UNIT 10 SOURCES OF HEAT OBJECTIVES After completing the study of this unit, the student will be able to @ identify the heat sources that affect the cooling load. * describe the yariations in the solar heat load through glass areas of a building in relation to the time of day. © define stored cooling capacity. * describe the use of zoning as an effective method of handling varying load conditions, * identify the heat losses that affect the heating load. Sections I and 2 of this text have investigated the principles of air conditioning and its effect on human comfort. The psychrometric chart has been introduced and problems given to show its use in predicting the characteristics of air for a given set of conditions. All of this information is now applied in this section to some of the more Practical phases of air conditioning such as the air-conditioning load and estimating the cooling and heating load. COOLING LOAD HEAT SOURCES The heat sources to be described basically are those which comprise the summer cooling load. Some heat sources, such as people, lights, and small domestic appliances, are so variable that they usually are not considered when determining the load for winter heating in small residences. In large commercial buildings, however, the heat generated by these heat sources is significant and is stable enough to be an important factor. Outdoor Heat Sources - ‘The major part of the suramer cooling load arises from heat sources outside a structure, figure 10-1. The greatest heat source is the sun; this heat is known as solar heat. Solar heat enters a structure directly (through glass) and by con- duction through the building materials. The solar heat entering a structure through glass is im- mediately absorbed in the room. Its effect is felt at once. Fj Outdoor hest The heat entering by conduction through the walls and roof faxccarion 90is not immediately absorbed in the room. Depending on the construc- Unit 10 Sources of Heat = 91 tion material used, the effect of 'W™ 7@nerr Ne aes conducted solar heat may not be the warm 00) she felt for several hours. In some in- id stances, the heat may not reach the On BrutA inside area until after sunset. The Na sone amount of heat that enters a struc- ture is measured in terms of a U- factor. Each different type of building material has its own U- Us Heat tranferfctor factor (Units 11 and 12). The U-factor is a value applied to the quantity of heat that flows through ‘one square foot of building surface. TOTAL Q=Ux Aceax ITy-Tol Fig, 10:2 Finding the conducted heat Heat conduction through materials is the result of differences between the indoor and outdoor air temperatures, The greater the temperature difference, the faster is the flow of heat. The quantity of heat conducted in this manner depends on the size of the wall or roof area and on the resistance offered by the material to the heat flow. To find the heat that flows through the building surface by conduction, figure 10-2, the U-factor is multiplied by the surface area in square feet. This product is then multiplied by the difference in temperature between the indoor air and the out- door air. The resulting value is the total heat flow, Q. Q is expressed in Btu per hour of conducted heat flow. PROBLEM 1 TOTAL SENSIBLE HEAT CONDUCTED (Q) (Through Frame Wall) Given Wall surface U-factor Outdoor temperature Indoor temperature Find Total heat conducted (Q) 0.25 90°F 78°F Solution temperature 160 x 0.25 x 12 Q Q Q Q (8 x 20) x 0.25 x (90 - 78) 8 ft.x 20 ft. = Surface area x U-factor x (outdoor temperature - indoor "480 Btu per hour (sensible heat conducted through frame, wall) The position of the building with relation to the sun is a factor that does not change the total heat load, but which can be put to practical use. For example, !92 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating ‘SOLAR LOAD BTUIHR. eee BTUMHR, ars “SOLAR LOAD 6AM, 12NOON iM, 6AM. 12NOON 6PM. Fig. 10-3 Solar load from the east Fig. 10-4 Solar load from the south SOLAR LOAD SOLAR LOAD, 01 BTUIHR, weer eninis NORTH west aa = CQ TD © oO BAM, 12NOON 6AM. 6AM, 12NOON 6PM. Fig. 10-5 Solar load from the west Fig. 10-6 Solar Joad from the north figures 10-3 through 10-6 illustrate the possible placement of the glass areas of @ building with respect to the sun, The resulting solar heat load and the time relation- ships are also shown. For these figures, it is assumed that there is equal glass area in each wall of the building and the midsummer conditions apply. ‘Since the sun rises in the east, the solar load through the glass in the east wall is greatest in the morning, figure 10-3. By noon, the solar load in the east is somewhat reduced and its effects are now greater through the glass in the south wall, figure 10-4. By midafternoon, the solar heat reaches its greatest intensity; it is now felt through the glass in the west wall, figure 10-5. The north wall, of course, is exposed “o the less intense late afternoon and early evening sun; thus, the load through the glass on the north side is about 10% of the load on the east or west, figure 10-6. ‘The information given in figures 10-3 through 10-6 is important in its application to practical situations where the effects of the solar load are a factor. For example, if a building used for a retail business has a large glass surface facing toward the cast and the remaining walls have only small glass areas, it is possible to reduce the initial cost of the air-conditioning equipment by 25%. ‘To reduce the initial cost of the system, the equipment is selected not to handle the highest load (the solar load through the glass on the east side), but rather to handle the next-to-highest load (such as the afternoon solar load on the west wall).Unit 10 Sources of Heat 93 Although the solar heat in the afternoon is even more intense than the morning solar heat, the west wall of the building in this example has a limited glass area. There- fore, it is reasonable to expect a smaller solar load through the west wall. Since the maximum load to be handled is less, smaller equipment can be selected. Thus, the owner must accept slightly warmer building temperatures in the morning hours when customers are likely to be infrequent. The morning temperatures are warmer because the equipment selected can handle only the maximum midafternoon building load. ‘The equipment is not large enough to handle the total morning load. Walls and Roofs Heat from the sun enters a building through the walls and roof at a much slower rate than it ROOF does through glass, figure 10-7. As the solar heat penetrates the surface skin of the building, some cree of the heat enters the building material and some is reflected to the atmosphere. The heat ab- sorption process is continuous and the amount of solar heat entering the building material penetrates ouass deeper until it reaches the inside surface. If the sun were stationary so that it could shine continuously in one location with the same intensity, approximately seven hours would be required for the heat to reach to the interior surface of a 12+in. thick brick wall. Figure 10-8 is a comparison of the heat gain through equal areas of roof surface, wall surface, and glass, This graph clearly shows that the solar heat penetrates fo eee OOo. greater thickness. Fig. 10-8 Comparison of heat gain: wall and glass Fig. 10-7 Heat gain through the walls and roof Infiltration Another source of heat that must be considered when making a cooling load estimate is infiltration. The heat due to this source is in the air entering the building through cracks around doors and windows and through open doors. This heat load is directly related to the quality