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Apollo program
The Apollo program, also known as Project
Apollo program
Apollo, was the United States human spaceflight
program carried out by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), which succeeded in
preparing and landing the first men[2] on the Moon
in 1969. It was first conceived in 1960 during
President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration as
a three-person spacecraft to follow the one-person
Project Mercury, which put the first Americans in
space. Apollo was later dedicated to President John
F. Kennedy's national goal for the 1960s of "landing Program overview
a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the
Country United States
Earth" in an address to Congress on May 25, 1961. It
Organization NASA
was the third US human spaceflight program to fly,
preceded by the two-person Project Gemini Purpose Crewed lunar landing
conceived in 1961 to extend spaceflight capability in Status Completed
support of Apollo. Program history

Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 Cost $25.4 billion (1973)
mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz $257 billion (2023)[1]
Aldrin landed their Apollo Lunar Module (LM) on Duration 1961–1972
July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while
First flight SA-1
Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the
command and service module (CSM), and all three October 27, 1961
landed safely on Earth in the Pacific Ocean on July First crewed Apollo 7
24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed flight October 11, 1968
astronauts on the Moon, the last, Apollo 17, in
December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve Last flight Apollo 17
people walked on the Moon. December 19, 1972
Successes 32
Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first crewed
flight in 1968. It encountered a major setback in Failures 2 (Apollo 1 and 13)
1967 when an Apollo 1 cabin fire killed the entire Partial failures 1 (Apollo 6)
crew during a prelaunch test. After the first Launch site(s) Cape Kennedy
successful landing, sufficient flight hardware
Kennedy Space Center
remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for
extended lunar geological and astrophysical White Sands
exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of Vehicle information
three of these. Five of the remaining six missions Crewed Apollo CSM · Apollo LM
achieved successful landings, but the Apollo 13 vehicle(s)
landing had to be aborted after an oxygen tank
exploded en route to the Moon, crippling the CSM.
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The crew barely managed a safe return to Earth by Launch Little Joe II · Saturn I · Saturn
using the lunar module as a "lifeboat" on the return vehicle(s) IB · Saturn V
journey. Apollo used the Saturn family of rockets as
launch vehicles, which were also used for an Apollo
Applications Program, which consisted of Skylab, a space
station that supported three crewed missions in 1973–1974,
and the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, a joint United States-Soviet
Union low Earth orbit mission in 1975.

Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It

stands alone in sending crewed missions beyond low Earth
orbit. Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to orbit another
celestial body, and Apollo 11 was the first crewed spacecraft to
land humans on one.
Buzz Aldrin (pictured) walked on the
Overall, the Apollo program returned 842 pounds (382 kg) of Moon with Neil Armstrong, on Apollo
lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the 11, July 20–21, 1969.
understanding of the Moon's composition and geological
history. The program laid the foundation for NASA's
subsequent human spaceflight capability and funded
construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space
Center. Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of
technology incidental to rocketry and human spaceflight,
including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.

Name
The program was named after Apollo, the Greek god of light,
music, and the Sun, by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who NASA Apollo 17 Lunar Roving
later said, "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my Vehicle
baby."[3] Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early
in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the
Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed
program".[4]

The context of this was that the program focused at its

beginning mainly on developing an advanced crewed
spacecraft, the Apollo command and service module,
succeeding the Mercury program. A lunar landing became the
focus of the program only in 1961.[5] Thereafter Project Gemini
instead followed the Mercury program to test and study
advanced crewed spaceflight technology.

Earthrise, the iconic 1968 image

from Apollo 8 taken by astronaut
Background William Anders

Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies

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The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, as a
follow-up to Project Mercury. While the Mercury capsule could support only one astronaut on a
limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three. Possible missions included ferrying crews
to a space station, circumlunar flights, and eventual crewed lunar landings.

In July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to
industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications
were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module
(piloting and reentry cabin), and a propulsion and equipment module. On August 30, a feasibility
study competition was announced, and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to
General Dynamics/Convair, General Electric, and the Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile,
NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a
gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs.[6]

Political pressure builds

In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised
American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense.
Up to the election of 1960, Kennedy had been speaking out against the "missile gap" that he and
many other senators said had developed between the Soviet Union and the United States due to the
inaction of President Eisenhower.[7] Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology
as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to make the US not "first but, first and, first if, but first
period".[8] Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of
the Apollo program once he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the
space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a crewed Moon
landing.[9] When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30
percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster
program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.[10]

On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space,
reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet
Union. At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after
Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring
that America would catch up.[11] Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to
make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets.[12]

On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B.

Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's
space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the
opportunity to catch up.[13][14] Johnson responded
approximately one week later, concluding that "we are neither
making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this
country is to reach a position of leadership."[15][16] His memo
concluded that a crewed Moon landing was far enough in the
future that it was likely the United States would achieve it
President Kennedy delivers his
first.[15] proposal to put a man on the Moon
before a joint session of Congress,
On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US crewed May 25, 1961.
spaceflight Freedom 7, Kennedy proposed the crewed Moon
landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent
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National Needs:

Now it is time to take longer strides—time for a great new American enterprise—time for
this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may
hold the key to our future on Earth.

... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade
is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single
space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the
long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to
accomplish.[17][a]

NASA expansion
At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had flown in space—less than a month
earlier—and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted
whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met.[18] By 1963, Kennedy even came close to agreeing
to a joint US-USSR Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of effort.[19]

With the clear goal of a crewed landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and
circumlunar flights, NASA decided that, in order to make progress quickly, it would discard the
feasibility study designs of Convair, GE, and Martin, and proceed with Faget's command and
service module design. The mission module was determined to be useful only as an extra room,
and therefore unnecessary.[20] They used Faget's design as the specification for another
competition for spacecraft procurement bids in October 1961. On November 28, 1961, it was
announced that North American Aviation had won the contract, although its bid was not rated as
good as the Martin proposal. Webb, Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it in preference due to
North American's longer association with NASA and its predecessor.[21]

Landing humans on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological
creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($25 billion; $182 billion in 2023 US
dollars)[22] ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed
400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities.[23]

On July 1, 1960, NASA established the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville,
Alabama. MSFC designed the heavy lift-class Saturn launch vehicles, which would be required for
Apollo.[24]

Manned Spacecraft Center

It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R.
Gilruth's Space Task Group, which had been directing the nation's crewed space program from
NASA's Langley Research Center. So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a
new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas, on
land donated by Rice University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on
September 19, 1961.[25] It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling
missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission
Control Center would be included in the MSC.[26]
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In September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury

astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his
organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of
the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice to
reiterate his challenge in a famous speech:

But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our 17:48
goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest
mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? ... We President Kennedy speaks at Rice
choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the University, September 12, 1962 (17
Moon in this decade and do the other things, not min, 47 s).
because they are easy, but because they are hard;
because that goal will serve to organize and measure
the best of our energies and skills; because that
challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we
are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to
win ...[27][b]

The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of
Lyndon B. Johnson soon after his death in 1973.[28]

Launch Operations Center

It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two
newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the
northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the
mammoth rocket required for the crewed lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July
1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. The
design, development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of
Wernher von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first
Director.[29] Construction began in November 1962. Following Kennedy's death, President
Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral
in honor of Kennedy.[30]

The LOC included Launch Complex 39, a Launch Control

Center, and a 130-million-cubic-foot (3,700,000 m3) Vertical
Assembly Building (VAB).[31] in which the space vehicle
(launch vehicle and spacecraft) would be assembled on a
mobile launcher platform and then moved by a crawler-
transporter to one of several launch pads. Although at least
three pads were planned, only two, designated A and B, were
completed in October 1965. The LOC also included an
Operations and Checkout Building (OCB) to which Gemini and
Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to George Mueller, Wernher von
Braun, and Eberhard Rees watch
their launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in
the AS-101 launch from the firing
room.

