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Free Meter is Not Completely Free

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Free Meter is Not Completely Free

Abstract

In this article, brief information is first provided about the perceptual limitations of the auditory
system and the human brain regarding sound and music. Then, the similarities between sounds
used in music and language are briefly discussed. These preliminary topics pave the way for the
main discussion, which involves providing comprehensive and clear definitions of some of the
most fundamental and essential subjects related to time in music. In the definitions section, I have
tried to present definitions according to the standard scientific method, and when necessary, I have
given additional explanations along with examples to aid understanding.

After clarifying the differences between the categories, the discussion moves on to the differences
between types of meter, accompanied by an evolved chart compared to its previous version
(Sepehri, 2016). Following this, the topic of free meter is explained, and I have attempted to clearly
state perceptual and interpretative errors related to this topic. The article concludes with two topics
briefly discussed: the role of tempo in the perception of different types of meter, and the issue of
quantizing the durations, which are related to the correct understanding of various types of meter
and other time-related concepts in music.

Written by: Hadi Sepehri (Master of Musicology from the University of Tehran)

Introduction

Phenomena perceived by human senses without the aid of tools require time both for their
emergence and for their perception. Therefore, phenomena must be spatial and temporal to be
perceived by a perceiver equipped with receptors and an analyzer (senses and the nervous system
and brain). The simplest and most general definition of perception is: "Perception is a process in
which the external world stimulates an individual's sensory organs, and the result of this
stimulation is a perceptual experience" (J. Keane, 2017: 16). I add that many phenomena are still
undetected; however, an undetectable phenomenon, meaning that it cannot be detected either by
senses or precise instruments, logically does not exist. Unless the effect of an unknown factor is
observed in the system, it is assumed to be unknown rather than undetectable or incomprehensible.

Here, we exclude a type of phenomenon that becomes tangible and perceptible with tools from the
scope of discussion. This text is about one of the quantitative aspects of music, and this aspect is
entirely measurable and recordable. This aspect, namely temporality (timeliness) and timing
(having a beginning and end) of phenomena, is unlike the assumed qualitative effects of music,
which are generally examined in the field of psycho-musicology and psychoacoustics. To date,
humans have not been able to fully interpret and convert these qualities directly into numbers;
although recent efforts by scientists have been fruitful, and eventually, all qualities will be
convertible into precise numbers. The reason for this delay is the placement of such topics and
phenomena within the realm of complex systems (cf. Mitchell, 2015; Doron, 2014).
In my opinion, dividing phenomena in the world into measurable (quantitative) and non-
measurable (qualitative) phenomena is a clear error of ancient philosophy and science. Because
essentially, all phenomena perceptible by humans, whether through senses or with the help of tools,
have the capability of being measured. Considering the first as quantitative and the second as
qualitative is a mistake. Perceptible quality for everyone is not a separate property or category
against quantity but is rather in line with and an extension of quantity. Consequently, desirable
quality results from optimal and favorable quantities, and vice versa (see also J. Keane, 2017: 22).

Qualia for each perceiving entity is another matter, which with today's scientific capabilities, is
clearer to the perceiving entity itself. However, the nature of individuals' mental qualities is also
not non-material. "You, your joys and sorrows, your memories and ambitions, your sense of
personal identity and the free will you feel are in fact nothing more than the behavior of a vast
assembly of nerve cells and associated molecules" (Crick, 2015: 13). A clear and tangible example
is the internet network, which is referred to as virtual space, and what exists in it is assumed to be
non-physical, whereas it is not virtual at all and is entirely physical, resulting from the exchange
of information through electronic systems (hardware and software).

I would like to remind you that my positions in this introduction are derived from epistemology
based on scientific realism (see Bunge, 2015: 414-415). Purely mental-logical arguments, although
necessary and useful for creating new ideas, expanding the boundaries of knowledge, and
advancing science in the preliminary stages of ideation and hypothesis formation, must be
discarded if they cannot be empirically proven in practice. Therefore, what is presented here,
although connected with the aforementioned fields, is objectively existent; unlike purely mental
subjects; and is entirely physical as opposed to supposedly metaphysical phenomena.

I also deeply believe that all phenomena have reciprocal relationships with the environment and
other phenomena. However, initially, to understand, recognize, and represent them, we consider
them separately from other influencing issues. Ultimately, we must analyze the more complex and
intricate states that occur in practice.