of the building construction and to the presence or absence of weatherstripping. If good construction practices were followed, there is less total crack area. Therefore, the cooling load estimate is smaller. The degree of infiltration is also affected by wind velocity, that is, the stronger the wind, the greater is the amount of infiltration,‘94 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating A second source of heat through infiltration is the heat entering the building through ducts that supply outside air for ventilation. Ventilation standards are governed by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). These standards define the amount of outside air necessary to dilute unwanted odors such as those resulting from smoking. To determine the ventilation air load (heat added by ventilation air), multiply the amount of air in cubic feet per minute used for ventilation x a factor of 1.08 x the difference between the outdoor and indoor air temperatures. (Note: the factor of 1.08 applies to sensible heat only.) PROBLEM 2 VENTILATION AIR SENSIBLE COOLING LOAD (SUMMER) Given Ventilation air 500 cfm Outdoor temperature = 90°F Indoor temperature 78°F Multiplying factor 1,08 Find Heat added, Q Solution Q = (cfm x 1.08) x (outdoor temperature - indoor temperature) Q (S00 x 1.08) x (90 - 78) Q = 540x12 Q = 6,480 Btu per hour sensible heat Problem 3 explains the method of determining the latent heat (moisture) load in ventilation air. In this instance, the moisture difference (in grains per pound of air) rather than the temperature difference is used; the multiplying factor for latent heat is 0.68. PROBLEM 3 VENTILATION AIR LATENT COOLING LOAD (SUMMER) Given Ventilation air 500 cfm, Outdoor temperature 90°F and 50% RH Indoor temperature 78°F and 45% RH Multiplying factor 0.68 Find Heat added, Q Solution (cfm x 0.68) x (outdoor - indoor grains per pound of air) (500 x 0.68) x (107 - 62) 340 x 45, 15,300 Btu per hour latent heat | ound 22n0Unit 10 Sources of Hest 95 ‘The total heat added by ventilation air is the sum of the sensible heat plus the latent heat. Thus, based on the results of Problems 2 and 3, the total heat added for these conditions is: Q = 6,480+ 15,300 = 21,780 Btu per hour. The final important source of outside heat is from moisture. Moisture enters the building by infiltration and is called the latent load, The moisture enters through cracks and becomes part of the room load; or, it is carried with the ventilation air and becomes part of the outdoor supply air load Indoor Heat Sources When estimating the heat load, indoor heat sources must be considered also. These sources include people, lights, appliances, and motors. People are a source of both sensible heat and latent heat, figure 10-9. The heat produced by a person depends upon the energy that is being exerted. A person at rest causes less heat than a person being very active. For example, a person sitting quietly produces about 1/7 as much heat as a person who is bowling. All lights give off heat. The heat emitted by incandescent bulbs is directly re- lated to the wattage of the bulbs. The heat produced by fluorescent lamps is approximate- ly 25% greater than that expected from the rated wattage. This heat increase is due to the additional electricity required by the bal- last. The heat load from all types of lights Fis. 10-9 People: sources of sensible and varies according to the usage. meetinest Motors, appliances, and office machines are additional sources of indoor heat. This heat load is a-direct function of the energy that is used. Motor heat generally is based on the horsepower rating, but varies according to usage and to the starting and stopping characteristics of the motor. Heat from appliances and office machines is directly related to the fuel or energy consumed. Again, the actual load from these items is affected by usage. STORAGE Every structure can absorb and retain heat. ‘As indicated previously in this unit, a long time may be required for heat to penetrate to the inside surface of a wall or roof, In some cases, the heating effect may not be felt until after sunset. Thus, the interior as well as the inside surface of the wall or roof contains heat. In addition, all objects in the building (such as furniture and floors) contain heat. If this heat is present when the air-conditioning equipment is shut down at night, a percentage of the heat is retained. This heat becomes part of the heat load present when the equip- ment starts again in the morning. This portion of the start-up load can be decreased by operating the air-condition ing equipment during the night or during the early morning hours before the building96 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating is occupied. Since a solar heat load is not a factor during these periods, the total building heat load is considerably below the load that the equipment is capable of handling. Therefore, it is possible to reduce the temperature of the walls, roof, and objects in the building to the point at which they are no longer a heat load. Actually, these surfaces can be cooled until they become a source of stored cooling capacity. This stored capacity can then be used to offset part of the solar heat load during the morning and the load that results when the building is again occupied, This principle of stored cooling capacity can be applied to smaller commercial and residential installations whenever the total heat load is below the maximum capacity of the cooling equipment, However, care must be taken to prevert the temperature from becoming too cool for camfort if the building is occupied. The stored cooling capacity can be used to reduce the size of the air-conditioning equipment, Figure 10-10 shows that the equipment capacity can be smaller than that required to handle the maximum load if the stored cooling capacity is used. The storage principle can be applied to any comfort installation in which the maximum load is present EWU cTonaae for less than two to three hours, It is not recommended where a’ change in temperature is critical. ZONING In air conditioning, a zone is an area in a building that is set apart from other areas, usually by partition- J) ©) @) © © @d ing. Zoning makes it possible to gui handle toad conditions in the various PG LCT evel coming covey werd areas on an individual space or zone basis, Zoning usually results in a lower equip- ment operating cost; nonzoning usually results in a lower initial equipment cost. If different loads occur in different parts of a building, or if different tempera- tures are required in different parts of a building, zoning may be required. If zoning is to be used, the load estimate is usually based on the use of one central equipment heating and cooling) installation rather than separate installations for each zone. Separate installations cost more. In addition, the use of separate installations requires a greater total cooling capacity because each installation must be able to handle the maximum load for its zone. Figure 10-11 shows one possible arrangement of zones within a buildin: In this case, the building is divided into four zones: north, south, east, and west. Assume that the maximum loads are as follows: the north zone, 5 tons; the south zone, 5 tons; the east zone, 10 tons; and the west zone, 12 tons. Thus, the total cooling capacity required when each zone is handled separately is 5 + 3 + 10 + 12 or 32 tons, figure 10-11B. If the same zones are handled by a central »ystem, the maximum cooling capacity required equals the maximum building load at any given time of the day. All of the zones do not experience the full solar loac at the same time. As a