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two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to 250,000 feet
(76 km), which is nearly a vacuum.[32][33]

Organization
Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control, he had to develop
greater project management skills in his organization, so he recruited George E. Mueller for a high
management job. Mueller accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization
necessary to effectively administer Apollo. Webb then worked with Associate Administrator (later
Deputy Administrator) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF).[34] On
July 23, 1963, Webb announced Mueller's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for
Manned Space Flight, to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his
retirement effective September 1. Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned
Spacecraft Center (Gilruth), Marshall Space Flight Center (von Braun), and the Launch Operations
Center (Debus) reported to Mueller.[35]

Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects, Mueller realized some skilled
managers could be found among high-ranking officers in the U.S. Air Force, so he got Webb's
permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips, who gained a reputation for his effective
management of the Minuteman program, as OMSF program controller. Phillips's superior officer
Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on
the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. Mueller agreed, and Phillips
managed Apollo from January 1964, until it achieved the first human landing in July 1969, after
which he returned to Air Force duty.[36]

Charles Fishman, in One Giant Leap, estimated the number of people and organizations involved
into the Apollo program as "410,000 men and women at some 20,000 different companies
contributed to the effort".[37]

Choosing a mission mode

Once Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners
were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that
could meet it while minimizing risk to human life, limiting cost,
and not exceeding limits in possible technology and astronaut
skill. Four possible mission modes were considered:

Direct Ascent: The spacecraft would be launched as a unit

and travel directly to the lunar surface, without first going
into lunar orbit. A 50,000-pound (23,000 kg) Earth return
ship would land all three astronauts atop a 113,000-pound
John Houbolt explaining the LOR
(51,000 kg) descent propulsion stage,[38] which would be
concept
left on the Moon. This design would have required
development of the extremely powerful Saturn C-8 or Nova
launch vehicle to carry a 163,000-pound (74,000 kg)
payload to the Moon.[39]
Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR): Multiple rocket launches (up to 15 in some plans) would
carry parts of the Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for translunar injection (TLI).
These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit.

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Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft would be

launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle
carrying propellant for the return to Earth, would land on the
Moon, to be followed some time later by the crewed
vehicle. Propellant would have to be transferred from the
automated vehicle to the crewed vehicle.[40]
Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): This turned out to be the
winning configuration, which achieved the goal with Apollo
11 on July 20, 1969: a single Saturn V launched a 96,886-
pound (43,947 kg) spacecraft that was composed of a
63,608-pound (28,852 kg) Apollo command and service
module which remained in orbit around the Moon and a
33,278-pound (15,095 kg) two-stage Apollo Lunar Module
spacecraft which was flown by two astronauts to the Early Apollo configuration for Direct
surface, flown back to dock with the command module and
Ascent and Earth Orbit
was then discarded.[41] Landing the smaller spacecraft on Rendezvous, 1961
the Moon, and returning an even smaller part (10,042
pounds or 4,555 kilograms) to lunar orbit, minimized the
total mass to be launched from Earth, but this was the last method initially considered because
of the perceived risk of rendezvous and docking.
In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers
feared that rendezvous and docking, maneuvers that had not been attempted in Earth orbit, would
be nearly impossible in lunar orbit. LOR advocates including John Houbolt at Langley Research
Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach.
Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and
practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue
to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a
voice in the wilderness", Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the
question.[42]

Seamans's establishment of an ad hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas
E. Golovin in July 1961, to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program,
represented a turning point in NASA's mission mode decision.[43] This committee recognized that
the chosen mode was an important part of the launch vehicle choice, and recommended in favor of
a hybrid EOR-LOR mode. Its consideration of LOR—as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work—played
an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962,
members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR, including the
newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight, Joseph Shea, who became a
champion of LOR.[44] The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), who were heavily
invested in direct ascent, took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was
announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7, 1962.[45]

But even after NASA reached internal agreement, it was far from smooth sailing. Kennedy's science
advisor Jerome Wiesner, who had expressed his opposition to human spaceflight to Kennedy
before the President took office,[46] and had opposed the decision to land people on the Moon,
hired Golovin, who had left NASA, to chair his own "Space Vehicle Panel", ostensibly to monitor,
but actually to second-guess NASA's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing
Shea, Seamans, and even Webb to defend themselves, delaying its formal announcement to the
press on July 11, 1962, and forcing Webb to still hedge the decision as "tentative".[47]

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Wiesner kept up the pressure, even making the disagreement public during a two-day September
visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center. Wiesner blurted out "No, that's no good" in
front of the press, during a presentation by von Braun. Webb jumped in and defended von Braun,
until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was "still subject to final review".
Webb held firm and issued a request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module (LEM)
contractors. Wiesner finally relented, unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy's
office, because of the President's involvement with the October Cuban Missile Crisis, and fear of
Kennedy's support for Webb. NASA announced the selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor
in November 1962.[48]

Space historian James Hansen concludes that:

Without NASA's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962, the United
States may still have reached the Moon, but almost certainly it would not have been
accomplished by the end of the 1960s, President Kennedy's target date.[49]

The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a "lifeboat" in
the event of a failure of the command ship. Some documents prove this theory was discussed
before and after the method was chosen. In 1964 an MSC study concluded, "The LM [as lifeboat] ...
was finally dropped, because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would
prohibit use of the SPS."[50] Ironically, just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen
tank explosion left the CSM without electrical power. The lunar module provided propulsion,
electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely.[51]

Spacecraft
Faget's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone-shaped
command module, supported by one of several service modules
providing propulsion and electrical power, sized appropriately
for the space station, cislunar, and lunar landing missions.
Once Kennedy's Moon landing goal became official, detailed
design began of a command and service module (CSM) in
which the crew would spend the entire direct-ascent mission
and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip, after being
soft-landed by a larger landing propulsion module. The final An Apollo boilerplate command
choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM's role to the module is on exhibit in the Meteor
translunar ferry used to transport the crew, along with a new Crater Visitor Center in Winslow,
spacecraft, the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM, later shortened Arizona.
to LM (Lunar Module) but still pronounced /ˈlɛm/) which
would take two individuals to the lunar surface and return
them to the CSM.[52]

