Fazaia Inter College Minhas Kamra

Unit#2

The champions

Grammar Notes

Concept:1: Articles: Definite, Indefinite, and Zero Article

Articles are words used before nouns to define them as specific or unspecific. There are three types of
articles in English:

1. Definite Article (the)

2. Indefinite Articles (a, an)
3. Zero Article (no article)
1. Definite Article: “The”

The definite article “the” is used to refer to specific nouns, both singular and plural. It signals that the
noun being mentioned is something already known to the speaker and listener or something unique in
its context.

Uses of the Definite Article:

Unique objects: Used before nouns that are unique or well-known in context.

Example: the moon, the sun, the Earth.

Previously mentioned objects: When something has been mentioned earlier in a conversation or text.

Example: I saw a dog. The dog was barking loudly.

Specific places or objects: For specific geographical features or institutions.

Example: the Pacific Ocean, the Taj Mahal, the White House.

Superlatives and ordinal numbers: Used before superlatives and ordinal numbers.

Example: the best student, the first prize.

Musical instruments: When talking about playing musical instruments.

Example: She plays the piano.

Adjectives to represent groups: Used with adjectives to refer to groups of people.

Example: the rich, the elderly.

2. Indefinite Articles: “A” and “An”

Indefinite articles are used to refer to non-specific nouns. The choice between “a” and “an” depends on
the sound that follows the article.

“A” is used before words that begin with a consonant sound.

Example: a car, a book, a university (though “university” starts with a vowel letter, it begins with a
consonant sound /ju/).

“An” is used before words that begin with a vowel sound.

Example: an apple, an hour (though “hour” starts with a consonant letter, it begins with a vowel sound
/au/).

Uses of Indefinite Articles:

When introducing something for the first time: Use “a” or “an” when the noun is not specifically known
to the listener.

Example: I saw a bird on the tree.

With singular countable nouns: Indefinite articles are used only with singular countable nouns.

Example: She has a dog.

When referring to one of many: The noun is one example of a larger group.

Example: He is a doctor (one of many doctors).

3. Zero Article

The zero article refers to the absence of an article before certain types of nouns. This occurs primarily
with plural nouns, uncountable nouns, and some proper nouns.

Uses of the Zero Article:

Plural countable nouns when speaking generally:

Example: Dogs are friendly animals. (Refers to dogs in general)

Uncountable nouns when speaking generally:

Example: Water is essential for life.

Names of countries (except countries that include words like “kingdom,” “states,” etc.):

Example: France, Pakistan, Germany, but the United States, the United Kingdom.

Names of languages and subjects:

Example: He speaks French. They study biology.

Meals, sports, and transport:

Example: We have dinner at 7 p.m., She plays tennis, They went by car.

Summary of Article Use:

“The” – for specific or known nouns.

“A/An” – for non-specific, singular, countable nouns.

Zero Article – for general or uncountable nouns, and proper nouns (like names of countries, languages).

This understanding of articles helps in determining when and how to specify or generalize a noun in
sentences.

Concept:2: Personal pronoun, Relative pronoun, Indefinite pronoun

1. Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns are used to represent specific people or things. They change form based on person,
number, gender, and case (subject, object, or possessive).

Subjective case (acts as the subject):

Examples: I, you, he, she, it, we, they

Example: She is going to the market.

Objective case (acts as the object):

Examples: me, you, him, her, it, us, them

Example: The teacher gave me a book.

Possessive case (shows ownership):

Examples: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs

Example: That book is mine.

2. Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce a dependent (or relative) clause and refer to a noun mentioned previously,
acting to connect the two parts of a sentence.

Examples: who, whom, whose, which, that

Example: The boy who won the race is my friend.

Example: The book that you gave me is interesting.

3. Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to people or things without specifying exactly who or what they are. They are
often used when the exact identity is unknown or not important.

Examples: someone, anyone, nobody, everybody, few, many, all, some

Example: Someone left their umbrella in the classroom.

Example: Few of the students understood the concept.

Concept #3

Pronouns and their antecedents

Pronouns are words used to replace nouns to avoid repetition in a sentence. They refer back to a noun
or noun phrase mentioned earlier, making the sentence smoother and less repetitive. Examples of
pronouns include: he, she, it, they, him, her, them, etc.
Antecedents are the nouns or noun phrases that the pronouns refer to. In other words, the antecedent
is the word that the pronoun is standing in for.

For example:

“Sarah loves her dog.”

Here, “Sarah” is the antecedent, and “her” is the pronoun referring to “Sarah.”

It’s essential for pronouns and their antecedents to agree in gender, number, and person to avoid
confusion in sentences.

Example:

“The students finished their homework.”

“The students” is the antecedent, and “their” is the pronoun that refers to it.