CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCING PHILOSOPHY
Chapter overview
Logic is both a field of study and an instrument in philosophy:
As a field: Branch of philosophy that focuses on arguments, principles,
and methods of reasoning.
As an instrument: Used to formulate own rational arguments and
assess others’ arguments.
Before it was field of study, it was used to investigate issues like
reality, knowledge, etc.
Philosophy: is the study of fundamental issues like existence,
knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity, mind and language.
It is a rational, critical discipline that applies reason through analysis,
comparison, and evaluation to answer fundamental questions.
It involves reason, rational Criticism, examination, and analysis.
Lesson 1: Meaning and Nature of Philosophy
Defining Philosophy
Etymology: Comes from Greek “philo” (love) and “Sophia” (wisdom),
meaning “love of wisdom.”
Philosophy involves a continuous search for truth, critical habits, and
questioning the apparent.
Unlike subjects like chemistry or physics, philosophy doesn’t focus on
specific subject matter but rather on universal issues.
The ancient Greek thinker Pythagoras was the first to use the word ―
“philosopher” to call a person who clearly shows a marked curiosity in
the things he experiences.
Constructive Side: Attempts to provide rational answers about
reality, values, knowledge, and truth.
Critical Side: Involves analyzing and evaluating responses to
metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical questions.
Philosophy as an Activity
Philosophizing: More than theoretical knowledge, it involves critical
thinking, conceptualize, analysis, comparison, evaluation, and
understanding.
Lesson 2: Basic Features of Philosophy
1. Philosophy as a Set of Views (Informal Sense)
“Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and universe.”
This is known as “having a philosophy,” and expressed as, “My
philosophy is…”
2. Philosophy as Critical Reflection (Formal Sense)
“ Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our deeply held
beliefs.”
This is known as “doing philosophy”. Philosophizing includes mastering
argumentation, analysis techniques, and thinking critically.
3. Philosophy as a Comprehensive Worldview
“Philosophy is rational attempt to look at the world as a whole, aiming to
integrate knowledge from various disciplines to form a consistent
worldview.”
4. Philosophy as Logical Analysis and Clarification
“Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the
meaning of words and concepts.”
Some philosophers view this as philosophy’s main and only role,
focusing on eliminating confusion in language.
5. Philosophy as an Inquiry into Perennial Problems
“Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for
which philosophers always have sought answers.”
Core Fields of Philosophy
The content of philosophy is better seen as asking the right questions
rather than providing the correct answers. It even can be said that
philosophy is the “study of questions.”
Philosophy has different primary and secondary branches. This course
deals only with the Primary ones, namely Metaphysics, Epistemology,
Axiology, and Logic.
Metaphysics is the most important fields of philosophy that deal with
the studies of ultimate reality and human Knowledge.
Lesson 3: Metaphysics and Epistemology
3.1Metaphysics Metaphysics: is the branch of philosophy that studies
the ultimate nature of reality or existence, covering questions about God,
freedom, soul, the mind-body problem, and the meaning of life.
The word “metaphysics” is derived from Greek words “meta”
(beyond/after) and “physika” (physics), it refers to ideas that go
“beyond” physical science.
Aristotle‘s writings on ‘first philosophy‘ came after his treatise on
physics, therefore, Aristotle‘s editor, Andronicus of Rhodes, named
them metaphysics.
Primary Questions in Metaphysics:
What is reality, and is it ultimately one or many things?
Is reality only what can be sensed, or is there more beyond perception?
What is the mind’s relation to the body?
Does God exist, and can we prove it?
Are human actions free or predetermined?
What is the nature of time, and what is the purpose of life?
Key Aspects of Metaphysics:
1. Cosmology: Studies the origin and nature of the universe (e.g., Did
the universe arise by accident or design?).
2. Theology: Examines the concept of God (e.g., Is there a God, and
what attributes does God have?).
3. Anthropology: Focuses on human nature (e.g., What is the
relationship between mind and body?).
4. Ontology: Investigates existence itself (e.g., Is reality material or
spiritual? Is change its main feature?).
3.2 Epistemology
Epistemology, or “the theory of knowledge”: studies the nature,
origin, scope, and limits of knowledge.
Derived from Greek “episteme” (knowledge) and “logos” (study of).