result, the maximum loads of the zones do not occur at tie same time. Therefore, the amount of cooling to be supplied at any given time nust be just large enough to handle the zone experiencing the maximum load plus the loadUnit 10 Sources of Heat ® 97 ZONING PEAK LOADS PER ZONE (a) (8) Fig. 10-11 in the remaining zones. In most on? instances, at least one of the ort ‘ other zones is not at its peak — gruyan $ ay load. ' For the building shown in figure 10-11, the west zone © © eo © has the highest’ maximum load. Thus, the maximum building load probably occurs about 4 PM., figure 10-12. Since the sun ‘strikes only the west wall at this time, the zone loads are 0s follows: north, 5 tons; 3 south, 5 tons; east, 5 tors; and west, 12 tons. The total maxi- mum cooling capacity required for the building is 5 +S + 5 + 12 = 27 tons. This value is 5 tons less than the capacity eee Fequired when the load is estimated according to the individual maximum loads for Cech zone. This reduction of 5 tons is due to the reduction in the load of the east zone at 4PM. Note that the term maximum load refers to the maximum cooling required on any given day of the year. aut ck HEATING LOAD HEAT LOSSES A portion of the heat within a building is lost through open doors, by conduction, and by filtration through cracks around windows and doors, ‘Conduction -During the heating season, heat is lost in a manner similar to the way in which some feat is gained during the cooling season. ‘That is, heat is lost by conduction98 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating Fig. 10-14 Conduction takes piace through Fig, 10-13 Heat lost through conduction ‘glass, floors, and foundations, through walls and roofs, glass areas, basement floors, and foundations, figures 10-13 and 10-14. The total heat lost, therefore, consists of losses by conduction through materials and by filtration through cracks and open doors. The amount of heat lost is affected by the materials used in construction and by the difference in temperature between the indoor air and the outdoor air, The U- factor rate of heat flow is used to determine the total heat quantity Q that is lost through the materials. In a heating operation, however, the temperature difference between the inside and outside air is usually quite large. As a result, the transfer of ‘heat by conduction is usually greater than that of a cooling operation. For example, the average temperature difference for cooling may be 10 to 20 degrees; for heating, this difference is in the range of 30 to 70 degrees. PROBLEM 4 TOTAL HEAT LOST BY CONDUCTION (Q) (FRAME WALL) Given Wall surface 8 ft. x 20 ft. U-factor 0.25 Outdoor temperature 20°F Indoor temperaturé 7S°F Find Total heat lost through wall, Q surface area x U-fuctor x temperature difference (8 x 20) x 0.25 x (75 ~ 20) 160 x 0.25 x 55 2,200 Btu per hour 2 one Heat is also lost through floors on ground level (slab construction) and through floors and walls below the ground level (basement area), figure 10-15. There is usuallyUnit 10 Sources of Heat ™ 99 a greater heat loss from the outer areas of slab floors on ground level than through basement floors and walls that are below the ground level. This difference in heat loss is due to the difference in temperature between 7 u surface ground and the ground below EN the surface. The surface ground OW temperature varies with the air tem- “ETS ON Grouno. perature. This temperature variation decreases almost uniformly as the jem ier lee depth below the ground surface MENT WALLS BELOW GRADE increases. At approximately eight feet, the ground temperature remains _Fi- 10-15 Heat lost on and below ground level relatively constant since the surface temperature has little effect. At this depth, the temperature may be a minimum of 45°F. U-factors for heat loss through floors at the ground level and below ground level are given in Unit 11. Ventilation Heat loss also occurs because heat is required to increase the temperature of the air used for ventilation, A better term for this heat is perhaps the source of the heat toad rather than heat loss. The heat used to increase the ventilation air temperature is not actually lost since it enters the heated space. However, this heat is an additional requirement (heat load) since the cold ventilation air must be heated. The ventilation air heat load is determined in the same manner as the cooling load multiply a factor of 1.08 by the cubic feet per minute of ind the indoor tet ture minus the outdoor temperature, (The factor of 1.08 applies to se only.) PROBLEMS VENTILATION AIR SENSIBLE HEAT LOAD (WINTER) Given Ventilation air 500 cfm Indoor temperature 75° Outdoor temperature Multiplying factor 10k Find Heat added, Q Solution Q = elm x Lox x Gs 500% TOR SETS 10) Sax 4 29,700 1h If humidity cond Gm wate that a latent heat load is to be added, the Jatent heat required 4s ats Follows: Q = dim x 0.68 * Gindoor h outdoor bunndity in grains per pound)100 ® Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating PROBLEM 6 VENTILATION AIR LATENT HEAT LOAD Given Indoor conditions 75°F DB and 35% RH Outdoor conditions _—-20°F DB and 20% RH Ventilation air 500 cfm Multiplying factor 0.68 Find Heat added, Q Solution Q = cfm x 0.68 x (indoor-outdoor grains per pound) Q = 500x 0.68 x (46 gr-4 gr) Q = 340x42 Q = _ 14,280 Btu per hour, latent heat Heat Load Reduction Several methods can be used to reduce the heat load. For example, the walls, roofs, ceilings, and floors can be insulated; storm windows or double- pane glass windows and weatherstripping around windows and doors can be installed. ‘An insulation thickness of four to six inches is recommended for maximum reduction of the heat load. Actually, the first four inches of insulation are the most effective. The addition of storm or double-pane glass windows reduces the conducted heat flow through glass by 40% to 60%. SUMMARY Load Description © The air-conditioning load is the amount of heat that must be added to or removed from a structure to maintain the desired conditions. ‘© The determination of the amount of heat to be handled to establish and maintain the required comfort conditions is called load estimating. + Knowledge, experience, and common sense are required to produce a 004 load estimate. Cooling Load (Outdoor Heat Sources) ‘© The majority of the summer cooling load consists of outdoor heat sources such as direct solar heat through glass, conducted heat, and heat in ventila- tion and infiltration air. ‘© Solar heat enters the building directly through glass by radiation and through building materials by conduction. ‘© The effects of direct solar heat are felt immediately. Conducted heat may not be felt for several hours.Unit 10 Sources of Heat # 101 The amount of conducted solar heat entering a building depends upon the construction materials. * The U-factor is a value applied to the quantity of heat flowing through one square foot of building material. © Heat conduction through the construction materials takes place as a result of the temperature differences between the indoor air and the outdoor air. * The amount of conducted heat entering the building depends upon the size of the surface area and the resistance to heat flow of the material used in the area, + Qis the total heat load and is measured in Btu per hour. + Building orientation can reduce the cost of air-conditioning equipment up to 25%. ‘* Approximately seven hours of continuous sun are required if the heat of the sun is to reach the inside of a 12-inch thick brick wall. ‘© Solar heat penetrates glass in a shorter time than is required for other materials such as wood or brick. The infiltration heat load enters the building