In this article, I have attempted to briefly and effectively explain "time in music," particularly from
the perspective of "perceptual-executive limitations of the human nervous-perceptual and
muscular system," the theory of complex systems and chaos, and also the relationship between
"rhythm and meter" with human language and the issue of temporal quantizing of audio-musical
events.

As a philosophical or phenomenological question, seeking an answer to this question is unrelated

to the topics of time in music. Today, cognitive sciences, modern physics, and fundamental
philosophy of physics provide clearer and more explicit answers to such questions, away from
purely mental-intuitive conjectures, which are more aligned with our current perception and
understanding of the world. Here, I remind you that the range of time in which music is produced
and perceived includes quantities where time is considered definitive, absolute, and constant
(Popel, 2010: 19).

Issues concerning changes and curvature of time in Einstein's special and general relativity are in
no way perceptible to humans (Newton, 2008: 128 and Bardon, 2016: 205), such that they could
affect our measurements in music (see Green, 2016). Measuring time has always been done by
measuring and examining an oscillatory (periodic) motion. In the past, this measurement was done
using the Earth's annual orbit around the sun (or similar methods), then using a pendulum; later
with quartz oscillator measurement, and today, atomic clocks are used to keep time, calculating
the vibrations of a cesium atom, which moves like a pendulum. Since 1967, one second has been
based on the SI standard of 9,192,631,770 cycles of these vibrations (Buzsáki, 2011: 6).

To measure time, "what we do is use regular movements, such as the Earth's or moon's orbit or the
ticking of a clock, as units of duration [Duration]. These, in turn, can be used to count, order, or
measure other durations, movements, or changes" (Bardon, 2016: 21). From past to present, the
precision of time measurement has gradually increased (Newton, 2008). The smallest measured
amount of time is 10^-26 seconds, within which no time jumps have been observed (Davies, 2015:
216). For information on changes in human understanding of time and its measurement throughout
history, see Halford Stevens, 2014).

A musical event at the first level of analysis consists of two temporal-metric components
(temporality and timing) and a spatial-sonic component (levels of pitch). The time dimension in
music is one of its two main constructive aspects; because without the passage of time, no piece
of music is produced or understood (Harvey, 2017: 24). With today's capabilities, it is possible to
measure the durations used in music with much higher precision than the ordinary perception of
the human brain. With new information from physics, philosophy, and psychology related to sound
and sound perception in the 20th century, precise and scientific approaches to understanding
rhythm and meter have been established (London, 2002: 695). For information on studies of time
in music, see D. Kramer, 1985, although this list is not complete and up-to-date.

Perception of Time and Auditory Perceptual Limitations

To better understand how time is perceived and how phenomena are understood along the
unidirectional axis of time, it is essential to gain some knowledge of the brain's function and the
human nervous system. The brain is the organ responsible for perceiving time and space, and
thus understanding self-existence in humans. Time perception in the human brain is managed by
the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus, which generates spaced, regular neural firings,
acting like a molecular clock and causing the sensation of time passing (Vakili, 2010: 133).

In general, the human brain must categorize subjects to understand anything, including self-
existence, the body and its parts, and all existing entities in the world (Kovach, 2016: 31-67).
Consequently, auditory-musical events are perceived and felt separately and distinctly in the
present. This does not refer to the entirety of a musical work but rather to its constituent
elements, which must have temporal disjunctions (beginning and end) in values perceivable by
the brain. These values must be such that the brain can perceive them as separate events in the
present, not in the past or future (see Lakoff and Johnson, 2015).

It should be noted that auditory limitations are not the only constraints humans face when
interacting with music. For example, physical-motor limitations reduce the human capability to
execute any desired extent, and there are also limitations in producing frequencies with the vocal
cords (Pogoriloffsky, 2015: 37-41). Additionally, it seems that the perception of temporal
categories in music (rhythm and meter) is part of the biological structure of humans, making it a
universal phenomenon.

Sound consists of longitudinal waves. A sound wave is a pressure variation (along with some
disturbances) in a material medium (Kotroff, 2015: 3). Thus, sound perception depends on two
interdependent variables: the sound variable and the time variable; and all systems composed of
auditory signals are linear and temporal systems (Doron, 2015: 53).

From the perspective of cognitive biology, there are limitations to sound perception by the
human brain and auditory system in terms of frequency, duration, volume, and similar aspects.
Each characteristic of sound has thresholds, starting from the minimum possible values required
to begin perception and extending to the maximum possible values beyond human perception. It
is important to note that our examination includes the asynchrony in the production and hearing
of sounds (horizontal axis), while the examination of simultaneous or overlapping sound states
(vertical axis) is outside the scope of this article. For simultaneous or overlapping sound states,
see E. Keller and Denis K. Burnham, 2005.

