sensors

Article
Enabling Trust and Security in Digital Twin Management:
A Blockchain-Based Approach with Ethereum and IPFS
Austine Onwubiko , Raman Singh , Shahid Awan , Zeeshan Pervez * and Naeem Ramzan

School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of the West of Scotland,
Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; austine.onwubiko@uws.ac.uk (A.O.); raman.singh@uws.ac.uk (R.S.);
shahid.awan@uws.ac.uk (S.A.); naeem.ramzan@uws.ac.uk (N.R.)
* Correspondence: zeeshan.pervez@uws.ac.uk

Abstract: The emergence of Industry 5.0 has highlighted the significance of information usage,
processing, and data analysis when maintaining physical assets. This has enabled the creation of
the Digital Twin (DT). Information about an asset is generated and consumed during its entire life
cycle. The main goal of DT is to connect and represent physical assets as close to reality as possible
virtually. Unfortunately, the lack of security and trust among DT participants remains a problem as a
result of data sharing. This issue cannot be resolved with a central authority when dealing with large
organisations. Blockchain technology has been proposed as a solution for DT information sharing
and security challenges. This paper proposes a Blockchain-based solution for digital twin using
Ethereum blockchain with performance and cost analysis. This solution employs a smart contract
for information management and access control for stakeholders of the digital twin, which is secure
and tamper-proof. This implementation is based on Ethereum and IPFS. We use IPFS storage servers
to store stakeholders’ details and manage information. A real-world use-case of a production line
of a smartphone, where a conveyor belt is used to carry different parts, is presented to demonstrate
the proposed system. The performance evaluation of our proposed system shows that it is secure
and achieves performance improvement when compared with other methods. The comparison of
results with state-of-the-art methods showed that the proposed system consumed fewer resources in
a transaction cost, with an 8% decrease. The execution cost increased by 10%, but the cost of ether
Citation: Onwubiko, A.; Singh, R.;
was 93% less than the existing methods.
Awan, S.; Pervez, Z; Ramzan, N.
Enabling Trust and Security in Digital
Twin Management: A Keywords: digital twin; blockchain; Industry 5.0; Ethereum; IPFS
Blockchain-Based Approach with
Ethereum and IPFS. Sensors 2023, 23,
6641. https://doi.org/10.3390/
s23146641 1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Kenneth Brown, Digital twins are used by various organisations in the Industry 5.0 to digitally represent
Radhya Sahal and Saeed Alsamhi physical assets. In 2023 [1], it has been anticipated that the DT market value will hit
$15.66 billion and half of the large industrial companies will adopt the concepts of DTs.
Received: 27 June 2023 The recent development in technology, such as the internet of things (IoT), is used to collect
Revised: 17 July 2023
various data generated in the production, management, monitoring, and processing of
Accepted: 19 July 2023
a product’s entire life cycle. These data are then stored in the cloud. Product life cycle
Published: 24 July 2023
management (PLM) [2] is an effective way a company manages its business activities
across products’ life cycle. The collaboration among DT participants is a key factor in
completing production on time and within the allocated budget. The fragmentation in
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
production among different participants of DTs, who work together toward a common
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. goal, is geographically spread, which causes delays in data communications among the
This article is an open access article participants, thereby compromising accountability in information sharing.
distributed under the terms and A digital twin is a concept that involves virtually representing physical assets or
conditions of the Creative Commons systems. The idea is to utilise sensors to generate real-time information from these physical
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// assets and apply it to their virtual counterparts. However, due to the lack of convergence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ between the physical and virtual realms, data are often fragmented and isolated. By com-
4.0/). bining the digital and physical components through data obtained from sensory devices,

Sensors 2023, 23, 6641. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23146641 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 2 of 26

simulation models can be constructed, enabling proactive maintenance in the context of DT

implementation. Any data in the DT are traceable, tamper-proof, and should be transparent
without any potential manipulation, as DT technology supports information sharing among
different participants [3]. Various digital technologies are employed to virtualise physical
assets [4] in order to create trusted virtual models. These models rely on real-time data
from the physical assets to generate their real-time conditions and dynamics. This offers a
distinctive approach to representing physical assets in the digital form, taking into account
their shape, conditions, and status.
With different participants contributing to DT towards a common goal (i.e., production
or monitoring an asset) and to manage DT data, the participants involved need access
to the DT for information. Consider the participants involved in an industrial phone
manufacturing factory, where the conveyor belt is used for phone manufacturing in the
factory and relevant data of the production are integrated by the DT. The manufacturer
of this conveyor motor should not have access to the production status but rather receive
feedback from the maintainer whenever the motor needs repair in order to ensure continuity
of the phone assembly line. The quality and process managers should only have access to
the current status of the production process, and the maintainer should have access to the
motor’s current status.
The issue of information sharing among different participants in the digital twin
remains a problem in allowing transparency and traceability among various participants
involved in the DT and allowing immutability of information [3]; thus, the data manage-
ment of a DT, i.e, data storage, security and, sharing, has not been thoroughly recognised.
As a result of this, confidentiality and access control issues arise, and these issues pose a
significant challenge with a central authority when dealing with a large organisation [5].
Blockchain as an emerging technology is a peer-to-peer connection that has a dis-
tributed storage with an encrypted algorithm and consensus protocol to help facilitate how
information can be stored and shared among different participants in the organisation that
have different incentives in the DT system [6]. Blockchain creates a decentralised solution
among the participants of the DT to validate and consent to the integrity of the transac-
tion, as information is shared securely and transparently among participants. Blockchain
supports the execution of scripts to define tamper-proof transaction logic called smart con-
tracts, which help ensure unchangeable and transparent digital records of transactions [7].
Blockchain and its smart contract offer various characteristics to support the security of
information sharing without requiring a central point of storage.
Some existing work on information sharing in DT has been implemented, but these
have limitations, such as cloud storage, and are vulnerable to attacks/security threats
such as a man-in-the-middle attack (MITM). Participants in the DT should avoid storing
confidential information on a public blockchain, as the use of a public blockchain is a
concern for confidentiality since on-chain data are not encrypted [5].
The use of blockchain and DT has been proposed by different researchers [1,3,5].
Ref. [5] proposed a blockchain-based solution for information management that is suitable
for DT data sharing. The state-of-the-art includes DT components with access control,
providing scalability for sensor data sharing. This approach is demonstrated using a DApp
prototype implementation called Ethertwin, which employs the use of Ethereum blockchain
and Swarm DHT that evaluates the performance and cost measurement. This is used to
achieve information management and sharing with DTs.
Ref. [1] proposed a blockchain-based creation process of DTs to guarantee secure
and trusted traceability, accessibility, and immutability of transactions, logs, and data
provenance. This approach uses smart contracts to govern and track transactions initiated
by the participants involved in the creation of DTs and also uses the InterPlanetary File
System (IPFS), a decentralised storage system to store and share DT data. This is used
to achieve the creation process of DTs and provide security and cost analysis. Ref. [3]
proposed an integrated DT and blockchain framework that can selectively store and share
important project-related information traceability. This approach uses Azure as a cloud
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 3 of 26