through cracks around windows and doors and through open doors. + Ventilation air is a source of heat ‘© Moisture entering a building by infiltration or ventilation Is a heat load. © The sensibie heat load resulting from infiltration or ventilation air is determined as follows: Q = (cfm x 1.08) x (outdoor temperature ~ in- door temperature) * The latent (moisture) heat load resulting from infiltration or ventilation air is determined as follows: Q = (cfm x 0.68) x (moisture difference between the indoor air and the outdoor air) '* The total Q is obtained by adding the sensible heat and the latent heat. Cooling Load (Indoor Heat Sources) ® Indoor heat sources include people, lights, appliances, motors, and machines. # Active peopl produce more heat than do people at rest. ‘© Lights produce heat according to the wattage value of the lamps. * Motors, appliances, and machines produce heat according to the energy or fuel consun ed. Cooling Storage © Every structure absorbs and retains heat. ‘* Stored heat can become an additional heat source for the morning startup of the conditioning equipment.102 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating © The stored cooling capacity can be used to offset part of the heat load during maximum load periods. * The use of the cooling storage principle means that smaller (less costly) equipment can be selected. Zoning + A zone is an area of a building that is set apart from other areas, usually by partitions. * Zoning makes it possible to maintain different temperatures in any part in the building. * Zoning usually results in a lower equipment operating cost (although the initial equipment cost may be higher), © If zoning is required, the load estimate should be based on the use of one central air-conditioning equipment station. * A zoning estimate should be based on the zone with the maximum load plus the simultaneous load in the other zones. * The maximum load refers to the maximum cooling required on any given day of the year. Heating Load Heat Losses * The heating load consists of heat escaping from a building by conduction and by filtration through cracks around windows and doors. * The rate of conducted heat flow depends upon the type of construction material used and the temperature difference between the inside air and the outside air. * The amount of heat loss through cracks depends upon the quality of construction and the wind velocity. ‘+ Heat loss due to conduction is determined as follows: Q = surface area x U-factor x temperature difference * Cold ventilation air is a source of heat load. Ventilation air sensible heat Joad is determined as follows: Q = cimx 1.08 x temperature difference + Ventilation air latent heat load is determined as follows: Q = cfm x 0.68 x moisture difference in grains per Ib. Heat Load Reduction © Heat load can be reduced by the addition of insulation, weatherstripping, storm windows, and double-pane glass windows. * Two or four inches of insulation are recommended for walls; four to six inches are most effective for roofs.Unit 10 Sources of Heat ™ 103 REVIEW 1, PReA Aran 10. Name the chief sources of outdoor heat that make up the major part of the summer cooling load. What is a U-factor? Define Q. ‘What equation is used to determine the ventilation air sensible heat load? ‘What equation is used to determine the ventilation air latent heat load? ‘What are the chief sources of indoor heat? ‘How is the amount of heat from lights and motors determined? Define air-conditioning load. ‘Total heat includes two kinds of heat. Describe each type. What is load estimating?UNIT 11 COOLING AND HEATING LOAD ESTIMATING GUIDES OBJECTIVES After completing the study of this unit, the student will be able to '* describe what effects the following factors have on the estimation of the cooling load and the heating load — construction materials infiltration water sprays people ventilation lighting © state the procedure for calculating heat gains. ‘The following factors in esti- mating cooling and heating loads are covered in this unit: U-factor - yalues, percent heat flow reduction, ventilation recommendations, and the effects of materials, lights, people, and equipment. While the = values given in this unit are to serve as guides only, they are useful in making rough preliminary estimates of the cooling and heating loads. COOLING LOAD Glass Figure 11-1 gives the U-factors for glass and for typical construction ‘The figure also compares ‘the heat flow through glass with the heat flow through the various materials, For a given set of air conditions, the U-factor for glass is more than twice that of the other materials. In other words, glass allows as much heat to pass through as approximately four sq. ft. of residential wall or roof area, or three sq. ft. of commercial wall oF Fig. 11-2 Effects of types of glass and glass construction roof area ‘on conducted heat quantity 104Unit 11. Cooling and Heating Load Estimating Guider # 105 Reduction of Conducted Heat Through Glass Different types of glass and glass construction ‘have varying effects on the quantity ‘of conducted heat, figure 11-2. For example, a storm window that fits tightly reduces the heat flow by more than 50%, ‘A sealed double-pane window with a 1/4in. air space between the panes reduces the conducted heat flow by approximately 40%, The double-pane window and the storm window are effective for both summer cooling and winter heating conditions. For an air-conditioned structure, the storm windows remain in place year-round, except when cleaning is required. Reduction of Solar Heat Through Glass "The heat load caused by direct solar heat through glass can be reduced by using different types of glass and glass construction, figure 11-3. Certain shading devices are also effective in combating direct solar heat, figure 11-4. ‘© Special heat absorbing sass reduces the solar heat load by approximately 25%. © Double-pane plass not only reduces the conducted load but also is 10% 10 20% coffective in reducing the solar load. ‘© Stained glass can be up 10 65% effective in reducing the solar load depending upon the color used. ‘Fig. 11-3 Solar heat reduction through glass © Awnings of other types of shading devices installed on the outside of the ‘window can be up 0 75% effective in reducing the solar fond. ‘© Venetian blinds or curtain shades on the inside of the window reduce the solar load by approximately 35%. Fig. 11-4 Solar heat reduction: shading devices106 ® Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating Fig. 11-5 U-factors tor waits anc rovis Fig. 11-6 Heat flow reduced by insuiacion Walls and Roofs The heat transfer U-factor for walls and roofs ranges from 0.25 for typical residential walls to 0.40 for typical com- mercial roofs, figure 11-5, Reduction of Conducted Heat Through Walls and Roofs The flow of heat through walls can be reduced by insulation, figure 11-6. ‘One inch of insulation reduces the heat flow by 48%. The second inch adds a 14% reduction in heat flow for a total of 62%. The third inch adds 8% for a total reduction of 70%. The fourth inch adds a further reduction of 2%. Insulation in the roof or ceiling is even miore effective in reducing the con- ducted heat, figure 11-7. One inch of insulation reduces the heat flow by ap- proximately 55%. The second inch reduces the heat flow by another 13% for a total of 68%. The third inch adds an 8% reduc- tion and the fourth inch another 2% re- duction for a total reduction of 76%. Although additional inches of insulation reduce the heat conducted through ceilings and roofs by only a small percentage, a depth of six in. of insulation is recommended for modern residential construction, Figure 