Command and service module

The command module (CM) was the conical crew cabin, designed to carry three astronauts from
launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing. It was the only component of the Apollo
spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early
Apollo study designs. Its exterior was covered with an ablative heat shield, and had its own
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reaction control system (RCS) engines to control its

attitude and steer its atmospheric entry path. Parachutes
were carried to slow its descent to splashdown. The
module was 11.42 feet (3.48 m) tall, 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in
diameter, and weighed approximately 12,250 pounds
(5,560 kg).[53]

Apollo 15 CSM Endeavour in lunar orbit

A cylindrical service module (SM) supported the command

module, with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with
propellants, and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid
Original cockpit of the command
hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants. A high-gain S-band
module of Apollo 11 with three
antenna was used for long-distance communications on the seats, photographed from above. It
lunar flights. On the extended lunar missions, an orbital is located in the National Air and
scientific instrument package was carried. The service module Space Museum; the very high
was discarded just before reentry. The module was 24.6 feet resolution image was produced in
(7.5 m) long and 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter. The initial 2007 by the Smithsonian Institution.
lunar flight version weighed approximately 51,300 pounds
(23,300 kg) fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry
a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over 54,000 pounds (24,000 kg).[53]

North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the
Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started early before the selection
of lunar orbit rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off the Moon,
and thus was oversized to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight.[54] Also, there was
no provision for docking with the lunar module. A 1964 program definition study concluded that
the initial design should be continued as Block I which would be used for early testing, while Block
II, the actual lunar spacecraft, would incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the
lessons learned in Block I development.[52]

Apollo Lunar Module

The Apollo Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts
on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the command module. Not designed
to fly through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage was designed totally without
aerodynamic considerations and was of an extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of
separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The descent stage contained storage
for the descent propellant, surface stay consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The
ascent stage contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. The initial
LM model weighed approximately 33,300 pounds (15,100 kg), and allowed surface stays up to
around 34 hours. An extended lunar module (ELM) weighed over 36,200 pounds (16,400 kg), and

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allowed surface stays of more than three days.[53] The

contract for design and construction of the lunar module
was awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering
Corporation, and the project was overseen by Thomas J.
Kelly.[55]

Launch vehicles
Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun
and his team of rocket engineers had started work on
plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series,
and the even larger Nova series. In the midst of these
plans, von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle (and Buzz
and was made Director of the Marshall Space Flight Aldrin) on the Moon, photographed by Neil
Armstrong
Center. The initial direct ascent plan to send the three-
person Apollo command and service module
directly to the lunar surface, on top of a large
descent rocket stage, would require a Nova-class
launcher, with a lunar payload capability of over
180,000 pounds (82,000 kg).[56] The June 11, 1962,
decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the
Saturn V to replace the Nova, and the MSFC
proceeded to develop the Saturn rocket family for
Apollo.[57]

Since Apollo, like Mercury, used more than one

launch vehicle for space missions, NASA used
Four Apollo rocket assemblies, drawn to scale:
spacecraft-launch vehicle combination series Little Joe II, Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V
numbers: AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn
IB, and AS-50x for Saturn V (compare Mercury-
Redstone 3, Mercury-Atlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than numbering them
sequentially as in Project Gemini. This was changed by the time human flights began.[58]

Little Joe II
Since Apollo, like Mercury, would require a launch escape system (LES) in case of a launch failure,
a relatively small rocket was required for qualification flight testing of this system. A rocket bigger
than the Little Joe used by Mercury would be required, so the Little Joe II was built by General
Dynamics/Convair. After an August 1963 qualification test flight,[59] four LES test flights (A-001
through 004) were made at the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January
1966.[60]

Saturn I
Saturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially equipped
CSMs in low Earth orbit tests. The S-I first stage burned RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer in
eight clustered Rocketdyne H-1 engines, to produce 1,500,000 pounds-force (6,670 kN) of thrust.

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The S-IV second stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled Pratt & Whitney
RL-10 engines with 90,000 pounds-force (400 kN) of thrust. The S-V
third stage flew inactively on Saturn I four times.[61]

The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only
the first stage live, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. The
first flight with a live S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed
by five launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101 through AS-105)
into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The last three of these further supported the
Apollo program by also carrying Pegasus satellites, which verified the A Saturn IB rocket
safety of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and launches Apollo 7, 1968
severity of micrometeorite impacts.[62]

In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four crewed CSM flights on the Saturn I from late
1965 through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. The 22,500-pound (10,200 kg) payload
capacity[63] would have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was
made in October 1963 to use the uprated Saturn IB for all crewed Earth orbital flights.[64]

Saturn IB
The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The S-IB first stage increased the thrust to
1,600,000 pounds-force (7,120 kN) by uprating the H-1 engine. The second stage replaced the S-IV
with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to
produce 200,000 pounds-force (890 kN) of thrust.[65] A restartable version of the S-IVB was used
as the third stage of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over 40,000 pounds (18,100 kg) into
low Earth orbit, sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM.[66] Saturn IB launch vehicles and
flights were designated with an AS-200 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "2"
indicating the second member of the Saturn rocket family.[67]

Saturn V
Saturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-500
series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "5" indicating
Saturn V.[67] The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled
CSM and LM to the Moon. It was 33 feet (10.1 m) in diameter and stood
363 feet (110.6 m) tall with its 96,800-pound (43,900 kg) lunar payload.
Its capability grew to 103,600 pounds (47,000 kg) for the later advanced
lunar landings. The S-IC first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust
of 7,500,000 pounds-force (33,400 kN), which was upgraded to
7,610,000 pounds-force (33,900 kN). The second and third stages
burned liquid hydrogen; the third stage was a modified version of the S- A Saturn V rocket
IVB, with thrust increased to 230,000 pounds-force (1,020 kN) and launches Apollo 11,
capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after reaching a 1969
parking orbit.[68]

Astronauts

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NASA's director of flight crew operations during the Apollo

program was Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, one of the original
Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in
September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was
responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew
assignments.[69]

Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the

Apollo program. Twenty-four of these left Earth's orbit and
Apollo 1 crew: Ed White, command flew around the Moon between December 1968 and December
pilot Gus Grissom, and Roger 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24 walked on the Moon's
Chaffee surface, though none of them returned to it after landing once.
One of the moonwalkers was a trained geologist. Of the 32, Gus
Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee were killed during a
ground test in preparation for the Apollo 1 mission.[58]