service platform, which provides blockchain service such as cloud storage and a blockchain
network. Azure blockchain uses the Ethereum-based Quorum ledger protocol, designed
for high-speed processing of private transactions for authorised participants of the DT. This
is used to achieve information sharing across participants and traceable data transactions.
In this paper, we propose a blockchain-based approach, leveraging Ethereum and IPFS
to enable trust and security in digital twins. The algorithm we present ensures the integrity
and traceability of documents associated with each digital twin. When a document is
uploaded, it is stored in IPFS, a decentralised file storage system. The cryptographic hash
of the document is then stored on the Ethereum blockchain, allowing for verification of doc-
ument integrity and providing a transparent record of its history. Multiple participants can
own and interact with the digital twin system, with ownership tracked through Ethereum
addresses. This algorithm enhances the security and reliability of digital twins.
This paper aims to propose a decentralised information management system that
utilises blockchain technology. This proposed system uses a decentralised database, which
is secure and has no single point of failure, and nodes do not need to trust each other. The
proposed system uses a private blockchain with the integration of IPFS, an off-chain storage
that ensures confidentiality. We have demonstrated and tested the proposed system on a
real-life phone production use-case.
To achieve information management and sharing, in this paper, we aim to develop and
test an integrated blockchain and digital twin, which allow for the sharing and storing of
important information about the digital twin to achieve traceability, transparency, integrity,
and immutability. The main contribution of this work can be summarised as follows:
• We propose and design the integration of blockchain and IPFS for efficient data
management.
• We carry out security and cost analysis for the proposed system—a blockchain-based
solution for DT using Ethereum.
• We present smart contracts to govern and control the transactions performed in the
proposed system and smart contracts with access control for data and information
sharing among the participants of the DT.
• InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), an off-chain storage of the Ethereum Virtual Machine
(EVM), will be integrated to store and share information of the DT.
The rest of this work is organised as follows: Section 2 is the background of the
research about blockchain and the digital twin. Section 3 introduces the related works. The
structure of the proposed system is laid out in Section 4. Section 5 discusses a case scenario
about the research work. Section 6 will discuss the evaluation and analysis of the prototype.
Finally, a discussion and conclusion will be drawn in Sections 7 and 8.

2. Background
The background of this work is divided into two sections, Sections 2.1 and 2.2, which
describe the foundation of digital twin and blockchain applications.

2.1. Digital Twin

Most researchers have defined the digital twin as virtually representing a physical
asset in real time through sensors and other data sources to help mirror the life cycle of
the operation of the physical asset and to accurately predict and diagnose any fault or
abnormal data [8]. Digital twin was first proposed by Professor Grieves in 2003 [9] for the
management of product life cycles, which consists of three parts: physical, virtual, and
the data transmission between physical and virtual parts. The idea of the digital twin
was proposed as a mirroring model simulation for vehicles and systems and studied in
the aerospace field [3] for the product life cycle management by Grieves in the Michigan
Executive Course at the University of Michigan in 2003 [10]. In 2010, NASA developed
their first DT for a spacecraft, as DT made a significant contribution to the project, and
gradually the investigation of DT became a hot trend in aerospace and other industries of
the digital world.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 4 of 26

There are three main elements of the digital twin: the physical, the virtual, and the data
communication between the physical and the virtual element, as shown in Figure 1. The
physical element of the DT is the foundation of DT [4]. It creates the virtual model of the
physical element to help simulate physical systems and understand their behaviours. The
virtual element of the DT is the exact replica of the physical element, which represents the
properties and behaviours of the physical element. Communication between the physical
and virtual elements of the DT enables information and data exchange for advanced
simulation, monitoring, operation, and analysis.
The digital twin has become a vital topic when it comes to communication and infor-
mation technology [3]. It has been applied in different fields of study such as information
management [5,9], transportation [11,12], manufacturing [6,10,13], healthcare and the med-
ical system [14,15], agriculture [16,17], and construction [3]. When designing a digital
twin platform, it is essential to prioritise the protection of important data from viruses
and hacking attacks due to the utilisation of this information in IoT and cloud computing.
With the assistance of blockchain technology, data can now be securely transferred over
the internet. Blockchain offers the advantages of security, immutability, transparency, and
integrity, thereby facilitating effective monitoring of the digital twin while eliminating the
need for a centralised storage system to hold data.

Figure 1. Three principal components of digital twins.

2.2. Blockchain and Applications
Blockchain is an essential technology of the current era that stores transactional records
in a block-like structure. The block storage consists of databases, often referred to as
Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), chained to their adjacent blocks, forming a secure
chain of blocks. The whole process is conducted through a peer-to-peer (P2P) network,
where every node comprises a copy of the ledger. The transaction between these nodes are
recorded in the time-stamped log in the shared ledger, and the encryption feature ensures
security of data transmission on the blockchain.
Blockchain can be suitable for DT following the ten-step decision path suggested
by [18] to determine which type of blockchain technology to use. The requirements state
that Step 1, considering the issue of scalability and storing large amounts of data on the
blockchain, can be slow, and the cost is also high because of the transaction fees. To solve
this issue, blockchain should be integrated with an off-chain database. Step 2–4, if there are
multiple parties with trust issues involved, then the blockchain system is considered as a
solution. Step 5–6, blockchain is a solution if transaction rules remain largely unchanged,
and rules governing the system access differ with different participants depending on
their roles and characteristics. Step 7, blockchain is of great significance with immutable
logs, and it is good for auditing and security. Step 8–10, the type of blockchain to use is
determined by the digital twin system, based on the consensus amongst the participants.
Combining blockchain with DT will ensure trust between participants of the DT. The
participants are registered as authorised users in the blockchain. The DT generates relevant
information and stores historical data in the blockchain, which will be further analysed, as
shown in Figure 2. Blockchain ensures data security and will help predict and evaluate
critical events about the DT [19].
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 5 of 26

Figure 2. Digital twins with blockchain-based data storage.