11-8 shows two methods of reducing-the roof heat load. One method sprays water on the roof at a controlled volume. As the moisture evaporates, the surface of the roof is cooled. This method reduces the roof heat load by approximate- ly 65%. When estimating the cooling load for summer operation, the effect of shading must also be considered. Any part of a roof that is protected from the sun by shade from adjoining structures shows a 75% reduction of the solar load in that area,Unit 11. Cooling and Heating Load Estimating Guides ™ 107 Roof Materials The types of construction materials: used and their resistance to heat flow also affect the roof heat load. A wooden frame roof is considered to be light construction. Such a roof allows approximately 18 Btu per hour to pass through each square foot of surface, under maximum load conditions, figure 11-9. Four inches of concrete are con- | : - sidered to be medium roof construction. ' This type of roof passes approximate- Fit 11-9 Btu/ur for light construction ly the same amount of heat (19 Btu per hour) under maximum load -con- ditions as the wood frame roof. In general, heavy roof construction is considered to be six inches of conerete. This construction allows only 13 Btu per hour to pass through each square foot of roof surface. If the designer is aware of the types of roof materials and the effectiveness of insulation, the estimate of the solar load on the roof can be reduced considerably. For example, it was shown that a medium concrete roof has a maximum heat load of 19 Btu per hour per square foot. However, a heavy concrete roof with four inches of insulation has a heat load of approximately four Btu per hour per square foot at ‘maximum conditions. For a roof that is 50 ft. by 100 ft., the heat load difference between the medium roof and the heavy roof with insulation is: (100 ft. x 50 ft.) = 5,000 sq. ft. x (19 - 4) = 75,000 Btu per hr. (approximately) Ventilation Acceptable ventilation standards range from 5 to 7 1/2 cubic feet of air per minute (clm) per person, If a moderate amount of smoking occurs in an area, a mini- mum of 15 to 30 cfm of ventilation air is recommended. For special areas where heavy smoking is expected, the ventilation air should be increased to 30 to 50 cfm Per person. Figure 11-10 shows typical ventila- jay tion air quantities per person for office, | shop, and department store conditions. These air quantities are also shown in terms of the amount of sensible heat per person in Btu/hr. based on 95°F outside and 80°F inside temperatures. As explained in Unit 10, the total ventila- tion air cooling load includes both sensible heat and latent heat. 7 must be added to the Btu values shown in 4 the figure to obtain the total ventilation air load. Fig, 11-10 Typical ventilation quantities108 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating aes “Fig. 11-12. Latent and sensible heat in occupied areas Fig. 11-11 Infiltration load Infiltration Infiltration of heat through doors and windows depends on the quality of con- struction. A casement window with a 1/64-in, crack has a cfm factor that is half as large as the same window with a 1/32-in. crack. In other words, approximately twice as much air infiltrates through the 1/32-in. opening in the window. ‘An average infiltration load for summer cooling is 350 Btu per hour for a 3x S-ft. window and 65 Btu per hour per person using a 3 x 7-{t. door in a retail shop, figure 11-11. To determine the total infiltration in Btu for the door of a retail shop, multiply 65 Btu per hour by the number of customers per hour. People People add both sensible heat and latent heat. Typical values for the total heat per person for theaters, offices, dance areas, or bowling centers range from 350 Btu (theater) to 1,450 Btu (bowling), figure 11-12. These values are equivalent to approxi- mately 3 to 12 tons of cooling per 100 people. Figure 11-12 also shows the latent and sensible heat breakdown of the total heat load per person. The cooling load for the office conditions is approximately four tons per 100 people. For dance areas, the cooling load is approximately seven tons per 100 people. In general, the sensible and latent load for theaters, offices, retail shops, and similar types of occupancies ranges from 35,000 Btu to 45,000 Btu per 100 people. ‘This load requires roughly three to four tons of cooling capacity. The combined ventilation and people load at frequently encountered conditions (95°F DB temperature and 40% outdoor RH and 80°F DB temperature and 50% indoor RH) is approximately 70,000 to 90,000 Btu per hour per 100 people. Such a load requires 6 to 8 tons of cooling capacity. The ventilation load is roughly equivalent to the people load. Lights ; The load from incandescent lights = ae x is 3.4 Btu per hour per watt, figure 11-13. Fig. 11-13, Heat load from lightsUnit 11. Cooling and Heating Load Estimating Guides ™ 109 Or Fig. 11-15 Ufactors for walls and roofs Fig. 11-14 Heat load from motors, appliances, and office machines For a bulb rated at 100 watts, the load is 340 Btu; for a 1,000-watt bulb (1 kilowatt), the load is 3,400 Btu per hour. A value of ten kilowatts equals a load of 34,000 Btu. This load requires approximately 3 tons of cooling. Fluorescent lights require an addition of about 25% to these values to account for the ballast. Motors, Appliances, and Office Machines Figure 11-14 shows the heat given off by various types and sizes of devices. The nameplate rating of each of these items is not always an accurate indication ‘of the resulting heat load. The actual load depends on the usage and the starting and stopping characteristics of each device. It is apparent from figure 11-14 that some office machines are 2 source of consider able heat and can require 2 1/2 tons or more of cooling. Fig. 11-16 Effectiveness of roof insulation 5 ewan HEATING LOAD ESTIMATE S eens Glass, Walls, Roofs, Floors Fig. 11-17 Heat loss with insulation ‘The heat flow through materials is the same whether the flow is toward the out- side or toward the inside, Thus, the same U-factors apply for heating and for cooling. Figures 11-15 and 11-16 give the U-factors already presented in the cooling estimate section of this unit. The comparison values are also the same. Insulation reduces the heat flow through the roof by the same percentages given for summer cooling. For slab floor construction, insulation around the edge of the slab is probably more effective in winter than in summer, figure 11-17. This situation is reasonable since the heating loss is likely to be greater in winter than the heat gain in summer. For example, at 0°F the heat loss around the perimeter of a slab is 50 Btu per linear foot with I in, of insulation, For a slab having dimensions of 30 ft. x 40 ft., ‘the heat loss is 50 x 140 = 7,000 Btu per hour, figure 11-18, page 110.110 ® Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating HEAT LOSS.G =F xP = 50% (140) = 7,900 BTU/MR. Fig. 11-18 Heat loss around slab floor Infiltration The infiltration heat losses shown in figure 11-19A are based ‘on the following conditions: out- door temperature of 0°F, indoor temperature of 70°F, and a 15 mph wind. The closed door and window losses are relatively small. However, the losses through an ‘open’ door in a retail shop are (B) nearly 6 to 7 times greater than the closed door and window losses, Weatherstripping will re- duce crack infiltration by a value that can be as high as 50%, figure 11-198. \Ventiiation Air Heating Load ‘The ventilation air sensible heat load values are based on an ‘outdoor temperature of 0°F and an indoor temperature of 70°F, figure 1120. The ventilation air latent heat loud is