The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury

and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. All
missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans.
Crews on all development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM
development flights) through the first two landings on Apollo
11 and Apollo 12, included at least two (sometimes three)
Gemini veterans. Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the first
NASA scientist astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the
Moon on the last mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in
the lunar geology training of all of the Apollo landing crews.[70] Apollo 11 crew, from left:
Commander Neil Armstrong,
NASA awarded all 32 of these astronauts its highest honor, the Command Module Pilot Michael
Collins, and Lunar Module Pilot
Distinguished Service Medal, given for "distinguished service,
Buzz Aldrin
ability, or courage", and personal "contribution representing
substantial progress to the NASA mission". The medals were
awarded posthumously to Grissom, White, and Chaffee in 1969, then to the crews of all missions
from Apollo 8 onward. The crew that flew the first Earth orbital test mission Apollo 7, Walter M.
Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, were awarded the lesser NASA Exceptional Service
Medal, because of discipline problems with the flight director's orders during their flight. In
October 2008, the NASA Administrator decided to award them the Distinguished Service Medals.
For Schirra and Eisele, this was posthumously.[71]

Lunar mission profile

The first lunar landing mission was planned to proceed:[72]

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Launch The three Saturn V Translunar injection After one

stages burn for about 11 minutes to two orbits to verify readiness
to achieve a 100-nautical-mile of spacecraft systems, the S-IVB
(190 km) circular parking orbit. third stage reignites for about six
The third stage burns a small minutes to send the spacecraft to
portion of its fuel to achieve orbit. the Moon.

Transposition and docking The Extraction The CMP docks the

Spacecraft Lunar Module CSM with the LM, and pulls the
Adapter (SLA) panels separate complete spacecraft away from
to free the CSM and expose the the S-IVB. The lunar voyage
LM. The command module pilot takes between two and three
(CMP) moves the CSM out a days. Midcourse corrections are
safe distance, and turns 180°. made as necessary using the
SM engine.

Lunar orbit insertion The After a rest period, the

spacecraft passes about 60 commander (CDR) and lunar
nautical miles (110 km) behind module pilot (LMP) move to the
the Moon, and the SM engine is LM, power up its systems, and
fired to slow the spacecraft and deploy the landing gear. The
put it into a 60-by-170-nautical- CSM and LM separate; the CMP
mile (110 by 310 km) orbit, which visually inspects the LM, then the
is soon circularized at 60 nautical LM crew move a safe distance
miles by a second burn. away and fire the descent engine
for Descent orbit insertion,
which takes it to a perilune of
about 50,000 feet (15 km).

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Powered descent At perilune, The CDR and LMP perform one

the descent engine fires again to or more EVAs exploring the lunar
start the descent. The CDR surface and collecting samples,
takes control after pitchover for a alternating with rest periods.
vertical landing.

The ascent stage lifts off, using The LM rendezvouses and docks
the descent stage as a launching with the CSM.
pad.

The CDR and LMP transfer back Trans-Earth injection The SM

to the CM with their material engine fires to send the CSM
samples, then the LM ascent back to Earth.
stage is jettisoned, to eventually
fall out of orbit and crash on the
surface.

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The SM is jettisoned just before Atmospheric drag slows the CM.

reentry, and the CM turns 180° to Aerodynamic heating surrounds
face its blunt end forward for it with an envelope of ionized air
reentry. which causes a communications
blackout for several minutes.

Parachutes are deployed,

slowing the CM for a splashdown
in the Pacific Ocean. The
astronauts are recovered and
brought to an aircraft carrier.

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Apollo Mission Flight Plan, 1967

Profile variations
The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollo 10, and
Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a flight path CC
coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to
Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit
insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on later missions
dictated a lunar orbital plane change, which required a
course change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the
free-return option.[73] 4:30
After Apollo 12 placed the second of several seismometers
on the Moon,[74] the jettisoned LM ascent stages on Apollo Neil Armstrong pilots the Apollo
12 and later missions were deliberately crashed on the Lunar Module Eagle and lands
Moon at known locations to induce vibrations in the Moon's himself and navigator Buzz Aldrin
structure. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM on the Moon, July 20, 1969.
which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, and Apollo 16,
where a loss of attitude control after jettison prevented
making a targeted impact.[75]
As another active seismic experiment, the S-IVBs on Apollo 13 and subsequent missions were
deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit.[76]
Starting with Apollo 13, descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the service module
engine instead of the LM engine, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing. This was
actually done for the first time on Apollo 14, since the Apollo 13 mission was aborted before
landing.[77]

Development history

Uncrewed flight tests

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Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on

suborbital flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. The first, AS-
201 launched on February 26, reached an altitude of 265.7
nautical miles (492.1 km) and splashed down 4,577
nautical miles (8,477 km) downrange in the Atlantic
Ocean.[78] The second, AS-202 on August 25, reached 617.1
nautical miles (1,142.9 km) altitude and was recovered
13,900 nautical miles (25,700 km) downrange in the
Pacific Ocean. These flights validated the service module
engine and the command module heat shield.[79]

A third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, went

into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage Apollo uncrewed development mission
restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nose launches. Click on a launch image to
cone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was read the main article about each mission.
the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of which
engineers measured with temperature and pressure
sensors, and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-202, which was delayed
because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight.[80]

Preparation for crewed flight

Two crewed orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew
positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume
navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer.[81] The astronauts would
wear a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit.[82]

After an uncrewed LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual
mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate
Saturn IB).[83] The Block II crew positions were titled Commander, Command Module Pilot, and
Lunar Module Pilot. The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit, designed to
accommodate lunar extravehicular activity (EVA). The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a
clear "fishbowl" type for greater visibility, and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-
cooled undergarment.[84]

Deke Slayton, the grounded Mercury astronaut who became director of flight crew operations for
the Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as
Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his
shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on
January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee.[85] NASA announced the final crew selection for
AS-204 on March 21, 1966, with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt
and David Scott, with rookie Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Wally
Schirra, Eisele, and rookie Walter Cunningham were announced on September 29 as the prime
crew for AS-205.[85]

In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be
accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments
and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to

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the dual mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt,
Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and
Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew.[86]

Program delays
The spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to
the Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before
flight; these delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the
first crewed mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the
last Gemini mission. Eventually, the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21,
1967.[87]

North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn V
S-II second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first uncrewed Saturn V flight AS-501
from late 1966 to November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer
spool in place of the stage.)[88]

The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight
Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a "tiger team"
to investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his
findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter by
Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert
Seamans.[89] Meanwhile, Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module,
eliminating hopes it would be ready for crewed flight in 1967, not long after the first crewed CSM
flights.[90]

Apollo 1 fire
Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight
Apollo 1 as a motivational focus on the first crewed flight. They
trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North
American, and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space
Center. A "plugs-out" test was planned for January, which
would simulate a launch countdown on LC-34 with the
spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. If
successful, this would be followed by a more rigorous Charred Apollo 1 cabin interior
countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch,
with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled.[91]

The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and immediately was plagued with
problems. First, the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits which delayed the sealing of the
hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the
simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin and spread quickly in
the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the
cabin inner wall burst, allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to
rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened.[92]

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NASA immediately convened an accident review board,

overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination
of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board
concluded that "deficiencies existed in command module
design, workmanship and quality control".[92] At the insistence
of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed
Harrison Storms as command module program manager.[93]
Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office
(ASPO) Manager Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with
George Low.[94]