3. Related Works
Digital twin is still an emerging technology, with limited availability of blockchain-
based solutions and literature. In this section, we discuss existing work and blockchain-
based solutions for the DT.
The prototype implementation EtherTwin, developed by [5], shows how numerous
implementation challenges are associated with the fully decentralised sharing of data,
enabling the management of DT information and components with their associated infor-
mation. The authors proposed a decentralised owner-centric sharing model, with an access
control model to overcome the aspect of data confidentiality and integrity on the digital
twin components and life cycle requirements to tackle the need for decentralised sharing
of data on the digital twin to avoid a single point of trust. The authors [5] discussed that
prototypical implementations were not considered, that the approaches were theoretical,
and they were not implemented.Swarm was considered in this implementation; Swarm is
restricted to one update per second. The timely sharing of DT data are restricted to one
update per second, which is insufficient to support the frequent updates of sensor data
occurring multiple times per second. However, this aspect was not considered in the scope
of this research.
Similar work was undertaken by [1]. Using the Ethereum blockchain, the authors
proposed a blockchain-based creation process of the digital twin to achieve immutabil-
ity, accessibility, traceability, trust, and security for data transactions. They used smart
contracts to initiate participants involved in the creation of a digital twin to govern and
track transactions. An integrated digital twin and blockchain framework is developed and
tested by [3] to achieve data communication and traceability. The framework is a virtual
representation of a prefabricated brick as a project use-case, where the virtual positioning
data are transmitted to the digital twin in near real time and recorded on the blockchain.
The result of their framework shows that data transactions are traceable. This scheme uses
a centralised storage or third party, and this can be a limitation to a single point of failure
or vulnerability to system attacks.
Digital twin data management can be complicated to manage from the perspectives of
data access, data storage, data sharing, and data authenticity [9]. The author proposed a
blockchain-based method for the data management of digital twin products, using a peer-
to-peer network constructed to enhance data sharing efficiency among participants. The
results indicate that data can be stored in blocks and accessed with verification. Efficient
data sharing is facilitated through a peer-to-peer network, while data authenticity is ensured
through traceability, thereby preventing data overwriting. The authors [19] discuss the
integration of DTs and blockchain for the industrial internet of things (IIoT) to address the
issues of data management and security. They discussed identifying outstanding challenges
faced by the IIoT and not implementing them. The author focused on the adoption of a
lightweight, scalable, and quantum-immune blockchain-based solution for IIoT.
The combination of IIoT and private blockchain-driven digital twin was proposed
by [20] for configuring intelligent manufacturing systems (IMSs). The IMSs architecture is
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 6 of 26

based on the IIoT, which has a centralised architecture that limits the capacity to support
security and has poor flexibility to handle manufacturing disturbances. The evaluation was
based on throughput and latency of Ethereum and Fabric, and the outcome showed that
Fabric could achieve higher throughput and lower latency than Ethereum. The evaluation
of time latency is required if blockchain and cloud storage are applied to DT data sharing;
thus, the time latency has not been evaluated for the combination of HyperledgerFabric
and cloud storage.
Ref. [21] proposed a blockchain-based framework for securing big digital twin data
(BDTD). The idea is based on large amounts of digital twin data generated in the life cycle of
equipment used in the digital twin-enabled applications. However, the lack of security leads
to data sharing issues. The use of performance-based contracts is to consider the overall
life cycle of equipment rather than the production costs. The challenge of performance
evaluation, financials, and accountability has been limited, so [7] proposes the connection
of the digital twin with blockchain-based smart contracts to handle performance-based
digital payment to achieve transparency and trust for performance evaluation.
The aforementioned state-of-the-art focused mainly on data sharing and data manage-
ment, and the use of blockchain in DT. However, some schemes have limitations as a result
of the use of Swarm to achieve timely data sharing—the use of centralised data storage,
which can lead to a single point of attack, while some schemes are focused on the security
of data management of IIoT without been implemented.
To address such limitations, our proposed system uses a decentralised approach to
data management and sharing, leveraging blockchain technology, smart contracts, and
IPFS. By using a decentralised approach, we can avoid the risk of a single point of failure
and improve the security and reliability of the system. The proposed system offers an
innovative solution that can address the limitations of existing approaches and potentially
provide a more secure and efficient method for managing and sharing data in the context
of digital twins.
Table 1 summarises the existing work for blockchain and DT.

Table 1. Comparison of blockchain and digital twin-related works.

Related Blockchain Data

Year Purpose Blockchain Implementation Test Results
Works Type Storage
Ethereum and Swarm, and
Off-chain
[5] 2021 Secure data sharing Ethereum Unknown Fully evaluated the latency
(swarm)
and cost
Secure creation process Off-chain Provides security and
[1] 2020 Ethereum Public Partially
for digital twin (IPFS) evaluates the cost
Azure Digital twin can generate
Accountable Cloud
[3] 2021 platform: Private Unknown compliance statements in
information sharing Storage
blockchain real time
Case study to show
Data management of
[9] 2020 Unknown Unknown On-chain Unknown effectiveness of the
digital twin
proposed method
DAG-based
[19] 2021 Data Management None On-chain None None
blockchain
Configuration of Fabric could achieve higher
IIoT and Off-chain
[20] 2020 digital twin Fabric Partially throughput and lower
Private (Edge)
manufacturing cell latency than Ethereum
Shows that it has better
Secure sharing of big Cloud
[21] 2021 Fabric Unknown Unknown performance, which is a
data Storage
common price strategy
Performance evaluation
[7] 2021 Performance cost Ethereum Unkown Unkown Fully
through smart contracts
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 7 of 26

4. Proposed Blockchain-Based System

This section describes the proposed blockchain-based approach for secure communi-
cation between DTs. It provides an overview of the DApps entities, explaining the DT and
blockchain components. The architecture of the system is represented in Figure 3, which
provides an overview of the DT and blockchain sharing approach.

Figure 3. The system architecture showing how the DT interacts with the blockchain.