based on the temperature and humidity difference. Fig. 11-20 Ventilation air sensible heat load PROBLEM 1 VENTILATION AIR LATENT HEAT LOAD Given Outdoor temperature and humidity O° F and 100% RH Indoor temperature and humidity 70°F and 30% RH Ventilation air quantity (office) 500 cfm Multiplying factor 0.68Unit 11 Cooling and Heating Load Estimating Guides # 117 Find Latent heat load, Q Solution Qlatent) = cfm x 0.68 x (indoor grains/Ib. - outdoor grains/lb.) Q(latent) = 500 x 0.68 x (33-11) Qilatent) = 340.00 x 22 = 7,480 Btu per hour Since the office worker requires 15 cfm of ventilation air, the air quantity supplied (500 cfm) is sufficient for 34 people, The’ ventilation latent load per person then is 7,480 + 34 = 220 Btu per hour. CALCULATIONS OF HEAT GAINS ‘The calculation of the heat gain through the walls, roof, ceilings, windows, and floors of a structure requires three simple steps: 1. determine the net area in square feet; 2. find the proper heat gain factor from a table; and 3. multiply the area by the factor to find the product expressed in Btu/hr. The term net area is used in the calculation because the total wall area cannot be used. That is, the total wall is found and then any window and door areas are sub- tracted to obtain a net wall area. This area is then combined with the areas of the roof, ceilings, and floor to obtain the total net area. The phrase proper heat gairt factor is used to point out that the factors may differ, depeniding on the tables used. The text to this point has presented some U-factdts. Unit 12 gives tables of different factors known as combination factors. In addition, ‘manufacturers of air-conditioning equipment compile tables for use with their estimat- ing forms. These tables again may vary with each manufacturer depending on the particular information used to develop the tables. Regardless of the source of the factors used, the following steps are basic to the determination of the heat load. Step 1: Determining the Net Area Find the net area of a wall 24 ft. 6 in. long and § ft. high containing three 3 ft x 4 ft. windows. . Total wall area = length x heij = 24.5 ft. x 8 ft. = 196 sq, ft. (Note: the dimensions in feet and inches are converted to decimal feet) b.Windowarea = (3 ft.x4ft.)x3 = 12sq. ft. x3 = 36 sq. ft. c. Net area = 196 ~ 36 = 160 sq, ft. Step 2: Finding the Heat Gain Factor ‘The wall in this example is an S-in, brick exterior wall with no interior finish. Table A of the Appendix indicates that the heat gain factor is 0.50.112 ® Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating SOLID ERICK ........... Fig. 11-21 Excerpt from Table A of Appendix ‘Step 3: Multiplying the Area by the Factor Net area x factor = Btu/hr. 160 x 0.50 = 80 Btu/hr. for the given wall This example is a simple one but it illustrates the essential steps that must be performed to determine the heat gain. Factors such as the building orientation, latitude of the structure, amount of shade and sunlight, and similar conditions which affect the true condition are omitted from the calculation although normally they are considered. Succeeding units repeatedly use the formula, heat = area x factor = Btu/hr., in residential and commercial estimating. ‘SUMMARY ‘* A U-factor is a coefficient of heat transfer. Since materials differ in their heat transmission properties, each material has a different U-factor. Com- plete U-factor tables are included in the Appendix Heat gains through glass can be reduced by: 1. storm windows 2. double-pane (Thermopane®) windows 3. stained or tinted glass 4. awnings, blinds, or screens 5. shading due to roof overhang Heat gains through walls can be reduced by: 1, insulation 2. light exterior color 3. shading (roof overhang, other buildings) Heat gains through the roof can be reduced by: 1, natural or forced ventilation of the attic 2. insulation of ceiling or rafters 3. roof spray or pond on flat roof 4. shading from another building 5._ type of construction (light, medium, heavy)Unit 11, Cooling and Heating Load Estimating Guides © 113 ~ Ventilation air contains both sensible and latent heat. © The ventilation air sensible load is based on the temperature difference between the inside air and the outside air. Q (sensible) = cfm x 1.08 x (temperature difference) « The ventilation air latent load is based on the humidity difference be tween the inside air and the outside air. Q (latent) = cfm x 0.68 x (humid ity difference in gr./lb.) «Heat losses are calculated using the same U-factors as for heat gains since hneat flow is the same whether toward the outside or the inside. « People add both sensible heat and latent heat, The amount of heat of both types added depends on the activity of the people. The heat ranges from 350 Btu/hr. per person at rest to 1,450 Btu/hr. per person engaging in strenuous exercise. . @ Lights add sensible heat: 3.4 Btu/hr. per watt for incandescent lamps and 3.4 Btu/hr. per watt plus 259 for fluorescent lamps. * Motors add sensible heat: 2,545 Btu/hr. per horsepower. The efficiency of the motor, however, reduces this value to 80% to 90%. REVIEW Solve the following problems. 1. A wall 30 ft. long by 8 ft. high has three windows. Each window measures 3 ft. 6 in, by 5 ft. The outside DB temperature is 90°F and the inside DB tem- perature is 75°F. a. What is the net area of the wall? by: If single-pane glass is used, what is the total heat gain through the glass? ¢ How much is the heat gain through glass reduced if double-pane glass is used? What is the heat gain through the wall if the construction shown in figure 11-224 is used? If a wall whose net area is 800 sq. ft. is constructed as shown in figure 11-22B, what is the heat gain through the wall? x wm «@ U-FACTOR 025 U-FACTOR 033 Fig. 11-22114 ® Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating a. 10. i, #2. 13, 14, 15, 16. An outside wall has three windows and one door. The windows measure 4 ft. 4 in, x 6 ft, each and have single-pane glass. The door is 4 ft. x 7 ft. The gress wall area is 28 ft. x 9 ft. The outside DB temperature is 90°F; the inside DB temperature is 75°F. a. What is the heat gain through the glass? b. What is the heat gain through the wall if it is constructed as in figure 11-22A? ¢, What is the total heat gain (wall and glass) if double-pane glass and the con- ‘struction shown in figure | 1-22B are used? a. A room has an incandescent lighting load of 3,000 watts. What is the heat gain from the lights? b, What is the heat gain if fluorescent lamps of the same wattage are used? ‘A theater has a capacity of 500 people. How much outdoor air should be in- troduced for ventilation? If moderate smoking is the usual condition in a room seating 200 people, how much outdoor air is needed for ventilation? A retail shop serves a daily average of 150 customers. The entrance door is 3 ft. by 7 ft. What is the total heat gain due to infiltration? A slab floor measures 26 ft. x 40 ft. and has 1 in. of edge insulation. What is the heat loss of this floor at 0° An office seats 10 people. What is the total heat load from the-people (sensible and latent heat)? State the basic formula for determining heat transfer. List, in order of effectiveness, four methods of reducing the heat gain through glass. List three ways of reducing the heat gain through walls. List four ways of reducing the heat gain through roofs. What factor is used to calculate the sensible heat added by (a) lights and (b) motors? State the formulas used to calculate the sensible heat and latent heat added by ventilation air. Why are the same U-factors used whether the heat transfer results in a gain (summer cooling) or a Joss (winter heating)?UNIT 12 ESTIMATING THE