To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the

Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most
important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture
Block II spacesuit in January 1968,
instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal before (left) and after changes
of flammable cabin and space suit materials.[95] The Block II recommended after the Apollo 1 fire
design already called for replacement of the Block I plug-type
hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door.[95]
NASA discontinued the crewed Block I program, using the Block I spacecraft only for uncrewed
Saturn V flights. Crew members would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II
space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether a LM was present
on the flight or not.[84]

Uncrewed Saturn V and LM tests

On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using
sequential numbers for all flights, crewed or uncrewed. The sequence would start with Apollo 4 to
cover the first three uncrewed flights while retiring the Apollo 1 designation to honor the crew, per
their widows' wishes.[58][96]

In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully
accomplished in order to achieve the crewed lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully
accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of
each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The A missions
were uncrewed Saturn V validation; B was uncrewed LM validation using the Saturn IB; C was
crewed CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; D was the first crewed CSM/LM flight
(this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM
flight; F would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a
"dress rehearsal"); and G would be the first crewed landing. The list of types covered follow-on
lunar exploration to include H lunar landings, I for lunar orbital survey missions, and J for
extended-stay lunar landings.[97]

The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on human-rating the LM and
Saturn V. Apollo 4 (AS-501) was the first uncrewed flight of the Saturn V, carrying a Block I CSM
on November 9, 1967. The capability of the command module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar
reentry was demonstrated by using the service module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at
higher than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed.

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Apollo 5 (AS-204) was the first uncrewed test flight of the LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37
on January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines
were successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short
the first descent stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the-
hole" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman
wanted a second uncrewed test, George Low decided the next LM flight would be crewed.[98]

This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test
Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely
by a simulated direct-return abort, using the service module engine to achieve another high-speed
reentry. The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine
combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down
prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The damage to the third stage
engine was more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers
were able to use the service module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based
on the good performance of Apollo 6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6
problems, NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly crew, canceling a third uncrewed test.[99]

Crewed development missions

Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was
the C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham.
It was an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM
systems.[100]

Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December

1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched
on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn IBs.[101] In the Apollo crewed development mission
summer it had become clear that the LM would not be patches. Click on a patch to read the
ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another main article about that mission.
simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager George Low
suggested the bold step of sending Apollo 8 to orbit the
Moon instead, deferring the D mission to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E
mission. This would keep the program on track. The Soviet Union had sent two tortoises,
mealworms, wine flies, and other lifeforms around the Moon on September 15, 1968, aboard Zond
5, and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with human cosmonauts.[102][103] The
decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans
Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, and rookie William Anders captured the world's attention by
making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on
Christmas Eve, and returning safely to Earth.[104]

The following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth
orbit on Apollo 9, and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its portable life support
system (PLSS) outside the LM.[105] The F mission was successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May
1969 by Gemini veterans Thomas P. Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan. Stafford and
Cernan took the LM to within 50,000 feet (15 km) of the lunar surface.[106]

The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of
Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first
landing at the Sea of Tranquility at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours,
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36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours, 31 minutes

outside the spacecraft,[107] walking on the surface, taking
photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying
automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending
black-and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts
returned safely on July 24.[108]

That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for
mankind.
Neil Armstrong descends the LM's
ladder in preparation for the first
steps on the lunar surface, as
— Neil Armstrong, just after stepping onto the
televised live on July 20, 1969. Moon's surface[109]

Production lunar landings

In November 1969, Charles "Pete" Conrad became the third person to step onto the Moon, which
he did while speaking more informally than had Armstrong:

Whoopee! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.

— Pete Conrad[110]

Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing

of Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyor 3
uncrewed lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on
the Ocean of Storms. The command module pilot was
Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon Jr. Conrad and Bean
carried the first lunar surface color television camera, but it
was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They
made two EVAs totaling 7 hours and 45 minutes.[107] On
one, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and Apollo production crewed lunar landing
removed some parts which they returned to Earth.[111] mission patches. Click on a patch to read
the main article about that mission.
The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs was enough for lunar
landing missions through Apollo 20. Shortly after Apollo
11, NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites after Apollo 12, with
plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the payload
capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list,
allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions
were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions
would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing
televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to
allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV.[112]

The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single
veteran as commander, with two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise
in April 1970, headed for the Fra Mauro formation. But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank
exploded, disabling the service module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "lifeboat" to return
to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to

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be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a

subcontractor not making a tank component according to
updated design specifications.[51] Apollo was grounded again,
for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was
redesigned and an extra one was added.[113]

Mission cutbacks
About the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to
use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory
pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct
Apollo landings on the Moon, 1969– it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminated
1972
Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of
the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds
available for the development of the upcoming Space Shuttle. By 1971, the decision was made to
also cancel missions 18 and 19.[114] The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the
John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in
Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana, and Lyndon B.
Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.[115]

The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to
achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions.
Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there would be only
two subsequent missions left, it was changed to the first of three J missions.[116]

Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14, commanded in February 1971 by
Mercury veteran Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell.[117] This time the mission
was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface,[118] and
completed two EVAs totalling 9 hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a
lunar crew at the time.[117]

In August 1971, just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission, President Richard Nixon proposed
canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions, Apollo 16 and 17. Office of Management and
Budget Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the
remaining missions.[119]

Extended missions
Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott,
Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Scott and Irwin landed on
July 30 near Hadley Rille, and spent just under two days, 19
hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected
about 77 kilograms (170 lb) of lunar material.[120]

Apollo 16 landed in the Descartes Highlands on April 20, 1972.

The crew was commanded by John Young, with Ken Mattingly
and Charles Duke. Young and Duke spent just under three days Lunar Roving Vehicle used on
on the surface, with a total of over 20 hours EVA.[121] Apollos 15–17

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Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing in the Taurus–Littrow region in December
1972. Eugene Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's first scientist-astronaut, geologist
Harrison H. Schmitt.[122] Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18,[123] but the lunar
geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing.[124] Cernan and Schmitt
stayed on the surface for just over three days and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA.[122]

Canceled missions

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Several missions were planned for but were canceled before details were finalized.

Mission summary

Designation Date LV CSM LM Crew Summary

First flight of
Saturn IB and
Block I CSM;
suborbital to
Atlantic
AS-201 Feb 26, 1966 AS-201 CSM-009 — —
Ocean;
qualified heat
shield to
orbital reentry
speed.
No
spacecraft;
observations
of liquid
hydrogen fuel
AS-203 Jul 5, 1966 AS-203 — — — behavior in
orbit to
support
design of S-
IVB restart
capability.

Suborbital
flight of CSM
AS-202 Aug 25, 1966 AS-202 CSM-011 — —
to Pacific
Ocean.

