Reference

Reference is a relationship between objects in which one object designates, or acts as a

means by which to connect to or link to, another object. The first object in this relation is said
to refer to the second object. It is called a name for the second object. The second object, the
one to which the first object refers, is called the referent of the first object. A name is usually
a phrase or expression, or some other symbolic representation. Its referent may be anything –
a material object, a person, an event, an activity, or an abstract concept.
Coreference
In linguistics, coreference, sometimes written co-reference, occurs when two or more
expressions in a text refer to the same person or thing; they have the same referent, e.g. Bill
said he would come; the proper noun Bill and the pronoun he refer to the same person, namely
to Bill.
Theme and Rheme
In linguistics, the topic, or theme, of a sentence is what is being talked about, and
the comment (rheme or focus) is what is being said about the topic. This division into old vs.
new content is called information structure. It is generally agreed that clauses are divided into
topic vs. comment, but in certain cases the boundary between them depends on which
specific grammatical theory is being used to analyze the sentence.
Topic, which is defined by pragmatic considerations, is a distinct concept from grammatical
subject, which is defined by syntax. In any given sentence these may be the same, but they
need not be. For example, in the sentence "As for the little girl, the dog bit her", the subject is
"the dog" but the topic is "the little girl".
Topic and subject are also distinct concepts from agent (or actor)—the "doer", which is defined
by semantics. In English clauses with a verb in the passive voice, for instance, the topic is
typically the subject, while the agent may be omitted or may follow the preposition by. For
example, in the sentence "The little girl was bitten by the dog", "the little girl" is the subject
and the topic, but "the dog" is the agent.
Tense and Aspect
Many languages have grammatical means to indicate the time when an action or event
occurs, or when a state or process holds. This phenomenon is called tense. In English, for
example, adding the morpheme -ed to the verb walk, to form walked, indicates that the event
denoted by the verb occurred before the present time. What is called aspect, on the other hand,
deals with the internal constituency of actions, events, states, processes or situations. For
instance, it may indicate that an action is completed or still ongoing. English typically uses
the -ing form of verbs to indicate ongoing processes, as in He is building a house.
Adverbial clauses

An adverbial clause, sometimes referred to as an adverb clause, is a group of words

that, together, functions as an adverb. This means that the clause describes or modifies a

verb, adjective, or another adverb. Unlike other types of clauses, an adverbial clause is always a

dependent clause. This means that it cannot stand on its own as an independent sentence.

Adverbial clauses make sentences richer by providing additional context and description that

standard adverbs cannot. See how adverbial clauses and adverbs compare in these examples:

• He bakes cakes weekly.

• He bakes cakes before he leaves for work every Sunday.

Ellipsis
Ellipsis refers to the leaving out of words, phrases or clauses from sentences where they are
unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned earlier.
In linguistics, ellipsis means leaving out words rather than repeating them unnecessarily;
for example, saying 'I want to go but I can't' instead of 'I want to go but I can't go'.
Substitution
Everyone has some experience with text substitution. The basic idea is to replace a small bit
of text with a larger bit of text. So maybe you set 'name' to 'your full name'. Admittedly, this is
probably overkill, but it gets the idea across. Apply a small amount of effort and simple
substitution becomes a tool more powerful and dynamic than you might have imagined. This
is the replacement of one item by another. It is a relation in the wording rather than in the
meaning. This implies that as a general rule, the substitute item has some structural function as
that for which it substitutes.
That Complement
A complement clause is a clause which is used as the complement of some other
word (typically as the complement of a verb, adjective or noun). Thus, in a sentence such as
He never expected that she would come, the clause that she would come serves as the
complement of the verb expected, and so is a complement clause.
Relative Clause

This is a clause that generally modifies a noun or a noun phrase and is often introduced by a
relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose). A relative clause connects ideas by using
pronouns that relate to something previously mentioned and allows the writer to combine two
independent clauses into one sentence.

Here are a few examples:

The book that she read was important for her literature review.

The participants who were interviewed volunteered to be part of the study.

Discourse Markers
A discourse marker is a word or a phrase that plays a role in managing the flow and structure
of discourse. Since their main function is at the level of discourse (sequences of utterances)
rather than at the level of utterances or sentences, discourse markers are relatively syntax-
independent and usually do not change the truth conditional meaning of the
sentence.[1] Examples of discourse markers include the particles oh, well, now, then, you know,
and I mean, and the discourse connectives so, because, and, but, and or.[2] The term discourse
marker was coined by Deborah Schiffrin in her 1988 book Discourse Markers.

Common discourse markers used in the English language include "you know", "actually",
"basically", "like", "I mean", "okay" and "so". Data shows that discourse markers often come
from different word classes, such as adverbs ("well") or prepositional phrases ("in fact"). The
process that leads from a free construction to a discourse marker can be traced back
through grammaticalisation studies and resources.

Traditionally, some of the words or phrases that were considered discourse markers were
treated as "fillers" or "expletives": words or phrases that had no function at all. Now they are
assigned functions in different levels of analysis: topic changes, reformulations, discourse
planning, stressing, hedging, or backchanneling.

