Numerical Control
1
Numerical Control
Numerical control (NC) is the technique of
giving instructions to a machine in the form of
a code which consists of numbers, letters of
the alphabet, punctuation marks and certain
other symbol.
Controlling a machine tool by means of a
prepared program is known as numerical
control.
2
Numerical Control
Instructions are supplied to the machine as
blocks of information.
Each block is given a sequence number for
identification.
The set of instructions are organized in logical
manner to direct the machine tool to carry
out a specific task. It is thus termed as part
program.
3
Numerical Control
The part program is the set of detailed step-
by-step commands that direct the actions of
the processing equipment.
The numerical data required for producing a
part is maintained on a punched tape.
The punched tape is moved forward by one
block each time the cutting of a segment is
completed.
4
Numerical Control
In machine tool applications, the person who
prepares the program is called a part
programmer.
The part programmer must possess
knowledge and experience of tools, cutting
fluids, machinability data and fixture design
techniques.
Part programs are written manually or by
using a computer-aided language, such as
automated program tool (APT)
5
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
Any CNC machine essentially consists of the
following elements:
1. Part Program
2. Program Input Device
3. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
4. Drive System
5. Machine Tool
6. Feedback System
6
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
7
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
8
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
1. Part Program
9
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
2. Program Input Device
The program input device is the means for part
program to be entered into the NC / CNC control.
Three commonly used program input devices are
punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and
computer via RS-232C Cable or USB
communication.
10
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
2. Program Input Device
11
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
3. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a
CNC system.
There are two sub-units in the machine control unit:
a) Data Processing Unit (DPU)
b) Control Loop Unit (CLU)
12
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
a) Data Processing Unit
On receiving a part program, the DPU first interprets
and encodes the program into internal machine
codes.
The interpolator of the DPU then calculates the
intermediate positions of the motion in term of basic
length unit.
13
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
a) Data Processing Unit
Basic length unit (BLU) is the smallest unit length
that can be handled by the controller
If 1 BLU = 0.0001” that means axis will move
0.0001” for every electrical pulse received by the
motor.
The calculated data are passed to CLU for further
action. 14
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
b) Control Loop Unit
The data from DPU is converted into electrical
signals in the CLU to control the driving system to
perform the required motions.
CLU implement interpolations (linear, circular,
and helical) to generate axis motion commands.
It feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier
circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
15
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
b) Control Loop Unit
CLU receive the feedback signals of position and
speed for each drive axis.
It also implement auxiliary control functions such
as coolant or spindle on/off and tool change.
16
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
4. Drive System
A drive system consists of amplifier circuits,
drive motors, and ball lead-screws.
The MCU feeds the control signals (position and
speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits.
The control signals are augmented to actuate
drive motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-
screws to position the machine table
17
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
4. Drive System
18
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
5. Machine Tool
CNC controls are used to control various types of
machine tools.
Regardless of which type of machine tool is
controlled, it always has a work table and a
spindle to control of position and speed.
The machine table is controlled in the X and Y
axes, while the spindle runs along the Z axis.
19
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
6. Feedback System
The feedback system is also referred to as the
measuring system
It uses position and speed transducers to
continuously monitor the position at which the
cutting tool is located
The MCU uses the difference between reference
signals and feedback signals to generate the control
signals for correcting position and speed error
20
Basic Elements of NC / CNC
Machines
6. Feedback System
21
NC Coordinate Systems
A standard axis system to position work head
(tool) relative to the work part must be
specified by the part programmer.
There are two axis systems used in NC for the
following parts:
1. Flat and prismatic parts
2. Rotational parts
22
NC Coordinate Systems
The axis system for flat and block-like parts
consists of the three linear axes (x, y, z) in
the Cartesian coordinate system, plus three
rotational axes (a, b, c), as shown in Figure
1(a).
Positioning scheme referred in Fig 1(a) is
adequate for simple NC applications such as
drilling and punching of flat sheet metal.
23
NC Coordinate Systems
Figure 1 Coordinate systems used in NC (a) for flat and
prismatic work and (b) for rotational work. 24
NC Coordinate Systems
The a-, b-, and c-rotational axes specify angular
positions about the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively.
Machine tools with rotational axis capability have
either four or five axes: three linear axes plus one
or two rotational axes.
The coordinate axes for a rotational NC system are
illustrated in Figure 1(b). These systems are
associated with NC lathes and turning machines.
25
NC Coordinate Systems
The part programmer must decide where the
origin of the coordinate axis system should be
located.
For example, the origin might be located at one of
the corners of the part.
If the work part is symmetrical, the zero point
might be most conveniently defined at the center
of symmetry.
26
Motion Control System
If the work head is moving (e.g. turning, milling,
continuous arc welding) , it may be necessary to
follow a straight line path or a circular or other
curvilinear path.
Different types of movement are accomplished by two
main types of motion control system:
1. Pont-to-point system
2. Continuous system
27
Motion Control System
1. Point-to-point systems:
It is also called positioning systems and move the
worktable to a programmed location
Once the move has been completed, some
processing action is accomplished by the work head
at the location, such as drilling or punching a hole.
The program consists of a series of point locations at
which operations are performed, as depicted in
Figure 2.
28
Motion Control System
Figure 2: Point-to-point (positioning) control in NC.
At each x–y position, table movement stops to perform
the hole-drilling operation. 29
Motion Control System
2. Continuous path systems:
Continuous path systems are capable of controlling
two or more axes simultaneous to control the tool
trajectory relative to the work part.
In this case, the tool performs the process while the
worktable is moving, thus enabling the system to
generate angular surfaces, two-dimensional curves,
or three-dimensional contours
30
Motion Control System
2. Continuous path systems:
This control mode is required in many milling and
turning operations.