Not flown. All

crew
members died
Gus Grissom
in a fire during
Apollo 1 Feb 21, 1967 SA-204 CSM-012 — Ed White
a launch pad
Roger B. Chaffee
test on
January 27,
1967.
First test flight
of Saturn V,
placed a CSM
in a high
Earth orbit;
Apollo 4 Nov 9, 1967 SA-501 CSM-017 LTA-10R — demonstrated
S-IVB restart;
qualified CM
heat shield to
lunar reentry
speed.

Earth orbital
flight test of
LM, launched
on Saturn IB;
demonstrated
Apollo 5 Jan 22–23, 1968 SA-204 — LM-1 —
ascent and
descent
propulsion;
human-rated
the LM.

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Uncrewed,
second flight
of Saturn V,
attempted
demonstration
of trans-lunar
injection, and
direct-return
abort using
SM engine;
three engine
CM-020 failures,
Apollo 6 Apr 4, 1968 SA-502 LTA-2R —
SM-014 including
failure of S-
IVB restart.
Flight
controllers
used SM
engine to
repeat Apollo
4's flight
profile.
Human-rated
the Saturn V.
First crewed
Earth orbital
demonstration
of Block II
CSM,
Wally Schirra
launched on
Apollo 7 Oct 11–22, 1968 SA-205 CSM-101 — Walt Cunningham
Saturn IB.
Donn Eisele
First live
television
broadcast
from a crewed
mission.

First crewed
flight of
Saturn V;
Frank Borman
First crewed
Apollo 8 Dec 21–27, 1968 SA-503 CSM-103 LTA-B James Lovell
flight to Moon;
William Anders
CSM made
10 lunar orbits
in 20 hours.

Second
crewed flight
of Saturn V;
First crewed
flight of CSM
James McDivitt and LM in
CSM-104 LM-3
Apollo 9 Mar 3–13, 1969 SA-504 David Scott Earth orbit;
Gumdrop Spider
Russell Schweickart demonstrated
portable life
support
system to be
used on the
lunar surface.
Dress
rehearsal for
first lunar
CSM-106 Thomas Stafford landing; flew
LM-4
Apollo 10 May 18–26, 1969 SA-505 Charlie John Young LM down to
Snoopy
Brown Eugene Cernan 50,000 ft
(15 km;
9.5 mi) from
lunar surface.
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First landing,
in Tranquility
Base, Sea of
Tranquility.
Neil Armstrong
CSM-107 LM-5 Surface EVA
Apollo 11 Jul 16–24, 1969 SA-506 Michael Collins
Columbia Eagle time: 2h 31m.
Buzz Aldrin
Samples
returned:
47.51 lb
(21.55 kg).
Second
landing, in
Ocean of
Storms near
CSM-108 Pete Conrad Surveyor 3.
LM-6
Apollo 12 Nov 14–24, 1969 SA-507 Yankee Richard Gordon Surface EVA
Intrepid
Clipper Alan Bean time: 7h 45m.
Samples
returned:
75.62 lb
(34.30 kg).

Third landing
attempt
aborted in
transit to the
Moon, due to
SM failure.
James Lovell Crew used
CSM-109 LM-7
Apollo 13 Apr 11–17, 1970 SA-508 Jack Swigert LM as
Odyssey Aquarius
Fred Haise "lifeboat" to
return to
Earth. Mission
called a
"successful
failure".[125]
Third landing,
in Fra Mauro
formation.
Alan Shepard Surface EVA
Jan 31 – Feb 9, CSM-110 LM-8
Apollo 14 SA-509 Stuart Roosa time: 9h 21m.
1971 Kitty Hawk Antares
Edgar Mitchell Samples
returned:
94.35 lb
(42.80 kg).

Fourth
landing, in
Hadley-
Apennine.
First extended
mission, used
David Scott Rover on
Jul 26 – Aug 7, CSM-112 LM-10
Apollo 15 SA-510 Alfred Worden Moon.
1971 Endeavour Falcon
James Irwin Surface EVA
time:
18h 33m.
Samples
returned:
169.10 lb
(76.70 kg).

Apollo 16 Apr 16–27, 1972 SA-511 CSM-113 LM-11 John Young Fifth landing,
Casper Orion Ken Mattingly in Plain of
Charles Duke Descartes.
Second
extended
mission, used
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Rover on
Moon.
Surface EVA
time:
20h 14m.
Samples
returned:
207.89 lb
(94.30 kg).

Only Saturn V
night launch.
Sixth landing,
in Taurus–
Littrow. Third
extended
mission, used
Rover on
Moon. First
Eugene Cernan
CSM-114 LM-12 geologist on
Apollo 17 Dec 7–19, 1972 SA-512 Ronald Evans
America Challenger the Moon.
Harrison Schmitt
Apollo's last
crewed Moon
landing.
Surface EVA
time: 22h 2m.
Samples
returned:
243.40 lb
(110.40 kg).

Source: Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Orloff 2004).[126]

Samples returned
The Apollo program returned over 382 kg
(842 lb) of lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar
Receiving Laboratory in
Houston. [127][126][128] Today, 75% of the
samples are stored at the Lunar Sample
Laboratory Facility built in 1979.[129]

The rocks collected from the Moon are

The most famous of the Apollo 16's sample 61016,
extremely old compared to rocks found on
Moon rocks recovered, better known as Big Muley, is
Earth, as measured by radiometric dating
the Genesis Rock, the largest sample collected
techniques. They range in age from about returned from during the Apollo program
3.2 billion years for the basaltic samples Apollo 15.
derived from the lunar maria, to about
4.6 billion years for samples derived from the
highlands crust.[130] As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development
of the Solar System, that are largely absent on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo
Program is dubbed the Genesis Rock, retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during
the Apollo 15 mission.[131] This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich
feldspar mineral anorthite, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust.[132] A
geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known
terrestrial counterpart.[133] KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the
outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten (see lunar magma ocean).[134]
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Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many samples appear to be pitted
with micrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick
atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to high-pressure shock waves that are generated
during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of impact melt (materials melted near an
impact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being
subjected to multiple impact events.[135]

From analyses of the composition of the returned lunar samples, it is now believed that the Moon
was created through the impact of a large astronomical body with Earth.[136]

Costs
Apollo cost $25.4 billion or approximately $257 billion (2023) using improved cost analysis.[137]

Of this amount, $20.2 billion ($145 billion adjusted) was spent on the design, development, and
production of the Saturn family of launch vehicles, the Apollo spacecraft, spacesuits, scientific
experiments, and mission operations. The cost of constructing and operating Apollo-related
ground facilities, such as the NASA human spaceflight centers and the global tracking and data
acquisition network, added an additional $5.2 billion ($37.3 billion adjusted).