This work utilises a permissioned blockchain implemented through Ethereum, with

decentralised applications (dApps) such as Hyperledger and Besu [22]. Our work adopts
the dApp Ganache. Ganache is a personal blockchain for rapid Ethereum- and Corda-
distributed application development. This will allow a permissioned blockchain where
authorised participants are permitted to access the blockchain.
The bi-directional communication interface is connected to the sensor, enabling the
collection of real-time data from the real-world asset (Conveyor Belt). These data can be
in the form of specifications or documents, which are then sent and stored on the IPFS.
The smart contract will be utilised to create stakeholders and grant access to the DT’s
information, as well as to control access to this information from the IPFS.
The components of the proposed system are presented in Figure 3. Web3.js is utilised
to send transactions signed with the private key to the smart contracts on the Ethereum
blockchain. Truffle serves as a development environment that includes a local blockchain de-
velopment server that launches automatically. JSONRPC is employed to collect blockchain
data from client programs, parse the retrieved data, store it in the database, and display
the data.
The DT and the physical asset are connected through a bi-directional communication
interface. To enable data sharing, the DApp is introduced, and the DT data are stored on
the IPFS. The front-end DApp utilises Web3, JSONRPC, and Truffle interfaces to connect
the participants in the DT to the smart contract and IPFS servers. This interaction with the
smart contract ensures secure and trusted information sharing among them.
Our algorithm ensures the integrity and traceability of documents within the digital
twin system. Ownership of digital twins is tracked through Ethereum addresses, and
participants interact with the system by calling smart contract functions. Access to functions
is restricted based on Ethereum addresses using a modifier. When a participant uploads
a document, it is stored in IPFS, and its hash value is recorded in the smart contract
on the Ethereum blockchain. This allows for the verification of document integrity by
comparing the stored hash with the actual document. Participants can request approval by
providing the hash value, ensuring ownership and authorisation. The algorithm’s process
is illustrated in Figure 4, showcasing the sequence of the file upload process.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 8 of 26

Figure 4. Sequence demonstration showing all the interactions between the participants of the smart
contract for the file upload process.

4.1. Advantages of Using Ethereum Blockchain

Ethereum is an open-source blockchain-based platform that allows computer appli-
cations to run on top of it. There is no need to build your own blockchain, as it allows
developers to program their own smart contracts using the Solidity language. DApps are
developed for these applications that are running on the blockchain to communicate in the
blockchain network with each other.
The Ethereum blockchain uses the Proof of Work (PoW)-based consensus protocol to
run applications within the blockchain. In this protocol, transactions are verified in the
blockchain network through mining. Miners make transactions and prove their work by
accomplishing a computationally complex task, which leads to heavy power consumption.
The Ethereum network is moving to the Proof of Stake (PoS)-based consensus protocol.
Here, the miner having the highest stake of the total cryptocurrency will be able to verify
transactions on the blockchain. The PoS-based protocol is considered to solve the power
consumption problem and is less computationally expensive for its function.
Ethereum is a decentralised blockchain platform that enables the creation of decen-
tralised applications (dApps) and smart contracts. Here are some of the advantages of
using the Ethereum blockchain:
• Decentralisation: Ethereum is a decentralised platform that operates on a network of
nodes, which makes it resistant to censorship and a single point of failure.
• Smart Contracts: Ethereum allows the creation of self-executing smart contracts
that automate the execution of agreements between parties, without the need for
intermediaries.
• Transparency: The Ethereum blockchain is transparent and public, which allows for
easy auditing and the verification of transactions and smart contracts.
• Security: Ethereum uses cryptography to secure its network, which ensures that
transactions and smart contracts cannot be altered or tampered with.
• Interoperability: Ethereum’s open-source nature and support for programming lan-
guages such as Solidity and Vyper allows it to integrate with other blockchain plat-
forms and applications.
• Tokenisation: Ethereum allows for the creation and management of tokens, which can be
used for various purposes, such as crowdfunding, loyalty programs, and governance.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 9 of 26

• Community: Ethereum has a large and active developer community that is constantly
working on improving the platform and building new applications.
• Ethereum provides a robust and secure platform for building decentralised applica-
tions and smart contracts, with the potential to revolutionise various industries by
enabling new business models and creating more transparent and efficient systems.

4.2. System Architecture

This section describes the components of the proposed blockchain-based system for
DT. The following are the components of the proposed system:

4.2.1. Digital Twin Stakeholders

It is important to have a clear and well-defined set of stakeholders for any digital twin
system, as this helps ensure that the system is properly managed and that the right people
have access to the right information and functions.
In the proposed system, the stakeholders are delivery manager, manufacturer, main-
tainer, testing manager, quality manager, and process manager. Each of these stakeholders
has specific roles and responsibilities within the digital twin system, and they are authorised
to perform certain functions in the smart contract.
The process manager, who is also known as the smart contract owner, is responsible
for initiating the creation process of DTs. This role is particularly important, as it ensures
that the digital twin system is created and managed in a way that is consistent with the
overall goals and objectives of the organisation.
The delivery manager is responsible for the release of the asset for deployment when
the DT is ready for deployment. This role is critical, as it ensures that the digital twin
system is properly deployed and integrated into the larger organisational infrastructure.
The manufacturer, maintainer, testing manager, and quality manager also have im-
portant roles and responsibilities within the digital twin system. They may be responsible
for creating, maintaining, testing, and ensuring the quality of the digital twin system,
depending on the specific requirements and goals of the organisation.
Having a clear set of stakeholders and roles within the digital twin system can help
ensure that the system is properly managed and that the right people have access to the
right information and functions. By leveraging the power of smart contracts and IPFS
storage, the proposed system can provide a secure and efficient way to manage the creation
and deployment of digital twin systems.

4.2.2. Ethereum Smart Contract

Introducing an Ethereum smart contract to manage the creation of participants in a
digital twin system can provide a number of benefits, including increased transparency,
immutability, and security.
Solidity is the most popular language for writing smart contracts on the Ethereum
platform, and it provides a number of features for defining and implementing contract
logic. Compiling the smart contract with a node.js environment can help simplify the
development and testing process by providing access to a range of libraries and tools for
interacting with the Ethereum network.
Using a local server such as Ganache can also be useful for testing and development
purposes, as it provides a lightweight and configurable environment for running and testing
smart contracts. This can help developers iterate more quickly and identify potential issues
before deploying the contract to the main Ethereum network.
Introducing an Ethereum smart contract to manage the creation of participants in
a digital twin system can be a powerful tool for improving security, transparency, and
efficiency. However, it is important to ensure that the smart contract is well-designed and
thoroughly tested to avoid potential vulnerabilities or issues.
Accessing the digital twin information from the IPFS servers will be made accessible
by the smart contract that deals with the IPFS hash, as shown in Listing 1.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 10 of 26