Yael Maschler divided discourse markers into four broad

categories: interpersonal, referential, structural, and cognitive.[5]

• Interpersonal markers are used to indicate the relationship between the speaker
and the listener.
 o Perception: "look", "believe me"
o Agreement: "exactly", or disagreement: "I'm not sure"
o Amazement: "wow"
• Referential markers, usually conjunctions, are used to indicate the
sequence, causality, and coordination between statements.
o Sequence: "now", "then"
o Causality: "because"
o Coordination: "and", or non-coordination: "but"
• Structural markers indicate the hierarchy of conversational actions at the time in
which they are spoken. These markers indicate which statements the speaker
believes to be most or least important.
o Organization: "first of all"
o Introduction: "so"
o Summarization: "in the end"
• Cognitive markers reveal the speaker's thought process
o Processing information: "uhh"
o Realization: "oh!"
o Rephrasing: "I mean"

Speech Acts
Communication has always been a necessity in human life. Through communication, the
trade of thought among people, which directly contributes to the development of the quality of
life itself, can be performed. The ability to percept utterances in communication can determine
the actions followed. Communication can be conveyed through verbal and nonverbal
communication. Buck (2002) states that there are two types of communication, they are verbal
and nonverbal communication. Verbal communication is the way of communicating messages
by using words as elements. Nonverbal communication is the way of communicating messages
by using gesture, body movements, eye contact, facial expression, or general appearances as
the elements.
TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS
There are three types of acts in the speech acts, they are locutionary, illocutionary, and
perlocutionary.
 a. Locutionary
Locutionary speech act is roughly equivalent to uttering certain utterance with certain
sense and reference, which again is roughly equivalent to meaning in traditional sense
(Austin, 1962: 108). In line with this, Cutting (2002: 16) states that locutionary is what
is said. also proposed by Yule (1996) who states that locutionary act is the act of
producing meaningful utterances. The example of the locutionary speech act can be
seen in the following sentences: 1. It’s so dark in this room. 2. The box is heavy. The
above two sentences represent the actual condition. The first sentence refers to the
lighting of the room and the second sentence refers to the weight of the box.
b. Illocutionary
The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance, such as
promising, apologizing, offering (Yule, 1996:48). This act is also called the act of doing
something in saying something. The most significant level of action in a speech act is the
illocutionary act because the force, which has been desired by the speakers, determines this act.
Illocutionary act can be the real description of interaction condition. For example: 1. It’s so
dark in this room. 2. The box is heavy. Based on the examples above, the first sentence shows
a request to switch the light on and the second sentence shows a request to lift up the box.
c. Perlocutionary
Hufford and Heasley (1983:250) states that perlocutionary act is the act that is carried
out by a speaker when making an utterance causes in certain effect on the hearer and others.
Perlocutionary act is also the act offering someone. Perlocutionary act refers to the effect the
utterance has on the thoughts or actions of the other person. A perlocutionary act is specific to
the circumstances of issuance, and is therefore not conventionally achieved just by uttering that
particular utterance, and includes all those effects, intended or unintended, often indeterminate,
that some particular utterance in a particular situation cause. For example: 1. It is so dark in
this room. 2. The box is heavy
CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH ACTS
Speech acts can be classified into five categories as Searle in Levinson (1983: 240)
states that the classifications are representatives, directives, commissives, expressive, and
declarations.
a. Representatives
Representatives are speech acts that the utterances commit the speaker to the truth of
the expressed proposition. The utterances are produced based on the speaker’s observation of
certain things then followed by stating the fact or opinion based on the observation. When
someone says “she’s beautiful”, the speaker can state the sentence based on the fact or just give
his or her own opinion about physical condition of a person. It also states what the speaker
believes to be the case or not. Statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions are
all examples of the speaker representing the world as he or she believes it is. For example when
someone says “The earth is flat”, it represents the speaker’s assertions about the earth. The
speaker has opinion that the earth is flat. Representatives speech act can be noted by some
speech acts verb, such as: remind, tell, assert, deny, correct, state, guess, predict, report,
describe, inform, insist, assure, agree, claim, beliefs, conclude.
b. Directives
Directives area speech acts that speaker uses to get someone else to do something.
These speech acts include requesting, questioning, command, orders, and suggesting. For
example, when someone says “Could you lend me a pencil, please?” the utterance represents
the speaker requests that the hearer to do something which is to lend him a pencil.
c. Commissives
Commissives are speech acts that the utterances commit the speaker to some future
course of action, these include promising, threatening, offering, refusal, pledges. For example
when someone says “I’ll be back”, represents the speaker’s promise that he/she will be back.
d. Expressives
Expressives are speech acts that the utterances express a psychological state. These
speech acts include thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and congratulating. For example, when
someone says “don’t be shy, my home is your home.” The utterance represents the speaker’s
expression that he/she welcomes someone.
e. Declarations
Declarations are speech acts that the utterances effect immediate changes in the
institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate exta- linguistic institutions.
These speech acts include excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing from
employment. For example “you are dead to me.”