The amount grows to $28 billion ($280 billion adjusted) if the costs for related projects such as
Project Gemini and the robotic Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter programs are included.[1]

NASA's official cost breakdown, as reported to Congress in the Spring of 1973, is as follows:

Project Apollo Cost (original, billion $)

Apollo spacecraft 8.5

Saturn launch vehicles 9.1

Launch vehicle engine development 0.9

Operations 1.7
Total R&D 20.2

Tracking and data acquisition 0.9

Ground facilities 1.8

Operation of installations 2.5

Total 25.4

Accurate estimates of human spaceflight costs were difficult in the early 1960s, as the capability
was new and management experience was lacking. Preliminary cost analysis by NASA estimated
$7 billion – $12 billion for a crewed lunar landing effort. NASA Administrator James Webb
increased this estimate to $20 billion before reporting it to Vice President Johnson in April
1961.[138]

Project Apollo was a massive undertaking, representing the largest research and development
project in peacetime. At its peak, it employed over 400,000 employees and contractors around the
country and accounted for more than half of NASA's total spending in the 1960s.[139] After the first
Moon landing, public and political interest waned, including that of President Nixon, who wanted

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to rein in federal spending.[140]

NASA's budget could not sustain Apollo missions which cost, on
average, $445 million ($2.66 billion adjusted)[141] each while simultaneously developing the Space
Shuttle. The final fiscal year of Apollo funding was 1973.

Apollo Applications Program

Looking beyond the crewed lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for
Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollo X) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit,
using the space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a small orbital laboratory
(workshop). Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was
followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn
upper stage and grew into the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be
supplemented by the Apollo Telescope Mount, which could be attached to the ascent stage of the
lunar module via a rack.[142] The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S-IVB as an
interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus fly-by mission.[143]

The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board.
Dubbed Skylab, it was assembled on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using
the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last
crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in
1979 after development of the Space Shuttle was delayed too long to save it.[144][145]

The Apollo–Soyuz program also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation spaceflight, paving
the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space
Station programs.[145][146]

Recent observations
In 2008, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's SELENE
probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15
Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar
surface.[147]

Beginning in 2009, NASA's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance

Orbiter, while orbiting 50 kilometers (31 mi) above the Moon,
photographed the remnants of the Apollo program left on the
lunar surface, and each site where crewed Apollo flights
landed.[148][149] All of the U.S. flags left on the Moon during the
Apollo missions were found to still be standing, with the
exception of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission, which Tranquility Base, imaged in March
was blown over during that mission's lift-off from the lunar 2012 by the Lunar Reconnaissance
surface; the degree to which these flags retain their original Orbiter
colors remains unknown.[150] The flags cannot be seen through
a telescope from Earth.

In a November 16, 2009, editorial, The New York Times opined:

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[T]here's something terribly wistful about these photographs of the Apollo landing sites.
The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were walking there now, we could make him out,
make out his footsteps even, like the astronaut footpath clearly visible in the photos of the
Apollo 14 site. Perhaps the wistfulness is caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those
Apollo missions. Perhaps, too, it's a reminder of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had
landed—the possibility that it might be unable to lift off again and the astronauts would
be stranded on the Moon. But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as
we're able to come to looking directly back into the human past ... There the [Apollo 11]
lunar module sits, parked just where it landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40
years ago and all the time since merely imaginary.[151]

Legacy

Science and engineering

The Apollo program has been described as the greatest
technological achievement in human history.[152] Apollo
stimulated many areas of technology, leading to over 1,800
spinoff products as of 2015, including advances in the
development of cordless power tools, fireproof materials, heart
monitors, solar panels, digital imaging, and the use of liquid
methane as fuel.[153][154][155] The flight computer design used
in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the
Polaris and Minuteman missile systems, the driving force
behind early research into integrated circuits (ICs). By 1963,
Apollo was using 60 percent of the United States' production of
ICs. The crucial difference between the requirements of Apollo
and the missile programs was Apollo's much greater need for
reliability. While the Navy and Air Force could work around Margaret Hamilton standing next to
reliability problems by deploying more missiles, the political the navigation software that she and
and financial cost of failure of an Apollo mission was her MIT team produced for the
unacceptably high.[156] Apollo project

Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were

developed by Project Gemini.[157] The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new
advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal–oxide–semiconductor field-
effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP)[158][159] and silicon
integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC).[160]

Cultural impact
The crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth,
and read from the creation story in the Book of Genesis, on Christmas Eve 1968.[161] An estimated
one-quarter of the population of the world saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve
transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon,[162] and an estimated one-fifth of the population
of the world watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11 moonwalk.[163]

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The Apollo program also affected environmental activism in

the 1970s due to photos taken by the astronauts. The most well
known include Earthrise, taken by William Anders on Apollo 8,
and The Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts. The
Blue Marble was released during a surge in environmentalism,
and became a symbol of the environmental movement as a
depiction of Earth's frailty, vulnerability, and isolation amid
the vast expanse of space.[164]

According to The Economist, Apollo succeeded in

accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of taking on the Soviet
Union in the Space Race by accomplishing a singular and The Blue Marble photograph taken
significant achievement, to demonstrate the superiority of the on December 7, 1972, during Apollo
free-market system. The publication noted the irony that in 17. "We went to explore the Moon,
order to achieve the goal, the program required the and in fact discovered the Earth." —
Eugene Cernan
organization of tremendous public resources within a vast,
centralized government bureaucracy.[165]

Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project

Prior to Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA searched for the original videotapes of the
mission's live televised moonwalk. After an exhaustive three-year search, it was concluded that the
tapes had probably been erased and reused. A new digitally remastered version of the best
available broadcast television footage was released instead.[166]

Depictions on film

Documentaries
Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race, including:

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Footprints on the Moon (1969)

Moonwalk One (1970)[167]
The Greatest Adventure (1978)[168]
For All Mankind (1989)[169]
Moon Shot (1994 miniseries)
"Moon" from the BBC miniseries The Planets (1999)
Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005)
The Wonder of It All (2007)
In the Shadow of the Moon (2007)[170]
When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions (2008 miniseries)
Moon Machines (2008 miniseries)
James May on the Moon (2009)
NASA's Story (2009 miniseries)
Apollo 11 (2019)[171][172]
Chasing the Moon (2019 miniseries)

Docudramas
Some missions have been dramatized:

Apollo 13 (1995)
Apollo 11 (1996)
From the Earth to the Moon (1998)
The Dish (2000)
Space Race (2005)
Moonshot (2009)
First Man (2018)

Fictional
The Apollo program has been the focus of several works of fiction, including:

Apollo 18 (2011), horror movie which was released to negative reviews.