Listing 1. Smart contract code.

pragma solidity 0.5.0;

contract DStorage {
string public name = " DStorage " ;
uint public fileCount = 0;
mapping ( uint = > File ) public files ;

struct File {
uint fileId ;
string fileHash ;
uint fileSize ;
string fileType ;
string fileName ;
string fileDescription ;
uint uploadTime ;
address payable uploader ;
}

event FileUploaded (
uint fileId ,
string fileHash ,
uint fileSize ,
string fileType ,
string fileName ,
string fileDescription ,
uint uploadTime ,
address payable uploader
);

// ERC -20 Token implementation

// The unique token can be used to ensure that only
authorized participants can access the data , by
providing a means of verifying the identity of the
user attempting to access the information .

string public constant symbol = " DST " ;

string public constant name = " DStorage Token " ;
uint8 public constant decimals = 18;
uint256 public totalSupply ;

mapping ( address = > uint256 ) public balanceOf ;

event Transfer ( address indexed from , address indexed to ,

uint256 value ) ;

constructor ( uint256 initialSupply ) public {

totalSupply = initialSupply ;
balanceOf [ msg . sender ] = initialSupply ;
}

function transfer ( address _to , uint256 _value ) public

returns ( bool success ) {
require ( balanceOf [ msg . sender ] >= _value ) ;
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 11 of 26

balanceOf [ msg . sender ] -= _value ;

balanceOf [ _to ] += _value ;
emit Transfer ( msg . sender , _to , _value ) ;
return true ;
}

// File storage functions

function uploadFile (
string memory _fileHash ,
uint _fileSize ,
string memory _fileType ,
string memory _fileName ,
string memory _fileDescription
) public {
require ( bytes ( _fileHash ) . length > 0 , " File hash is
required " ) ;
require ( bytes ( _fileType ) . length > 0 , " File type is
required " ) ;
require ( bytes ( _fileDescription ) . length > 0 , " File
description is required " ) ;
require ( bytes ( _fileName ) . length > 0 , " File name is
required " ) ;
require ( msg . sender != address (0) , " Uploader address
is required " ) ;
require ( _fileSize > 0 , " File size must be greater
than zero " ) ;

fileCount ++;
files [ fileCount ] = File (
fileCount ,
_fileHash ,
_fileSize ,
_fileType ,
_fileName ,
_fileDescription ,
now ,
msg . sender
);

emit FileUploaded (
fileCount ,
_fileHash ,
_fileSize ,
_fileType ,
_fileName ,
_fileDescription ,
now ,
msg . sender
);
}
}
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 12 of 26

4.2.3. Blockchain Decentralised Storage

Using IPFS as an off-chain storage system for the digital twin system can offer a
number of benefits, such as decentralisation, immutability, and accessibility.
By using IPFS to store relevant information for the digital twin, the system can benefit
from a decentralised storage infrastructure that provides increased reliability and accessi-
bility. Unlike traditional centralised storage systems, IPFS uses a distributed network of
nodes to store and share data, which helps ensure that the information is always available,
even if some nodes go offline.
Every file uploaded to the IPFS has a generated unique hash of the IPFS that guarantees
integrity and is stored in the smart contract [1]. Information stored on the IPFS is private,
as transactions are not visible on the public blockchain.
Additionally, information stored on the IPFS network is immutable, meaning that
once it is stored, it cannot be altered or deleted. This can help ensure the integrity and
authenticity of the information, which is particularly important for sensitive data related to
the digital twin.
Furthermore, transactions on IPFS are recorded instantly and usually free of charge,
which can help reduce the transaction costs associated with on-chain storage systems such
as Ethereum. This can help make the digital twin system more affordable and accessible to
a wider range of users.
Using IPFS as an off-chain storage system can provide a powerful and reliable way
to store information for the digital twin system, while also leveraging the benefits of
decentralisation, immutability, and accessibility.

4.3. Implementation
We used IPFS, as it is considered to be more efficient than BitTorrent and Git file
storage systems. IPFS provides a high throughput, content-addressed block storage model,
which ensures the security of transactions [23].
The blockchain DApp prototype was developed on the Ethereum blockchain platform.
The platform supports the Turing complete smart contract programming language Solidity
and has a large developer community, resulting in advanced development tools and
vulnerability scanners. The system has a user interface that simplifies the interactions of
the DT involved in creating twins and uploading data. For a trustless interaction with
the blockchain, it is implemented using the web page application JavaScript framework
Node.JS, with the Ganache local blockchain server only needed to serve static assets. The
module metamask wallet is used for managing the user’s blockchain account, providing
access to the user’s public and private key.
To implement a DApp, a blockchain network was built using Ganache Ethereum in a
local environment, and Truffle was used as a framework in compiling and deploying smart
contracts. The DApp accesses the smart contract by communicating with the Ganache
Ethereum via JSONRPC through Web3js, an API for the Ethereum JavaScript.
The DT can be owned by several participants; when the DT is deployed, the new
owner is registered. The Ethereum address of the DT owners can be tracked and traced
using the events available log. The owner is responsible for the creation process of the DTs,
and each of the participants has an Ethereum blockchain address and participates by calling
functions in the smart contract at certain times. Access is restricted on who can execute a
function call by the modifier; this is done by using the Ethereum address of the participant.
The registered owner creates the smart contract as well as the document for upload,
which includes the document’s name and the document IPFS hash. This process can be
done by any registered participant to upload a new version of the document and also
view documents uploaded to the IPFS. Figure 4 illustrates the sequence for the file upload
process. The uploaded document on the IPFS stores the hash value in the contract, and
approval is requested by the participant by providing the hash.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 13 of 26

4.3.1. Approving Document Version

The function requesting approval for the document version will execute only when
the participant requesting the approval is registered and the document hash matches the
IPFS hash stored in the smart contract.
Listing 2 provides a clear outline of the process for registered participants to request
approval for updating a document version on IPFS. The algorithm outlines the following
steps:
Check that the participants requesting approval are registered and the document hash
matches the IPFS hash stored in the smart contract.
If the conditions are met, change the state of the contract from Created to WaitForAp-
proversSignature and the state of the Participant to SubmittedForApproval.
Notify the transaction with an event, requesting validation of the document from at
least two-thirds of all approvers.
If at least two-thirds of the approvers validate the document, update the IPFS hash
stored in the smart contract to the new document hash.
Change the state of the contract from WaitForApproversSignature to Updated and the
state of the developer to UpdatedDocument.
Notify the transaction with an event indicating that the document has been successfully
updated.
If the conditions in step 1 are not met, then the transaction aborts and returns to its
initial state. This helps ensure the integrity and security of the digital twin system by
preventing unauthorised modifications or submissions of false documents.
Listing 2 provides a clear and concise outline of the process for requesting approval for
updating a document version on IPFS, and the conditions and steps outlined help ensure
the security and reliability of the digital twin system.