In every case, certain amounts of energy change in the "production-transfer-perception of sound"

system are necessary for sensory reception, understanding of the object, and the ability to
distinguish in the brain. For example, in the area of "sound intensity," we face limitations of the
hearing threshold, differential threshold, and pain threshold, which vary for different frequencies.

For instance, as shown in Image 1, in order for a sound with a frequency of 250 Hz to be
perceived and understood by the auditory system (hearing threshold), it must have a minimum
intensity of 10 decibels, and similarly for other frequencies (Irani & Khodapanahi, 2015: 66-68;
Benson, 2008: 12-8). For information on the limitations of human perception and sensation in the
dimension of time, refer to "Borders of Consciousness" by Ernst Pöppel (2010).

)66 :1394 ‫تصویر یک (ایروانی و خداپناهی‬

(Collins 2010: 289)‫تصویر دو‬
 (Sethares 2007:7) ‫تصویر سه‬

Since the topic of this article is related to the temporality and timing of sounds, especially those
used in music, let’s look at the relevant thresholds and examples. A vibration that generates a
sound wave in a material environment creates a "sound field" within a limited range. If the sound
receiver, in this case, the human ear, is within this field, it receives the sound waves and sends
them as information through neurons to the brain for analysis.

Sound waves propagate through particles called phonons in the sound field. Phonons are defined
as particles in the sound field that carry the energy produced by the sound vibration, and thus
they can be measured precisely (Newton, 2008: 143). Assuming the produced sound is above the
auditory threshold and below the pain threshold in terms of sound intensity, and considering
constant pressure, humidity, and air density at the place of production, propagation, and hearing
of the sound, we encounter the values and numbers in Images 2 and 3.

Perception of Time, Auditory Perceptual Limitations

By examining the numerical results from precise experiments in the images, one can conclude
that not all durations are perceptible, and even there are limitations in understanding the
difference between two durations. It should be noted that these values are valid considering the
health of the auditory system and brain, which are completely dependent on an individual's age
and health. Therefore, not all desired durations can be used in speech and music because the
human auditory system and sound perception can only understand and distinguish certain
durations (Harvey 2017: 97-143; Roads 2001: 3-12). For example, the structure of the auditory
system, including the ear, the nerves transmitting sound to the brain, and the parts involved in
sound perception, is such that sounds with durations shorter than 30 milliseconds are no longer
felt (Khodapanahi, 2015: 93).

Another example related to language is the segmentation of syllables, the limitation on the
number of simultaneously pronounced letters, and the separation of words from each other (in
speech and writing) to understand the meaning of the sounds forming words and sentences. This
is why even speech, whether in prose, poetry, or in everyday conversation, has rhythm and meter
(Harvey 2017: 37). Language and music have similarities and differences; among them, there are
definite similarities and connections between the temporal durations used in language and music
(see Menninghaus 2018: 1-21). Additionally, the factors creating meter in music and language
are the same (Haghshenass 2001: 121-131). There are even similarities in the frequency changes
for the perception and reception of music and language (see Benson 2002: 74-76).

This topic has been examined and detailed by linguists under the term prosody (see Wennerstrom
2001, Hartman 1980). I remind you that the factors creating meter in language are:

1. The number of syllables (numerical meter)

2. Stresses on specific syllables (stress meter)
3. Various temporal durations (quantitative meter)
4. The pitch of sounds (tonal meter) (Shamisa 2007: 24).

These factors are well-known and measurable (Quantitative) (for example, see Wennerstrom
2001). The meter in music also results from one or a combination of these meter-creating factors
(Fabb & Halle 2008: 36-38). Even Abd al-Qadir Maraghi, in "Jame' al-Ahane," mentions the
connection between the meter of music and poetry, writing, "There is a significant relationship
between the meter of poetry and the rhythm" (Maraghi, 2009: 234).

Just as in prose and poetry, not all durations are used, and in specific or free meters of music,
only limited and few durations are perceptible and performable for humans in both fields. As a
result, the similarity between specific meter and poetry and free meter and prose is based on the
equivalencies outlined below. The quantities of durations, i.e., the limit on the combination of
syllables forming words (language) and the temporal durations of sounds (music); specific
duration patterns, i.e., the metrical patterns of poems (language) with beats, along with their
components and multiples (music); the length of phrases and sentences, i.e., verse and sentence
(language) with measures and rhythmic-metric cycles (fixed rhythmic-metric patterns), phrases,
and melodic sentences (music) (Image 4).