Men in Black 3 (2012), Science Fiction/Comedy movie. Agent J played by Will Smith goes back
to the Apollo 11 launch in 1969 to ensure that a global protection system is launched in to
space.
For All Mankind (2019), TV series depicting an alternate history in which the Soviet Union was
the first country to successfully land a man on the Moon.
Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023), fifth Indiana Jones film, in which Jürgen Voller, a
NASA member and ex-Nazi involved with the Apollo program, wants to time travel. The New
York City parade for the Apollo 11 crew is portrayed as a plot point.[173]

See also
Apollo 11 in popular culture
Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package
Exploration of the Moon
Leslie Cantwell collection

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List of artificial objects on the Moon

List of crewed spacecraft
List of missions to the Moon
Soviet crewed lunar programs
Stolen and missing Moon rocks
Artemis Program

Notes
a. Full text
b. Full text

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Further reading
Apollo Program Summary Report (https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/APSR-JSC-09423.pdf)
(PDF). (46.3 MB) NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975
Collins, Michael (2001) [Originally published 1974; New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux].
Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys (https://archive.org/details/carryingfire00mich).
Foreword by Charles Lindbergh. New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 978-0-8154-1028-7.
LCCN 2001017080 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2001017080). Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of
his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11.
Cooper, Henry S.F. Jr. (1995) [Originally published 1972; New York: Dial Press]. Thirteen: The
Apollo Flight That Failed (https://archive.org/details/thirteenapollofl00coop). Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5097-5. LCCN 94039726 (https://lccn.loc.gov/9403972
6). OCLC 31375285 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31375285). Although this book focuses
on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and
procedures.
French, Francis; Burgess, Colin (2007). In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to
Tranquility, 1965–1969. Foreword by Walter Cunningham. Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5. LCCN 2006103047 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2006103047).
OCLC 182559769 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/182559769). History of the Apollo program
from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts.

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Gleick, James, "Moon Fever" [review of Oliver Morton, The Moon: A History of the Future;
Apollo's Muse: The Moon in the Age of Photography, an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York City, July 3 – September 22, 2019; Douglas Brinkley, American Moonshot:
John F. Kennedy and the Great Space Race; Brandon R. Brown, The Apollo Chronicles:
Engineering America's First Moon Missions; Roger D. Launius, Reaching for the Moon: A Short
History of the Space Race; Apollo 11, a documentary film directed by Todd Douglas Miller; and
Michael Collins, Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys (50th Anniversary Edition)], The
New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 13 (15 August 2019), pp. 54–58.
Kranz, Gene (2000). Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and
Beyond (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743200790). New York: Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 0-7432-0079-9. LCCN 00027720 (https://lccn.loc.gov/00027720). OCLC 43590801 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43590801). Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller during
the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs.
Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (2000) [Previously published 1994 as Lost Moon]. Apollo 13.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-05665-3. LCCN 99089647 (https://lccn.loc.go
v/99089647). OCLC 43118301 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43118301). Details the flight of
Apollo 13.
McMahon, Adam (2022). "To the Moon and Back: Reexamining Presidential Decision-Making
and the Apollo Program" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.spacepol.2022.101516). Space Policy.
62: 101516. Bibcode:2022SpPol..6201516M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022SpPol..62
01516M). doi:10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101516 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.spacepol.2022.10
1516).
Musgrave, Paul; Nexon, Daniel (2018). "Defending Hierarchy from the Moon to the Indian
Ocean: Symbolic Capital and Political Dominance in Early Modern China and the Cold War" (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818318000139). International Organization. 72 (3): 591–626.
doi:10.1017/S0020818318000139 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818318000139).
Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua (1999). Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the
Race to the Moon. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-80261-9. OCLC 41579174 (https://sear
ch.worldcat.org/oclc/41579174). Tells Grumman's story of building the lunar modules.
Scott, David; Leonov, Alexei; Toomey, Christine (2004). Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of
the Cold War Space Race (https://archive.org/details/twosidesofmoon00scot). Foreword by
Neil Armstrong; introduction by Tom Hanks (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books.
ISBN 0-312-30865-5. LCCN 2004059381 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2004059381). OCLC 56587777
(https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56587777).
Seamans, Robert C. Jr. (2005). Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions. Monographs in
Aerospace History. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-074954-9. LCCN 2005003682 (http
s://lccn.loc.gov/2005003682). OCLC 64271009 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/64271009).
NASA SP-4537. History of the crewed space program from 1 September 1960, to 5 January
1968.
Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995). Deke!: An Autobiography. New York: St. Martin's
Press. ISBN 0-312-85918-X. Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as
chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews.
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19
690022643_1969022643.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 1. (131.2 MB) From origin to November 7, 1962
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19
740004394_1974004394.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 2. (13.4 MB) November 8, 1962 – September 30,
1964
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19
760014180_1976014180.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 3. (57.7 MB) October 1, 1964 – January 20, 1966
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19
800011953_1980011953.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 4. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/2022100
9/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800011953_1980011953.pdf) (PDF)
from the original on October 9, 2022. (24.2 MB) January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974
Wilhelms, Don E. (1993). To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration (https://
archive.org/details/torockymoongeolo0000wilh). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-
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8165-1065-2. LCCN 92033228 (https://lccn.loc.gov/92033228). OCLC 26720457 (https://searc
h.worldcat.org/oclc/26720457). The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.

External links
Apollo program history (https://web.archive.org/web/19991013042039/http://spaceflight.nasa.g
ov/history/apollo/index.html) at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website
The Apollo Program (https://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html) at the NASA History Program Office
"Apollo Spinoffs" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120404160907/http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apo
llo.htm). Archived from the original (https://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apollo.htm) on April 4, 2012.
The Apollo Program (http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/) at the National
Air and Space Museum
Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature (https://web.archive.org/web/20040804051632/htt
p://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/apollo11/index1.html) at NASA (in Flash)
Lunar Mission Timeline (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/apollo_landings.html) at the Lunar
and Planetary Institute
Apollo Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections (htt
p://libarchstor.uah.edu:8081/repositories/2/resources/69)

NASA reports
Apollo Program Summary Report (https://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm) (PDF), NASA, JSC-
09423, April 1975
NASA History Series Publications (https://history.nasa.gov/series95.html)
Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams (https://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.htm
l) at the NASA History Program Office
The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal (https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20040618191651/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html) June 18, 2004,
at the Wayback Machine edited by Eric M. Jones and Ken Glover
The Apollo Flight Journal (https://history.nasa.gov/afj/) by W. David Woods, et al.

Multimedia
NASA Apollo Program images and videos (https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/index.h
tml)
Apollo Image Archive (http://apollo.sese.asu.edu/) at Arizona State University
Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James
Webb, et al., discussing the Apollo agenda (https://web.archive.org/web/20160601211812/htt
p://millercenter.org/presidentialrecordings/jfk-mtg-63) (White House Cabinet Room, November
21, 1962)
The Project Apollo Archive (http://www.apolloarchive.com/) by Kipp Teague is a large repository
of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings
The Project Apollo Archive on Flickr (https://www.flickr.com/photos/projectapolloarchive/)
Apollo Image Atlas (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/apollo/)—almost 25,000 lunar images,
Lunar and Planetary Institute
The short film The Time of Apollo (1975) (https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava03129vnb1) is
available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
The short film The Time of Apollo (1975) is available for free viewing and download at the
National Archives. (https://catalog.archives.gov/id/649447)

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The Journeys of Apollo – NASA Documentary (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GNJpoP642

wc) on YouTube

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo_program&oldid=1262553941"

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