Listing 2. Pseudocode for approving the document version.

// Define the structure for a participant

struct Participant {
bool registered;
bool approved;
}

// Contract state
enum ContractState {
Created,
WaitForApproversSignature,
Reverted
}

# Define contract states

class ContractState:
Created = "Created"
WaitForApproversSignature = "WaitForApproversSignature"

# Define participant states

class ParticipantState:
ReadyToSubmit = "ReadyToSubmit"
SubmittedForApproval = "SubmittedForApproval"

# List of registered participants

RegisteredParticipants = []

def validateParticipant(participantAddress, IPFSHash):

Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 14 of 26

contractState = ContractState.Created
participantState = ParticipantState.ReadyToSubmit

if participantAddress in RegisteredParticipants:
restrictAccessToParticipant(participantAddress)

if IPFSHash:
contractState = ContractState.WaitForApproversSignature
participantState = ParticipantState.SubmittedForApproval
createValidationMessage("Requesting validation from all
approvers")
else:
revertContractState("IPFS hash is not provided")
else:
revertContractState("Participant is not registered")

def restrictAccessToParticipant(participantAddress):
# Restrict access to only the specified participant
pass

def createValidationMessage(message):
# Create a validation message with the given content
pass

def revertContractState(error):
# Revert contract state and show error message
pass

4.3.2. Consent for Uploaded Documents

The requesting participant must be registered and the hash provided as input must be
the same as the IPFS hash stored in the contract.
Listing 3 outlines the process for all approvers to provide their consent for a document
version uploaded on IPFS. The algorithm includes the following steps:
• Check that the requesting participant is registered and the hash provided as input is
the same as the IPFS hash stored in the contract.
• If the conditions are met, change the state of the contract to SignatureProvided and
the state of the developer to ApprovalProvided.
• For each approver, if they provide successful approval, change their state to Approval-
Success.
• If all approvers provide successful approval, change the state of the contract to Up-
dated and the state of the participant to UpdatedDocument.
• Notify the transaction with an event indicating that the document has been successfully
updated.
• If any approver fails to provide approval, change the state of the contract to Signature-
Denied and the state of the participant to ApprovalNotProvided.
• Change the state of all approvers who failed to provide approval to ApprovalFailed.
Listing 3 provides a clear and concise outline of the process for all approvers to provide
their consent for a document version uploaded on IPFS. The algorithm includes checks to
ensure the requesting developer is registered and the hash matches the IPFS hash stored in
the contract, and the algorithm handles scenarios when successful approval is provided or
not provided by the approvers. These conditions and steps help ensure the security and
reliability of the digital twin system.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 15 of 26

Listing 3. Pseudocode for consent for uploaded documents.

// Define the structure for a participant

struct Participant {
bool registered;
bool approved;
}

// Contract state
enum ContractState {
Created,
WaitForApproversSignature,
Reverted
}

# Define contract states

class ContractState:
WaitingForApproversSignature = "WaitingForApproversSignature"
SignatureProvided = "SignatureProvided"
SignatureDenied = "SignatureDenied"

# Define participant states

class ParticipantState:
ReadyToSubmit = "ReadyToSubmit"
ApprovalProvided = "ApprovalProvided"
ApprovalNotProvided = "ApprovalNotProvided"

# Define approver states

class ApproversState:
WaitingToSign = "WaitingToSign"
ApprovalSuccess = "ApprovalSuccess"
ApprovalFailed = "ApprovalFailed"

def validateParticipant(participantAddress, documentHash, IPFSHash):

contractState = ContractState.WaitingForApproversSignature
participantState = ParticipantState.ReadyToSubmit
approversState = ApproversState.WaitingToSign

if participantAddress in RegisteredParticipantSet:
restrictAccessToParticipant(participantAddress)

if documentHash == IPFSHash:
contractState = ContractState.SignatureProvided
participantState = ParticipantState.ApprovalProvided
approversState = ApproversState.ApprovalSuccess
createValidationMessage("Request ID granted")
else:
contractState = ContractState.SignatureDenied
participantState = ParticipantState.ApprovalNotProvided
approversState = ApproversState.ApprovalFailed
createValidationMessage("Document version approval failed")
else:
revertContractState("Participant is not registered")

def restrictAccessToParticipant(participantAddress):
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 16 of 26

# Restrict access to only the specified participant

pass

def createValidationMessage(message):
# Create a validation message with the given content
pass

def revertContractState(error):
# Revert contract state and show error message
pass

4.3.3. Processing Registration Requests

With a successful request, the state of the contract changes to “NewRegRequested”
and that of the new registration state changes to “NewRegistrationRequested”, and a
notification message is broadcasted to all registered participants to approve of the new
registration.
In Listing 4 the function request NewRegistration takes in three parameters: name,
email, and address, which represent the name, email, and address of the participant
requesting new registration in the network. The function first checks if the participant is
not already registered, and then sets the state of the registration to WaitToRegister.
Next, a new registration entry is created with the provided details, and the approval
count is initialised to 0. The state of the new registration is set to NewRegistrationRequested,
and the new registration entry is added to the registrations mapping with the requesting
participant’s address as the key.
Finally, a message is broadcasted to all registered approvers and participants about
the new registration request, and the function returns true.
Listing 4. Pseudocode for processing registration requests.