AIR-CONDITIONING LOAD OBJECTIVES After completing the study of this unit, the student will be able to * use forms and associated tables supplied by the Air Conditioning and Refrigera- ticn Institute (ARI) to estimate the air-conditioning load (both heating and ‘cooling loads). © Exalain how the following items are important to a load estimate survey pattern people building orientation motors, lights, and appliances building size ventilation building shape equipment location materials of construction ‘water, gas, and electrical services glass areas local and state building codes infiltration © state the purpose of a load estimate. © use appropriate tables of fectors in determining sensible and latent heat gain. * determine ventilation using either the cubic feet of air per minute (cfm) per person in a building or the cubic feet of air per minute (cfm) required per square foot of floor space in a building. ‘¢ determ/ne infiltration using the air change approach. Units 19 and 11 presented the sources of heat gains and losses which must be considered in determining the total air-conditioning load. ‘The basic heat transfer formula used to obtain U-factors was described and some U-factors were illustrated. (A complete iabulation of U-factors appears in the Appendix.) The forms used in this unit are published by the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI). These forms are samles of the numerous types of forms and tables that are available, Sub- sequent units of this text dealing with residential and commercial estimating for specific structu-es will introduce forms from various manufacturers. SURVEY PATTERN A survey is a review of a particular structure to determine the best possible air~ conditioning sysiem for that structure and the best method of installing the system. The review is most effective when it follows a specific pattern. Surveys for larger buildings (such ¢s office buildings) are usually more comprehensive than surveys for smaller commercial or residential structures. Building Orientaticn The location oof the structure must be identified in relation to the compass points, the sun, wind dire -tion, and the surrounding buildings. It is necessary to determine 15116 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating the direction in which the building will face. It is also important to know on which sides of the building the sun will shine and at what times of the day, figure 12-1. This information is related to the solar load on the building and can also be used to determine the layout of the duct system. For example, if the front of the building is glass surfaced and faces east, the major solar load probably occurs through the glass surface early in the moming. If the front surface is glass and faces south, the major solar load probably ‘occurs at noon or during the early afternoon. Fig, 12-1 Hourly direction of the sun in winter and summer ‘The prevailing wind can affect the infiltration load, figure 12-2. For example, the infiltration load on the windward side is greater if the building has many windows as compared to a building with a solid wall on that side. The amount of infiltration through any cracks around the windows depends, to a degree, on the type of con- struction. The location of the building in relation to other buildings also has an effect ‘on both the solar load and the infiltration load. For example, if the building is partial- ly surrounded by taller buildings, the solar load is reduced because of the shade offered by the taller buildings. In addition, the effect of the prevailing wind is reduced as a factor in the infiltration load Thus, the load estimater must be familiar with the location or orientation of a building so that the effects of the weather on the building air-conditioning load can be anticipated and included in the estimate. Fig. 12-2 High- and low-pressure areas from wind effectUnit 12 Estimating the Air-conditioning Load ™ 117 Building Size Important factors in estimating the air-conditioning load are the areas of the walls, roof, and exposed floor surface, These areas are used to determine the con- duction and convection cooling or heating load due to the sun, wind, and other out- door ‘weather conditions. The total wall, roof, and floor area estimates are modified by considering the percentage of glass area and the type of building construction. Building Shape ‘The shape of the building is also an important factor since it affects the layout of the duct system and is a consideration when locating the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment. For example, the duct system installed in an L- or U-shaped building is different from the duct system installed in a circular building. Materials of Construction ‘The materials used to construct the building must be included in a complete survey. The cooling or heating load of the building varies according to the type of material used, such as glass, wooden frame, or heavy or light concrete. Quality or well-fitted construction usually requires less cooling and heating than does loose con- struction — particularly with regard to window and door framing. ‘The use of insula- tion and the amount used also affect the cooling and heating load. Glass Areas ‘The percentage of glass area, the type of glass used, and the direction of the wall in which the glass is installed are all major factors in determining the air-conditioning load. A determination of the time at which the maximum solar load occurs is based in part on the percentage of glass on a given surface of a building and the length of time that the glass area is exposed to direct solar radiation. The type of glass used (especially in those structures where large glass surfaces are installed) is a significant factor in load estimating. Double-pane sealed windows or windows having storm sashes reduce the conduction load considerably. If the glass area is shaded indoors by blinds or outdoors by awnings or building overhangs, the radiation load is reduced considerably. In summary, the survey should indicate the percentage of glass area, the direction in which the glass areas face, and any devices or details of building construction that shade all or a portion of the glass area. Infiltration ‘The major portion of infiltration takes place through doors and cracks around windows. It is important, therefore, to note the locations of doors and window areas in relation to the prevailing wind, figure 12-3, page 118. An important con- sideration is whether the doors are located on one, two, three, or even four or more sides of the building. If doors are open simultaneously on opposite sides of the build- ing, the amount of infiltration that takes place is considerably greater than if just one door in the building is opened. If weatherstripping is applied to all windows and doors, the infiltration loss can be reduced by as much as 50%. This is especially true if the window construction results in wide cracks over several linear feet.118 ® Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating Fig. 12-3 Indoor pressure is greater than the outdoor pressure because of wind action People Occupancy A commercial building survey indicates the estimated number of people who are to occupy the building at a given time. This information includes an estimate of the maximum number of people who may be present in the building. The load estimator should determine if the maximum people load occurs at the same time as the maxi- mum solar foad, The answer depends to a large extent on the locations of the glass areas and the effective solar load on the glass areas in relation to the time of the maxi- mum people load. Thus, the