Music and Language Comparison

Here is a concise comparison of musical and linguistic concepts related to meter and rhythm:
 Music Language

Fixed Meter Poetry – various forms of verse

Free Meter Prose – speech

Fixed duration patterns i.e., metrical

Beats and their subdivisions in music
patterns of poems

Measures and rhythmic-metric cycles (fixed rhythmic-metric Length of phrases and sentences i.e.,
patterns), phrases, and melodic sentences verse and sentence in language

This comparison highlights the parallels between the structure and elements of music and
language, illustrating how rhythm and meter manifest in both domains.

It is noteworthy that all durations existing in language (the quantity of syllables) can be
converted and used in music. This is why converting word durations to musical durations is the
simplest and most fundamental way to use language in combination with music (see Mollah,
1988; Dehlavi, 2000; Fatemi, 2005). It should be noted that syllabic-word systems for expressing
rhythm and meter (such as poetic feet in Ancient Greece, Konnakol, etc.) cannot represent all
possible durations in music.

When comparing different languages spoken by humans, fixed meter is similar to poetry, while
free meter is akin to prose. Because the sequence of words in prose follows a pattern similar to
free meter in music, while in poetry, it resembles metrical (fixed or variable) music. The
previously mentioned situations are as follows: in poetry, specific and defined patterns for the
sequence of durations and phrase lengths exist. Poems with equal-length and equal-meter verses
are equivalent to fixed metrical music, and verses with varied lengths and unequal meter are
equivalent to variable metrical music. However, in prose or ordinary speech among humans,
there are no specific and defined patterns for the sequence of words (the same as the durations of
spoken or written sounds), thus the length of phrases (sentences) varies.

The term "free meter" in Iranian-Arab-Turkish music is equivalent to the term "Iqa bi Dor." Abd
al-Qadir Maraghi divided meter into two types and used the term "Nathr al-Naghamat" for Iqa bi
Dor or free meter. For pieces with fixed meter, he used the term "Nazm al-Naghamat," which
precisely aligns with our discussion (Maraghi, 1977: 106).

Definitions of Time-Related Concepts in Music

Clear and precise definitions of fundamental musical elements are very important and serious
subjects. Unfortunately, due to musicians' poetic view of the world and their lack of familiarity
with physics, mathematics, philosophy, logic, and the scientific method, few good definitions of
these fundamental issues have been provided (Levitin, 2006: 55). However, musicologists who
have approached music with a scientific and logical method have been more successful in this
area.
The definitions of time-related concepts in most music books are not actual definitions; they are
often examples from music and, in some cases, non-musical examples such as rhythm in nature,
visual arts, and cinema. However, a good definition states the characteristics of objects, ideas,
and phenomena in a way that prevents confusion and provides comprehensive and exclusive
explanations (Pourtorab, 2013: 7-8; see also David Kelly: n.d.).

It is important to note that meter and rhythm are two aspects of the temporality and segmentation
of sounds. Here, I provide definitions of the main topics related to time in music. Due to the
focus of this article on "free meter," I will defer the definitions of other categories to another
article. Although the definitions presented here are my own, they are based on extensive learning
and numerous sources, including:

• Levitin, 2006
• London, 2004
• Roads, 2001 & 2015
• Godfried, 2013
• Sethares, 2007

Let's delve into the key concepts related to time in music:

1. Rhythm: In music, rhythm refers to the variations in the duration of sounds and silences
over time (on the timeline).
2. Meter (Weight): It is the measurement and perception of grouping the durations present
in rhythm. This grouping and the meaningfulness of the groups are formed through the
perception of the weight-creating factors in music. The perception of meter is part of the
biological processes in the human body, specifically adapted to repetitive events in the
environment. This adaptation capability (Attunement) includes the concept of
Entrainment in bio-musicology (London 2004: 11-12). Measurement of meter can be
unconscious or conscious. Unconsciously, a person feels the meter in heard events by
recognizing the weight-creating factors in poetry or music. Consciously, the listener starts
counting or calculating the size of beats, measures, and cycles. The first state precedes
the second, and both states can occur simultaneously. The human mental concept of
"specific and limited time cycles" stems from biological limitations of the present time,
although cultural differences, especially those involved in different perceptions of world
phenomena, can cause differences in understanding time ranges and divisions. However,
since the physical reality of phenomena is uniformly present at least across the globe,
different interpretations cannot be equally valid.
3. Tempo (Speed): It refers to the changes in the number of sounds per unit of time, i.e.,
more or fewer sounds in a unit of time.
o Note: The unit of time is considered a second and is fixed, differing from the
variable unit of time in music.
4. Pulse (Beat) or "Weight Pack": This is the amount of perceptual-positive temporal
value that other durations in the piece of music are measured and calculated against, and
it may be perceived differently in connection with different tempos of music.
o Each pulse has several levels: The middle level is called the Tactus, also known
as Steady Pulse or Basic Pulse in some sources (Barela 1979: 80-81); the upper
 levels are Unifications and the lower levels are Subdivisions of the pulse. During
music with a specific tempo, or at least during moments of stable tempo, pulses,
along with their subdivisions and unifications, are fully defined and recognizable.
Pulses in music can have equal sizes (isochronous) or different sizes (non-
isochronous) (for example, see Johansson 2017); in other words, the pulse is the
total duration, or the sum of values, that is perceived as weight packs. Each pulse
can have various underlying levels. These values are equivalent to durations as
seen in the table below. Rhythm in music is formed by adding or dividing these
values. Note: Values exceeding 64 equal parts are only used in quantizing
recorded musical works and are practically not performed by humans.
5. Beat Unit (Beat): This is the duration based on the chosen time signature for writing
metered pieces and can often be the same or different from the pulse duration. Therefore,
the beat unit is the value used for writing rhythm and meter. Example: Choosing and
writing a piece in a 3/4-time signature; if the tempo is between 50 to 100 beats per minute
for a quarter note, then the player’s foot tapping aligns with the beat unit of the time
signature, i.e., the quarter note. However, if the tempo is 130 beats per minute for a
quarter note, while the time signature and beat unit remain unchanged, the performer taps
their foot for every three-quarter notes. This highlights the difference between pulse and
beat unit.
6. Measure (Bar): In metrical music, it refers to the groups formed by the congregation of
beats in music. In most metrical music, these groups form repeating cycles. Measures
come in various types, the most important being symmetric (symmetrical) or asymmetric
(asymmetrical) measures; which should not be confused with different types of odd
meters.

These definitions help to provide a clearer understanding of time-related elements in music.

Table of Possible Durations in Music (Figure 5)

Here is a representation of various durations possible in music:

Levels of Division Types of Durations

Dotted Double Duration -

Dotted Duration with Diagonal Line on the Dot -

Dotted Duration -

Simple Duration -

Level Equal Durations

Level 1 7, 5, 3, 2

Level 2 14, 10, 6, 4

 Levels of Division Types of Durations

Level 3 28, 20, 12, 8

Level 4 56, 40, 24, 16

Level 5 112, 80, 48, 32

Level 6 224, 160, 96, 64

Level 7 448, 320, 192, 128

This table outlines the types of durations and their respective divisions in music. Each level of
division indicates how a duration can be subdivided into equal parts, enhancing our
understanding and application of rhythm in musical compositions.

These groups are recognized and perceived with different sizes, meaning the perception of a
metrical cell is a psychoacoustical issue; this concept was known even in the time of Safi al-Din
al-Urmawi (Urmawi, 2006: 182). Each measure includes at least one beat, and theoretically,
there is no limit to the number of beats in a measure or cycle. The duration of these metrical cells
or measures completely depends on human perception limits in the present time, which ranges
between 3 to 12 seconds (Fayyaz, 2006: 52). If the length of a measure exceeds this time, the
measure is mentally divided into two or more parts.

Metric Pattern

• Definition: The arrangement of beats within a measure.

• Variations: This pattern can be fixed throughout the piece (isometric meter) or variable
in different sections or measures (heterometric meter).

Rhythmic Pattern

• Definition: The arrangement of durations within a measure.

• Variations: Can change throughout the piece. If both the metric and rhythmic patterns
are fixed in the music or sections of it, it creates a stable metrical-rhythmic cycle (like
rhythmic modes in Western music).

Independent Weight Cells

Each weight cell exists independently, and changing spatial-temporal patterns (chronotopes)
results in a change of meter. No meter can transform into another unless the metric pattern that
created it changes, which means it is no longer the previous meter. Equal total durations of two
different metrical cells are not sufficient to consider two different meters identical. This situation
indicates horizontal polymeters. Such errors arise from confusing the concepts of rhythm and
meter. Transforming one meter into another only occurs with extensive changes in tempo
(Sepehri, 2016: 61 and continuation of this article).
Homogeneous and Non-Homogeneous Scaling

• Homogeneous Scaling: Meters derived from dividing the duration unit into binary
values, resulting in uniform scaling.
• Non-Homogeneous Scaling: Meters derived from dividing the duration unit into other
values, such as ternary, quintuple, septuple, including rational and irrational numbers.