// Define the structure for a participant

struct Participant {
bool registered;
bool approved;
}

// Contract state
enum ContractState {
Created,
WaitForApproversSignature,
Reverted
}

# Define contract states

class ContractState:
SignatureProvided = "SignatureProvided"
NewRegRequested = "NewRegRequested"
Reverted = "Reverted"

# Define registered states

class RegisteredState:
HaitToRegister = "HaitToRegister"
NewRegisteredRequested = "NewRegisteredRequested"

def processNewEntrant(ethereumAddressOfNewEntrant):
contractState = ContractState.SignatureProvided
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 17 of 26

registeredState = RegisteredState.HaitToRegister

if isAlreadyRegistered(ethereumAddressOfNewEntrant):
revertContractState("New entrant is already registered")
else:
contractState = ContractState.NewRegRequested
registeredState = RegisteredState.NewRegisteredRequested
approversState = "ApprovalFailed"
createNotification("Grant permission for new registrations")

def isAlreadyRegistered(ethereumAddress):
# Check if the new entrant is already registered
# Return True if registered, False otherwise
pass

def revertContractState(error):
# Revert contract state and show error message
pass

def createNotification(message):
# Create a notification message for granting permission
pass

5. Case Scenario
This case scenario is motivated by an industrial size conveyor as shown in Figures 5 and 6,
which demonstrate how this conveyor will be used with the proposed blockchain solution
in practice by creating a digital twin. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
system, a case scenario about a production line of a smartphone, where a conveyor belt is
used to carry different parts of the smartphone production, is presented. The main goal for
the smartphone production is to gather all data available about the conveyor belt and to
monitor and analyse the data.
This case study is intended to verify and manage the DT over time, which generates a
compliance statement that includes a big file size of data, which can be shared immutably
and traceably through the blockchain network. The DT historical data can be stored without
the issue of overwriting and shared in the blockchain network with limited storage. A
digital twin is created for each smartphone being produced, which includes information
such as:
• Component Information: Data related to the components used in smartphone assem-
bly, such as the supplier, batch number, manufacturing date, and quality certifications.
• Machine Sensor Data: Real-time data from machines and equipment involved in
the assembly and testing processes, including temperature, pressure, vibration, and
energy consumption.
• Production Metrics: Data on production cycle time, yield rates, defect rates, and other
performance indicators to monitor the efficiency and quality of the manufacturing process.
• Quality Assurance: Inspection results, including images, videos, and test reports,
generated during quality control procedures to identify any defects or deviations.
• Supply Chain Data: Information about the origin, transportation, and storage con-
ditions of raw materials and components used in smartphone production, ensuring
transparency and traceability.
To perceive these data, a combination of technologies is utilised, including IoT sensors,
machine vision systems, RFID tags, and data-logging mechanisms. These technologies
enable real-time data capture, monitoring, and analysis throughout the production line.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 18 of 26

The collected data serves multiple purposes, aimed at improving the overall efficiency,
quality, and trustworthiness of the smartphone production process. Some specific objectives
and benefits include:
• Traceability: By capturing and recording the component information and supply chain
data, the system ensures end-to-end traceability of each smartphone unit, enabling
effective quality control, recall management, and counterfeit prevention.
• Predictive Maintenance: By continuously monitoring machine sensor data, poten-
tial faults and maintenance needs can be detected in advance, allowing proactive
maintenance to prevent unplanned downtime and production delays.
• Process Optimisation: Analysis of production metrics and machine data facilitates
identifying bottlenecks, optimising workflows, and improving overall production
efficiency, resulting in reduced costs and increased output.
• Quality Assurance: The inspection results and associated data help identify defects
early in the process, enabling timely corrective actions, reducing rework, and ensuring
the delivery of high-quality smartphones to end-users.
The data are collected using sensors and IoT devices, and the digital twin is updated
in real time. The data from the digital twin are stored in a distributed file system such
as IPFS, ensuring its immutability and authenticity. The data are then anchored onto a
blockchain network, providing a tamper-proof record of the data’s origin and provenance.
Decentralised applications (DApps) will be built on top of the blockchain to provide
various functionalities such as real-time monitoring, analytics, and reporting. These DApps
can be utilised to monitor the production line, track the progress of each smartphone
throughout the assembly process, and identify any real-time issues or defects.
Smart contracts will be deployed on the blockchain to automate various processes
such as quality control and payments. For example, when a smartphone passes a quality
control check, a smart contract could be used to automatically trigger the payment to the
supplier of the components. Access to the data and the blockchain is managed through
cryptographic keys, ensuring that only authorised parties can access the data and execute
transactions on the blockchain.
By leveraging the benefits of digital twin and blockchain technology, it is possible to
create a more secure, efficient, and transparent production line for smartphones. The system
can help improve quality control, reduce the risk of counterfeit products, and provide
valuable insights for optimising the production line and creating new business models.

Figure 5. Two-dimensional view of an industrial-sized conveyor.

Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 19 of 26

Figure 6. Three-dimensional view of an industrial-sized conveyor.

6. Evaluations and Analysis

This section presents a comparison of the performance between the proposed system
and existing methods [1,5]. The proposed system is evaluated in terms of security and
performance, with performance being determined by the deployment cost of the smart
contracts. The smart contract was tested and simulated using the Remix IDE. The Remix
IDE provides features for creating, deploying, testing, and debugging smart contracts.
Different Ethereum accounts were utilised to test the smart contract through the Remix IDE
and Ganache. Users with specific roles are granted permission to perform certain actions
related to the state of the digital twin in the smart contract.

6.1. Security Analysis

To ensure security, smart contract implementation should be tested to avoid attacks
on the smart contract. In a live network, extreme measures are taken in a decentralised
blockchain network because the deployed smart contract cannot be modified or upgraded.
Applications of the smart contract cannot be modified even by the developers after de-
ployment [24]. Due to the immutable nature of the smart contract, hackers are unable
to make changes to the smart contract, which gives an added security feature. Testing
smart contracts for vulnerabilities has become important before deployment and should
be tested with a wide range of test cases for security reasons. Smart contracts, blockchain
nodes, wallets, and consensus mechanisms are the common elements that can suffer from
vulnerabilities on the blockchain.
Using a combination of a time-stamp and unique token can be an effective way to
ensure the confidentiality of information data in a DT system. A time-stamp can help
prevent replay attacks by ensuring that any data that are being accessed are current and
have not been tampered with or replayed from a previous interaction. The smart contract
is written in Solidity and the token adopted the Solidity standard, which is the ERC-20, as
shown in Listing 1. As a fungible token, the unique token can be used to ensure that only
authorised participants can access the data by providing a means of verifying the identity
of the user attempting to access the information.
In addition, this combination can help prevent MITM attacks, where an attacker
attempts to intercept and manipulate data as they are being transmitted between two
parties. By including a time-stamp and unique token in the data being transmitted, any
attempt to manipulate or intercept the data will likely result in a failed verification process
and prevent unauthorised access.
Using a time-stamp and unique token can be a useful security measure in a DT system,
as it can help ensure confidentiality and prevent both replay and MITM attacks. However,
it is important to ensure that the implementation of these measures is done correctly to
avoid any potential vulnerabilities in the system.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 20 of 26

