of water in the given solution is 23.39 mm of Hg and its relative lowering is 0.0173.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)
1. i) Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 0.5 g KCl (Molar mass = 74.5 g/mol)
dissolved in 100 g water, assuming KCl to be 92% ionized. Kf of water = 1.86 K kg / mol.
ii) Which of the following solutions has higher freezing point?
0.05 M Al2(SO4)3, 0.1 M K3[Fe(CN)6 ] Justify.
Ans i) KCl → K+ + Cl- n =2 i= 1- + n i=1+
∆Tf = i.kfm= (1+ 0.92) x1.86x0.5x1000/74.5x100 =0.24
∆Tf =Tfo -TfTf=-0.24oC
10 | Page
 ii) 0.05 M Al2(SO4)3 has higher freezing point. 0.05 M Al2(SO4)3: i = 5,
Tf α No of particles; Tf = i x concentration = 5 x 0.05 = 0.25 moles of ions
0.1 M K3 [Fe (CN)6] i = 4,Tf = 4 x 0.1 = 0.4 moles of ions
2. i) While performing practicals it is directed that the bottle of liquid ammonia is to be cooled
before opening seal but Suman forgot to cool it before opening. What consequence she faced ?
ii) Sia’s father is suffering from high blood pressure but he is advised to consume less quantity
of common salt. Why?
iii) Out of 1M sucrose and 1M urea solution which has more osmotic pressure?
iv) A compound CuSO4.5H2O undergoes complete dissociation in water. What will be its value of
Van’t Hoff factor?
v) If molality of dilute solution is doubled,what will be the value of molal elevation
constant(Kb)?
Ans i) It is cooled to lower down the pressure of ammonia else the gas will bump out of the bottle.
ii) More salt use will increase ions in the body fluid which increases blood pressure
iii) Both have same osmotic pressure.
iv) i=2
v) Kb dosen’t depend upon ‘m’ so remain unchanged.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)

Anand is investigating values of van't Hoff factor 'i' for strong electrolytes KCl, NaCl, MgSO4 and K₂SO4, at
various concentrations. He recorded the following values of different concentrations.
Values of 'i' van't Hoff factor'i' for complete
Salt dissociation ofsolute
0.1 m 0.01 m 0.001 m
NaCl 1.87 1.94 1.97 2.0
KCI 1.85 1.94 1.98 2.0
MgSO4 1.21 1.53 1.82 2.0
K₂SO4 2.32 2.70 2.84 3.0

Observe the table carefully and answer the questions that follow:
(a) What is van't Hoff factor (i)?
(b) What happens to value of 'i' of electrolytes with dilution and why?'
(c) A solution contains 5.85 g of NaCl (Molar mass = 58.5 g/mol) per litre of solution. It has an osmotic
pressure of 4.75 atm at 27°C. Calculate the degree of dissociation of NaCl in this solution.
(Given R = 0.082 L atm K-1 mol-1).
OR
0.3 g of CH₂COOH (M = 60 g mol-¹) dissolved in 30 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing point
equal to 0.45°C. Calculate the percentage association of acid. [K, for benzene = 5.12 K kg mol-1]
(a) Van’t Hoff factor: i May be defined as the ratio of normal molecular mass to observed molecular
mass or the ratio of observed colligative property to calculated colligative property.
(b) On dilution as volume of solution increases, thus dissociation of electrolytes increases hence
‘i‘value also increases.
5.85 1 𝑖−1 1.93−1
(c) a) π=i CRT4.75=𝑖 × 58.5 × 1 × 0.082 × 300𝑖 = 1.93 ∝=
𝑛−1
=
2−1
= 0.93 𝑜𝑟 93%
[OR]
If ‘i ’ is the Van’t Hoff factor, then depression in freezing point –
𝑖 × 𝐾𝑓 × 𝑤1 × 1000
ΔT𝑓 = ; 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 ΔT𝑓 = 0.45𝐾, 𝑤1 = 0.3𝑔 , 𝑤2 = 30𝑔 , 𝑀2 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 = 60𝑔 , 𝐾𝑓 = 5.12
𝑀2 × 𝑤2
ΔT𝑓 × 𝑀2 × 𝑤2 0.45 × 30 × 60
𝑖 = = = 0.5213
𝐾𝑓 × 𝑤1 × 1000 5.12 × 0.3 × 1000
Van’t Hoff factor is 0.5273

11 | Page