Repeatability of Meters

Homogeneous and some non-homogeneous meters can repeat in a loop form. Some non-
homogeneous meters, based on numbers like π, appear non-repetitive each time. This non-
repetitive nature occurs if generated continuously based on fundamental values. However, one of
the generated cycles can be repeated intentionally. Random and non-repetitive generation of
rhythm and meter in this category uses values like the golden ratio, silver ratio, π, fractional
values, etc.

For further details and reasons behind this classification, refer to "A Look at the Classification of
Meters in Metric Music" (Sepehri, 2016: 53-63). Some of these non-homogeneous meters are
unplayable by humans, though the auditory system can perceive and distinguish them. Computer
software can perform them accurately. The best software for executing all music meters except
free meters can be found at Bounce Metronome.

Based on the temporal nature for emergence and perception and timing for measurement
(temporal dimension and categorization), I divide auditory-musical events into two components:
rhythm and meter. Rhythm refers to the arrangement of time durations on the timeline, while
meter refers to the grouping of these durations into various sizes.

Consequently, the categorization of durations, or meter in music, has two subsets:

1. Fixed Meter (Metric): This can be further divided into two types:
o Constant Metric: Where the meter remains the same throughout the piece.
o Variable Metric: Where the meter changes throughout the piece.
2. Highly Variable Meter (Free Meter): This type is characterized by the freedom to
follow diverse metric groups and is known as free meter.
Free Meter in Music

When the categories of durations in a musical event are highly variable, the music possesses a
free meter. However, it is important to note that if the durations (sounds or silences) experience
such fluctuations in length that they appear indeterminate for understanding or notation, the
limitations of the human auditory system round these durations, similar to how numbers are
rounded in mathematics (Desain & Honing 2003: 341-365, Levitin 2006: 65-66). Rounding is an
act where a number is replaced with another number that is close to the original value to make it
shorter or simpler. Although this action is consciously performed in mathematics, the human
auditory system subconsciously performs this rounding due to brain limitations (Figure 7). Thus,
the heard durations are perceived as close to the comprehensible durations, or the listener
becomes unsure in accurately identifying the duration.

This rounding phenomenon also occurs in the perception of frequency changes and their relation
to pitch (Kotroff 2015: 211-213). It is necessary to emphasize that, contrary to some beliefs, this
type of music is not devoid of meter (Sepehri 2016: 54-55, Temperley 2007: 206). Essentially,
no music is without rhythm and meter; both are aspects of a single phenomenon (Espasobin
2018: 50). Other terms used in musicology for free meter include Free Rhythm, Non-Metric,
Free Meter, A-Metric, and Free Bar, though some of these terms do not accurately define free
meter.

‫تصویر هفت‬

If rhythm and meter in music are considered a system of temporality and timing, musical events
with fixed metric meter form a relatively simple system, those with variable metric meter form a
semi-complex system, and free meter forms a complex system. Due to the presence of chaos
theory in complex systems, pieces of music with free meter often appear unpredictable and
unexpected. This has led some musicologists to consider free meter as unmeasurable, absolutely
free, and not precisely notatable (for more on complex systems, see Mitchell, 2015).
Chaos needs clarification. In systems theory, chaos in a system is defined as orderly disorder or
order within disorder (Hales, 1990, cited in Hajikarimi, 2010: 31-46). Producing music generally
involves creating disorder in order; an order that, by breaking the silence in the environment,
leads to disorder and increases the entropy of the environment. Simultaneously, each consciously
produced musical event contains a kind of order within itself. Therefore, the increase in entropy
in music has discoverable algorithms. The durations present in musical rhythm are considered
compressible algorithms, meaning changes in durations, whether formulaic or random, are
predictable and patterns can be found to produce and analyze them. This is why various rhythms
and meters can be produced through mathematical algorithms (Toussaint, 2005).

If we have fixed patterns for creating changes in rhythmic figures, the limitation of durations
depends entirely on the chosen pattern, the weight pack (pulse), and the selected form of these
weight pack divisions, which we see in different metrical musics. However, weight packs can be
chosen randomly, certainly considering perceptual limitations. Consequently, irregular sequences
of weight packs with various possible and limited divisions are imaginable and present. This
second type is what we encounter in free meter (see Kelly, 2002).