It deals with issues of knowledge, opinion, truth, falsity, reason,
experience, and faith.
It seeks to answer basic questions as ―”What is true?” and ―”How do
we know?”.
Key Questions in Epistemology:
What is knowledge, and how does it differ from belief?
How can we be sure that what we perceive is true?
Is truth relative or absolute?
Is there truth beyond human perception?
Skepticism is one key perspective in epistemology. It argues that
reliable knowledge may be unattainable and that the search for truth is
ultimately futile.
Agnosticism: addresses the question of God’s existence. Rather than
denying or affirming God’s existence, agnosticism acknowledges a lack
of knowledge, holding that we cannot be certain either way.
These positions highlight the challenges epistemologists face in determining
.whether and how reality can be known
Major Epistemological Views:
1. Empiricism: Knowledge obtained through senses but may be flawed
by limitations in perception.
Data obtained from the human senses is considered to be both
incomplete and undependable
Fatigue, frustration, and illness also distort and limit sensory
perception.
In addition, there are sound and light waves that are inaudible and
invisible to unaided human perception.
2. Rationalism: Reason and logic are central factors to knowledge,
though they rely upon the premises they are built.
Rationalists claim that senses alone cannot provide universal, valid
judgments that are consistent with one another.
3. Intuition: Knowledge is gained through direct insight, but it must be
checked against other methods.
Has been claimed under varying circumstances as a source of both
religious and secular knowledge
Often experienced as “sudden flash of insight” or “immediate
feeling of certainty”.
4. Revelation: Found in religious beliefs, it is seen as absolute but relies
on faith.
Cannot be proved/ disproved empirically.
5. Authority: Knowledge accepted from experts or tradition. Example:
textbook, teacher, or reference work
Essential yet vulnerable to errors if built on faulty assumptions.
Lesson 4: Axiology and Logic
4.1. Axiology
Axiology: is the philosophical study of values. Derived from the
Greek words axios (“value” or “worth”) and logos (“study” or
“theory”).
Explores concepts of worth and goodness, aiming to understand
how values are formed, and recognized.
It poses questions such as:
What is value, and where does it come from?
How do we determine what is valuable?
Can one value be proven superior to another?
Axiology covers three primary areas:
1. Ethics – Studies moral principles and evaluates what actions are
right or wrong.
2. Aesthetics – Focuses on beauty, art, and the nature of aesthetic
experience.
3. Social/Political Philosophy – Examines value judgments within
society and governance.
I. Ethics
Ethics, or Moral Philosophy, studies moral standards to evaluate human
actions as good or bad, right or wrong. Ethics includes:
a) Normative Ethics: Examines moral principles for guiding actions, such
as consequentialism, teleology, deontology, and virtue ethics.
b) Meta-ethics: Analyzes the meaning of ethical terms like “good”, “bad”,
“wrong” or “right.”
Moral Intuitionism, Moral Emotivism, Moral Prescriptivism, Moral
Nihilism, and Ethical Relativism are the main examples of meta ethical
studies.
c) Applied Ethics: Normative ethics that applies ethical principles to
specific issues (e.g., capital punishment, euthanasia, abortion, animal
rights).
II. Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the study of beauty and art, exploring the nature of
aesthetic experience and emotional responses to art.
It deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory/emotional values,
perception, and matters of taste and sentiment.
Typical questions in aesthetics involve:
What is beauty?
Can beauty or artistic value be objectively measured, or is it subjective?
Does art have moral value?
III. Social/Political Philosophy
Investigates value judgments in social and political contexts.
Major questions include:
What is justice?
What is the best form of government?
Are citizens obligated to obey all laws?
4.2. Logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning.
It aims to formulate principles for evaluating the validity and
soundness of arguments.
Key questions in logic involve:
What constitutes a valid or sound argument?
How do premises relate to conclusions?
What makes an argument fallacious?
Lesson 5: Importance of Learning Philosophy
1) Intellectual and Behavioral Independence:- ability to develop
one‘s own opinion and beliefs.
2) Reflective Self-Awareness:- Philosophy deepens our self-
awareness by prompting us to examine the fundamental beliefs
that shape our lives.
3) Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-Mindedness
4) Creative and Critical Thinking
5) Structured Value Systems in morality, art, politics and other
areas of value
6) Embracing Uncertainity
