2.
1 Transposition
Transposition is a test to determine if a sequence of words forms a phrase. This is evident
when words are moved within a sentence without altering the structure. For example, the
phrase "into the room" in "Jeeves shimmered into the room" can be moved to the front to
form "Into the room, Jeeves shimmered." This kind of movement shows that the words form a
cohesive unit, a phrase. Transposition can also apply to phrases without prepositions. The
sequence "the results" can be moved in "The results Barbara handed to Alan on Tuesday" to
the front of the clause. Transposition also applies when transforming between active and
passive voice, like in "The pupils in this maths class gave cakes to Margaret every Friday"
(active) and "Cakes were given to Margaret every Friday by the pupils in this maths class"
(passive). Here, the same sequence of words appears in different positions.
2.2 Substitution
Substitution occurs when a single word replaces a sequence of words that form a phrase. For
instance, in "Barbara handed the intriguing results of the latest examination to Alan on
Tuesday" (9a), "them" in "Barbara handed them to Alan on Tuesday" (9b) substitutes for "the
intriguing results of the latest examination." The test of substitution can also apply to phrases
with adjectives, where an adjective like "heavy" can substitute for longer sequences like "very
heavy" or "astonishingly and frighteningly heavy." Another form of substitution is "so-
substitution," where a phrase is replaced by "so" (e.g., "This large parcel is very heavy" can
be followed by "No it’s not." "It is so.").
Substitution also works for prepositional phrases. In "Vera is crocheting in the lounge,"
"there" can substitute for "in the lounge." Similarly, "here" can replace "to Mr. Chalky’s
school" in "Grandma is coming to Mr. Chalky’s school tomorrow." While it’s rare for a
preposition to replace a whole phrase, informal spoken English may allow such substitutions,
as in "The cat trotted in" instead of "The cat trotted in the kitchen."
2.3 Ellipsis
Ellipsis is when words are omitted from a sentence, typically because they can be inferred
from the context. For example, in "The terrier attacked the burglar. The terrier savaged the
burglar’s ankles," the repetition of "the terrier" can be omitted in the second clause, resulting
in "The terrier attacked the burglar and [ ] savaged the burglar’s ankles." Ellipsis only applies
to complete phrases, and incomplete phrases (e.g., "*The fierce terrier attacked the burglar
and terrier savaged the burglar’s ankles") would be incorrect. Ellipsis is useful for avoiding
unnecessary repetition and is often replaced by pronouns like "he," "she," or "it."
2.4 Coordination
Coordination occurs when words or phrases of the same type are joined together by
conjunctions like "and" or "or." For example, "John and his energetic wife landscaped the
garden twice last year" coordinates two noun phrases: "John" and "his energetic wife."
Similarly, in "the bright and incredibly sharp air over Doubtful Sound," two adjective phrases
are coordinated: "bright" and "incredibly sharp." Coordination shows that even phrases of
different lengths (like a single word or multiple words) can be grouped together.
2.5 Concluding Comments
Several key points are made:
1. Tests like transposition, substitution, and ellipsis apply within clauses. The clause is a
fundamental unit for analysis, helping determine how words are organized.
2. The labels for different types of phrases (noun phrase, prepositional phrase, adjective
phrase) are used both for the sequences of words and for the slots they occupy within
clauses. For example, "Barbara" in "Barbara handed the results" is a noun phrase, even
though it is a single word.
3. Phrases can contain other phrases, and a phrase may include multiple phrases of the
same type or even clauses, demonstrating how language can extend infinitely.
4. The term "constituent structure" refers to the arrangement of words, phrases, and
clauses. Words form phrases, phrases form clauses, and clauses form sentences.
5. In both speech and writing, the structure of sentences and phrases is often not
explicitly marked by punctuation or pauses, making it something abstract that speakers
and listeners understand through context.
Summary
Heads and their modifiers are typically grouped together inside clauses. Different languages
have different orders of head and modifiers. There are three tests for whether a sequence of
words forms a phrase: transpo- sition, substitution and ellipsis. In syntax, the term ‘phrase’ is
applied to single words and to sequences of words. This reflects the view that a single noun
such as sand occupies a slot in which a phrase could occur. An example of a slot is ___ is
needed; into it can go, for example, sand, as in Sand is needed, or special sand for the lawn, as
in Special sand for the lawn is needed. Phrases can be extended indefinitely, different types of
phrase have different types of head, phrases occur in clauses, but clauses can also occur inside
phrases.