Free meter, compared to fixed and variable metric meters, which are regular, seems irregular and
is ultimately an unconscious or conscious desire to create disorder against the existing order in
fixed or variable metric meters. Despite the element of chance in creating free meter, we can still
speak of cohesion: the coming together of random weight cells with limitations in terms of
execution and perception. Therefore, indefinite meter does not exist; rather, it can be "highly
variable," which for ease of understanding, we call "free meter" and avoid the categorization
found in metrical types. Thus, the notion of "coming together of variable durations that are
unmeasurable in time with infinite changes" is a myth. The human brain has limitations in
perceiving durations, and in reconstructing durations during performance, there are also
physical-motor limitations in the human body. For the reasons previously mentioned in the
discussion of perception and adjustment of durations by the auditory and understanding system,
we call this type free meter. It is essential to know that the meaning of free meter is not absolute
freedom, where countless diverse durations with infinite sequential weight packs exist.

Free Meter

If each musical work is considered a systematic entity, discussing any musical work as a system
allows us to speak of disorder. We can say it fell out of meter, went off beat, was out of
designated frequencies (like playing or singing out of tune), or the rhythm, meter, or melody
changed, and so forth. This concept applies even to music with free meter.

Free meter is the opposite of fixed meter, with each being at opposite ends of a spectrum (Figure
8). Every piece of music falls somewhere along this spectrum, depending on how fixed or
variable its meter is. A piece that is exactly on the far left has free meter. Types of meter on this
spectrum range from stability in timing on one end to chaos in timing on the other end (for more
detailed information, see Ghosh & others, 2018). In Figure 8, "fixed" refers to the determined
and measurable durations in rhythm, while "variable" refers to the changes in successive
durations.
Fixed and Stable Semi-Variable Variable Highly Variable

Metrical (Metric) Semi-Free (Parlando-Recitative) Free Meter

Understanding and Representation of Time-Related Concepts in Music

The definition and understanding of time-related topics in music are not directly linked to
notation and various methods of representation. Correct comprehension of these concepts doesn't
necessarily require a two-dimensional display. However, the system of notation and writing
sounds has a long history. The best method for notation was developed, expanded, and enhanced
in Europe (see Forrest Kelly, 2015).

Although other methods, such as automatic transcription and various sound display methods
through computer software, have been created, these methods are primarily used for analyzing or
digitally correcting digitally recorded music. For writing a composed piece or transcribing,
Western notation is still used (for visual representation methods of rhythm and meter, see
Sethares, 2007). I have previously written an article about the deficiencies in notating musical
sounds, which was the summary of my undergraduate thesis in music. (See "Harmony Talk"
under the title of Pathology of Applying Notation in Classical Iranian Music). Here, I only note
that due to its properties, sound can never be fully and completely notated, and it cannot be
entirely displayed on a two-dimensional surface, whether paper or a computer screen, unless a
method for multi-faceted or multi-dimensional visual display of sound is developed in the future.

Tempo in Free Meter

As previously mentioned, adding the tempo factor in metrical music leads to perceptual changes
caused by speed variations in musical pieces (Sepehri 2016: 61, also in London 2004: 50-53).
Let's discuss the gradual or sudden tempo changes in pieces with free meter. "Changes can
become faster or slower, but 'time' itself cannot. Fast and slow are defined in terms of time, not
the other way around" (Bardon 2016: 20). This is why my definition of tempo differs from others
(item 3).

It's noteworthy that the perception of tempo changes in musical pieces results from changes in
rhythmic density per unit of time. The higher the rhythmic density, the faster the piece feels, and
vice versa.

Tempo changes can be sudden or gradual; and the only difference in tempo changes between free
meter and its opposite is the transformation of different meters into other meters with increased
or decreased tempo, which is not relevant in free meter. This is because free meter lacks specific
patterns for weight packs. If the tempo changes in music with free meter, the ratios between
durations will still be values close to precise ones (2:3, 3:4, 4:5, 5:6) because duration changes,
considering tempo changes, are rounded to 100 milliseconds and perceived (see Honing &
Desain 2002).

Conclusion
Quantum, meaning "packet," is used in particle physics and can be considered equivalent to the
"grain of time" in music. This grain of time, the smallest duration in a musical event, is called the
"rhythmic cell," (Chronos Prōtos) or traditionally "Naqrah." In Iranian-Arabic-Turkish music
tradition, unlike Europe, musical durations were created by combining basic durations rather
than dividing a hypothetical duration as a unit. Thus, the smallest quantity (a) doubled (b), tripled
(c), quadrupled (d), quintupled (e) (Shirazi 2008: 154) and formed weight packs (rhythmic
pillars) from these values. This method had limitations in using diverse durations in rhythmic
music.