maximum load on the building is likely to occur at a time when the maximum number of people are in the building and the solar load through the major glass area is the largest. For example, if the people load in the morning is light and the east side of the building is of predominantly solid construction (little or no glass areas), the moming load is probably light. If the people load is concen- trated in midafternoon and the south side of the building is predominantly glass area, then the midafternoon load is probably the maximum load for the building. If the people load is lange, such as in theaters, department stores, and supermarkets, this fact must be entered on the survey. The specific time at which the largest people concentration is likely to occur must also be recorded. Motors, Lights, and Appliances The estimator must determine the load from’ motors, lights, and appliances according to the wattage or power used and the fuel consumed. The length of time that the lights, motors, and appliances are used and the frequency of use of these devices should be determined. The values for the total wattage of the lights, the'total motor horsepower, and the appliance power or fuel consumed should be recorded. |Unit 12 Estimating the Air-conditioning Load ™ 119 ‘These values can vary and are established by their use in a building. For example, a theater may have a lower lighting load as compared to the people load, especially in the auditorium section, Similarly, a restaurant may have a greater people and appliance load than a lighting load. Ventilation ‘As stated in previous units, ventilation air in large buildings enters through the ductwork. The amount of ventilation air necessary is determined by the number of people who are to occupy the building and by standard building codes. Ventilation ait requirements form a considerable portion of the load, especially during extremely ‘cold days (heating cycle) or extremely hot days (cooling cycle). In the heating cycle, the cold outdoor air must be heated before it can be introduced to the conditioned space. In the cooling cycle, the hot outdoor air must be cooled before it can be in- troduced to an air-conditioned space. In residential and small commercial structures, ventilation air is not necessarily introduced through the ductwork. Cracks around windows and doers usually supply the required air change in the structure. Equipment Location The location of the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment must be con- sidered with regard, to the available space and possible building construction ob- structions. In smaller stores and restaurants (where self-contained equipment is used), the location of this equipment can be a critical factor in combating draft conditions. ‘The proper location of the equipment can insure that generally good air conditioning results. In many installations, the equipment location can be a factor in minimizing the amount of ductwork required. It is preferred to place the equipment in a central location rather than at an extreme end of a building. Water, Gas, and Electrical Services The placement of the water, gas, and electrical services should be determined and noted by the estimator. Lower installation costs can be realized if the air-con- ditioning and refrigeration equipment can be located near these sérvices. In some instances, the location of the services may dictate the sitc of the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment. Local and State Building Codes State building codes do not vary from area to area, but are consistent through- out the state. On the other hand, each locality may have a different set of building codes. One city may have more stringent construction specifications than another city. Similarly, the local gas, electrical, and piping codes may be more or less stringent in one area than another. In all instances, however, the state code applies. These codes were developed and are enforced principally to maintain safety standards for all types of construction. In later units of this text, typical surveys and check lists are used to estimate residential and commercial buildings from plans.120 ™ Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating THE LOAD ESTIMATE ‘The load estimate is based on the design conditions inside the building to be air conditioned and the outside atmospheric conditions surrounding the building. The outside design conditions are the maximum extremes of temperature occurring in a specific locality. The inside design condition is the temperature and humidity to be maintained for optimum comfort, The purpose of a load estimate is to determine the size of the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment required to maintain the inside design conditions during periods of maximum extremes in the outside temperatures. The design load is, in effect, the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment capacity required to produce and maintain satisfactory indoor conditions. For example, if the city of Minneapolis, Minnesota has a design outside summer temperature of 98°F and an outside winter aaa ease ty we te we state coy Siveah, Bak, Sak, oa, ree tae ae ae Tae Sinkhen 18 8a Smee mf 8 Sn ee eee im nat de eae ee = all tee eee ge = = & s a en a | ee Co, Satie 8 ite gellwee ee a Boe 2 eR | tectiewan Omens, SSO Loe Angeies 3s 9070 | New Jersey. Newark o sw see 8 8 Bical Se 8 os eter limes 1) telbnay ie leas eet ot Ih ror SR Sy rt Penal Remrryg HB Comin totem 8 | enemy came kk Deleware Warmingion ° so 8 beranad so Past nent “eas es Tat, Vane 9 kW las ee, et BR — sem BO pe ee as Crore ‘Adants 0 3 16 - pees nome lanssle ee aee O e ‘ icles” | regal g ” ee e 6 4 : % tie ek | atnanms eet " Indians Indisnapote 40 ws ae eter: * hog = SON) eels s see Ste | sinew eas " Pre SOR [ter ees eee es ie a toe : ae ee 1 Paso w 100 8 eet atte: Wl aon estes free Monae 3s 8 a [veh nia ado, ie Pat af eettct laden [ite cee amy gle Maryland Baitemore o 9s 78. | Virginia: ‘Richmond is s 7 Masachuseits Boston e 927s | Washington ‘Seale 3 s 4 Speers Smee 2b 8 8 ; Wed en centage eon bee k oop ee ee | encarta mat ha 8 Hon 3B |weme ower sss Table 12-1 Recommended outside design conditions for localities in the continental United States122 ® Section 3 Principles of Load Estimating LOCATION AND EXPOSURE OPERA’ TION NONE E SE S SW WNW 30° Latitude 10-hour Operation 2 75 90 8 7% BBB 24-hour Operation 23 56 70 6 & 7 8% 7 40° Latitude a 10-hour Operation 3B 6 9 8 7 0 9 75 24-hour operation 2 4 1 6 62 7 88 67 50° Latitude 10-hour Operation B 0 0 8 8 9% 8 24-hour Operation 2 4 7 6 64 81 87 64 ‘Table 12-3. Factors for sensible heat gain through glass for average applications® (Btu/Hr./Sq. ft., Sash Area) *For rooms or zones with moze than one exposure, use the North values forall expowures except the cone having the largest solar gain (ually greatest las ares). (Courtesy Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration tnattute) Table-12-4 Transmission gain factors® (Courtesy Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute) FACTOR TEM COOLING LOAD HEATING LOAD La a ‘Single 1, Double glass — 0150 Walls: - Sunlit 030 0.25 Shaded 020 0.25 Partitions 020 0.35 (Ceiling under finished room 0.24 0.24 Floors: Over finished room 0.24 0.24 (Over basement with finished ceiling 0.20 0.20 On ground 0.00 0.00 No Under No Under Ceiling Ceiling! Attict | Ceiling Ceilingt Attict Roofs: Uninsulated, frame, or heavy masonry 120° 107 093 0.60 035° 030 Uninsulated, light masonry 187 160 133 080 040 035 Insulated 080 067 067 01S 013 0.13 ‘These factors ae combination factors. Do not confuse with Uralues (Bro/sa, ft./°F). ‘Factors based on fat roof construction.