A simple two-dimensional profile milling operation is
shown in Figure 3 to illustrate continuous path
control.
31
Motion Control System
Figure 3: Continuous path control in NC (x–y plane only). Note
that cutting tool path must be offset from the part outline by
a distance equal to its radius.
32
Motion Control System
When continuous path control is utilized to move the
tool parallel to only one of the major axes of the
machine tool worktable, this is called straight-cut
NC.
When continuous path control is used for
simultaneous controlling two or more axes
in machining operations, the term contouring is
used.
33
Motion Control System
Interpolation Methods
The paths that a contouring-type NC system is
required to generate, often consist of circular arcs and
other smooth nonlinear shapes.
Some of these shapes can be defined mathematically
by relatively simple geometric formulas (e.g., the
equation for a circle is x2 + y2 = R2 ; where R = the
radius of the circle and the center of the circle is at the
origin), whereas others cannot be mathematically
defined except by approximation
34
Motion Control System
Interpolation Methods
To cut along a circular path, the circle must be divided
into a series of straight line segments that
approximate the curve.
The tool is commanded to machine each line segment
in sequence so that the machined surface closely
matches the desired shape.
35
Motion Control System
Interpolation Methods
If the programmer were required to specify the
endpoints for each of the line segments, the
programming task would be extremely difficult and
with errors.
The part program would be extremely long because of
the large number of points.
To ease the burden, interpolation routines have been
developed that calculate the intermediate points to be
followed by the cutter to generate a path.
36
Motion Control System
Interpolation Methods
A number of interpolation methods are available
which are as follows:
1. Linear interpolation
2. Circular “-”
3. Helical “-”
4. Parabolic “-”
5. Cubic “-”
The interpolation module in the MCU performs the
calculations and directs the tool along the path.
37
Types of Interpolations
In linear interpolation, the tool moves in a straight line from
start to end (Fig. a) along two or three axes.
Theoretically, all types of profiles can be produced by
continuous path by making small increments between the
points (Fig. b), but a large amount of data has to be processed
in order to do so. 38
Types of Interpolations
In circular interpolation (Fig. c), the inputs required for the path
are;
1) coordinates of the endpoints
2) coordinates of the center of the circle and its radius
3) the direction of the tool along the arc.
39
Motion Control System
Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning
Absolute positioning:
The work head locations are always defined with
respect to the origin of the axis system
Incremental positioning:
The work head position is defined relative to the
present location
40
Motion Control System
Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning
The work head is presently at point
(20, 20) and is to be moved to point
(40, 50).
In absolute positioning, the move is
specified by x = 40, y = 50.
In incremental positioning, the move
is specified by x = 20, y = 30.
Absolute versus incremental positioning
41
Analysis of Positioning Systems
NC positioning system converts the coordinate axis values in
the NC part program into relative positions of the tool and work
part during processing.
The system consists of a cutting tool and a worktable on which
a work part is fixture as shown in figure.
The worktable moves linearly by means of a rotating leadscrew
or ballscrew, which is driven by a stepper motor or servo motor.
42
Analysis of Positioning Systems
The screw has a certain pitch p, (in/rev) and the table
moves a distance equal to the pitch for each revolution.
The velocity of the worktable, which corresponds to
the feed rate in a machining operation, is determined
by the rotational speed of the screw
43
Analysis of Positioning Systems
Two types of control systems are used in positioning
systems:
(a) open loop
(b) closed loop
Two types of motion control in NC: (a) open loop and (b) closed loop
44
Analysis of Positioning Systems
(a) Open loop control systems
The open loop control means that there is no feedback
It uses stepping motors for driving the leadscrew
A stepping motor is a device whose output shaft rotates
through a fixed angle in response to an input pulse as
shown in the figure.
45
Analysis of Positioning Systems
(a) Open loop control systems
Excessive load torque may occur in motors due to the
cutting forces in machine tools
Therefore, this system is suitable for cases where the
tool force does not exist (example: laser machining,
electric-discharge machining etc.)
46
Analysis of Positioning Systems
(a) Open loop control systems
The stepper motor is driven by a series of electrical
pulses generated by MCU
Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one
revolution
The fraction is expressed in terms of the step angle “α”
α = 360 / N (degrees)
where N= number of pulses required for a revolution
47
Analysis of Positioning Systems
(a) Open loop control systems
If the motor receives “n” number of pulses, then the
total angel;
A = n (360 / N) (degrees)
If there is a 1:1 gear ratio between the motor and the
leadscrew then the leadscrew has (n/N) revolutions
If the pitch of the leadscrew is p (in/rev), then the
distance travelled axially be;
x = p (n / N)
48
Analysis of Positioning Systems
(a) Open loop control systems
The pulse frequency, f, in pulses/sec determines the
travel speed of the tool or the workpiece
f = N (RPM) / 60
where,
N = number of pulses per revolution
RPM = RPM of the lead screw
The travel speed V is;
V= p (RPM)
where, p = pitch (in/rev)
49
Analysis of Positioning Systems
Example Problem 1
50
Analysis of Positioning Systems
Example Problem 2
51
Analysis of Positioning Systems
(b) Closed loop control systems
Closed loop NC systems are appropriate when there is
a force resisting the movement of the tool / workpiece
(example: Turning, milling etc.)
In these systems the DC servomotor and feedback
devices are used to ensure that the desired position is
achieved.
52
Analysis of Positioning Systems
(b) Closed loop control systems
Both the input to the control loop and the feedback
signals are a sequence of pulses, each pulse represents
BLU (basic unit length)
The two sequences are correlated by comparator and
gives a signal, by means of digital-to-analog converter
(DAC) to operate the drive motor
53