For precise calculations of durations, the grain of time can be considered equivalent to one
second or smaller values. In different musical pieces, this grain can be the smallest duration
present in that piece or even different sections based on duration changes and rhythmic density.
The grain of time, as a homogeneous level, is essential for executing music and understanding
meter and rhythm (London 1995: 59-77).

The rhythmic cell, like the beat unit in measures, will be variable. The human brain
automatically quantizes (Quantization) durations during perception, rounding close durations to a
limited set of divisions for understanding (similar to what is shown in line a and perceived as line
b in Figure 9). Therefore, understanding and tracking isochronous meters are the simplest for
most people (see Lloyd 1995). This is why concepts like falling out of beat, losing meter, or an
incorrect duration placement exist. The difference between these concepts and continuous size
changes of beats in non-isochronous meters and variable patterns in free meter or intentional
agogic changes is evident (for multi-temporal meter concepts see London 2004 and Fatemi 2015:
51-84).

The perceptual limitations of various durations and the rounding by the human brain is
unintentional quantization of duration values.
Footnotes

1. Perception and Execution of Music: While the perception of music primarily relies on
the auditory sense, a small portion of the auditory process also depends on other senses
and their health. Playing music engages more senses and motor-muscular abilities of the
body. Sensory and motor-neurological limitations in response to stimuli or in creating
movement in a part of the body impose constraints on the temporal execution of music.
Hence, performing music has a narrower range compared to merely listening to music.
(Source of image: Lotfi, 2002: 7)
2. Incomplete List of Time-Related Topics Requiring Clear Definitions: Types of meter
over time and across musical pieces, defined meter, fixed meter, isometry, variable meter,
heterometry, polymeter, monorhythm, isorhythm, polyrhythm, monometer, tempo beat,
meter beat, irregularity in rhythm or meter or both, free rhythm, harmonic rhythm,
incomplete measure, downbeat, upbeat, syncopation, counterbeat, anacrusis, metric-
rhythmic periods (rhythmic modes), rhythmic density, swing, metronome, agogic, ad
libitum, tempo rubato, standards of tempo change, tempo and tempo change terms in
music, tempo span, hemiola, the display of temporal durations of sounds, dot, double dot,
multiple dots, dot with a diagonal line, tie, slur, virtual durations, rhythmic figure,
rhythmic line, arrhythmic, asymmetrical rhythm, symmetry and asymmetry in meter,
emphasis in music, agogic emphasis, dynamic emphasis, pitch emphasis, time signature,
and more. (For more information, see Sethares 2007)
3. Detailed Information on Lesser-Studied Division of Fives and Sevens: Refer to
Sepehri 2014: 123-153; also for combinations of such divisions, see Reina 2015: 21-33.
Furthermore, the binary, ternary, quintuple, and septuple divisions refer to dividing the
pulse into equal parts in the first level of division (Cook 2016: 19).
4. Comprehensive Information on Memory Limitations Related to Music Elements:
Refer to Snyder 2001. Also, for an understanding of the historical evolution of temporal
concepts in music, see Grant 2014.
5. Content of Art Programs: "The problem with Western art programs is their emphasis on
skill and technique while neglecting the content dimension of art." This statement is from
a book intending to show the difference between Eastern and Western art education. The
content dimension of art refers to what is referred to as emotion and feeling, aside from
the material and quantitative elements of the artistic product, which are all material and
measurable quantities mistakenly assumed to be qualitative. All expressive states and
elements forming the artwork or artistic phenomenon are not qualitative but measurable
quantities capable of creating immediate or gradual changes. However, because artistic
works, especially in the modern era, are often associated with human emotional and
sensational dimensions, these quantities are perceived or interpreted as qualities. But in
reality, what is interpreted as quality depends on the clean and precise execution of
quantities. This creation and execution in the artistic product are tied to the aesthetic
principles of specific cultural, individual, social, and historical periods, making artistic
elites (aware of specific artistic aesthetic principles) consider an artistic product as high
or low quality. A clear example of this is any product or service we use today; the more
attention is paid to quantities in its production, the more precise, proportionate, and
optimized the quantities, the higher we consider its quality. Therefore, I think quality
 results from the optimized use of quantities. For more details, see "Iranian Fallacies -
Sense in Music" by Sajjad Pourghanad.

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