Reentrancy is indeed a well-known vulnerability in smart contracts that can be ex-

ploited by attackers to drain funds or cause other unintended behaviour. It occurs when
a contract calls an external contract, and the external contract calls back into the original
contract before the initial call has finished executing.
One way to prevent reentrancy attacks is to use the “checks–effects–interactions”
pattern, where all checks and state changes are performed before any external interactions
are made. Additionally, setting the gas limit manually for each transaction can also prevent
reentrancy attacks.
Regarding the issue with the proposed system and the fallback function, it is important
to note that the absence of a fallback function does not necessarily mean that the system
is immune to reentrancy attacks. While a fallback function can indeed create a potential
avenue for an attacker to exploit, reentrancy can still occur through other means such as
external contract calls.
To prevent reentrancy attacks in the proposed system, it is important to carefully
design and implement the smart contracts to follow best practices such as the “checks–
effects–interactions” pattern and setting gas limits manually. Additionally, comprehensive
testing and auditing of the code can help identify and mitigate potential vulnerabilities.

6.2. Performance
In this section, we present the comparative performance between the proposed sys-
tem and the existing method. In our prototype implementation, we use the Ethereum
blockchain, the cryptocurrency for this blockchain is ether (ETH), and the fee is calculated
based on the transaction and execution cost (gas amount). The gas amount required de-
pends on the smart contract implementation and the number of transactions needed to
execute the smart contract.

6.2.1. Registration
The smart contract execution for the registration of participants in a blockchain envi-
ronment is displayed in Figure 7 for transaction and execution costs. The transaction cost
decreases by 10,896 gas, and the execution cost increases by 11,720 gas when compared
with the existing method [1].
The proposed system has 59,681 gas for transaction gas cost and 59,681 gas for ex-
ecution gas cost, while the existing method has 70,577 gas for transaction gas cost and
47,961 gas for execution gas cost. The transaction cost of the existing method is higher
than the proposed system, and the execution cost is lower. This is because storing in an
array incurs higher costs, and storing in an array involves storing the length of the element.
Changing the value of storage space from zero to non-zero costs much higher for the first
time in any type of storage [1].
On the other hand, the proposed system uses IPFS for storage, which is a more efficient
and cost-effective solution. IPFS allows for instant transactions without having to wait for
network confirmations, and transactions done off-chain are usually free, resulting in lower
transaction costs. Additionally, IPFS offers greater privacy and security, as data transfers
are not visible in the public blockchain.
By using a more efficient and cost-effective storage solution such as IPFS, the proposed
system is able to achieve lower transaction costs while still maintaining high levels of
security and privacy.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 21 of 26

Figure 7. Comparison of experimental results of proposed system and existing system on registra-
tion transaction cost and execution cost.

6.2.2. Deployment
The smart contract execution for the deployment of contracts in the Ethereum blockchain
is displayed in Figures 8 and 9 for the gas transaction and ether costs. The initial deploy-
ment gas transaction used 24,464 for the proposed system with the ether (Eth) cost at 0.00489
and the initial deployment gas of 14,548 with ether cost at 0.14548 for the existing method.
The proposed system made use of an IPFS for storage, while the existing method
made use of Swarm for storage. The use of IPFS for storage in the proposed system offers
several advantages over the existing method that uses Swarm for storage. IPFS is faster and
more efficient, as transactions are recorded instantly without having to wait for network
confirmations, which can result in significant delays. Additionally, transactions completed
on off-chain are usually free, making it a cost-effective solution for data storage.
Another advantage of IPFS is that it offers greater privacy and security, as data transfers
are not visible in the public blockchain. This is particularly important for applications that
involve sensitive or confidential information.
However, it is worth noting that using a Content Identifier (CID v1) rather than a
(CID v0) can result in higher gas consumption. Gas consumption refers to the amount of
computational resources needed to execute a transaction on the blockchain. Therefore, it
is important to carefully consider the trade-offs between the benefits of using IPFS and
the associated gas costs when designing and implementing a blockchain-based digital
twin system.
The use of IPFS for storage in the proposed system offers several advantages over
existing methods, including faster transaction speeds, lower costs, and greater privacy
and security. By carefully managing gas consumption and other performance factors, it is
possible to create a highly effective and efficient system that can benefit a wide range of
industries and applications.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 22 of 26

Figure 8. Comparison of experimental results of proposed system and existing system on deployment
transaction cost.

Figure 9. Comparison of experimental results of proposed system and existing system on deployment
ether cost.

6.2.3. IPFS Storage

The results for the IPFS file storage are displayed in Table 2. The result shows a
difference of 0.000002 Eth between a 14 kB, 252 KB, and 2 MB document. Documents
that are 14 KB and 252 KB have 0.007406 Eth respectively, while a 2 MB document has
0.007408 Eth, as this demonstrates the low-cost transactions of an IPFS storage.
IPFS uses a content-addressed system, which means that the content of a file is used
to generate a unique hash that is used to retrieve the file. When a file is added to IPFS,
it is broken up into smaller chunks, each of which is addressed by its own unique hash.
This means that when a file is retrieved from IPFS, only the specific chunks needed to
reconstruct the file are retrieved, rather than the entire file.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 23 of 26

This content-addressed system allows for very efficient storage and retrieval of data,
as only the required portions of a file need to be accessed. In addition, IPFS uses a peer-to-
peer network for distribution and storage, which further reduces the costs associated with
storing and accessing data.
The low transaction costs associated with IPFS storage make it an attractive option for
a variety of use-cases, particularly those involving large amounts of data or frequent access
to stored data. However, it is important to note that the actual costs associated with IPFS
transactions can vary depending on a variety of factors, including network congestion, gas
prices, and other external factors.

Table 2. Storage cost of IPFS files.

Size ETH
14 KB 0.007406
252 KB 0.007406
2 MB 0.007408

7. Discussion
This section discusses the results of the evaluation, potential threats on the proposed
system, and the performance evaluation of the proposed system.

7.1. Security Threat

Our solution employes blockchain to secure the creation of DTs to ensure the traceabil-
ity and immutability of DTs’ data. One of the most important features of the blockchain is
its data integrity. Due to their low cost, off-chain transactions are gaining popularity among
large participants. All transactions have a hash, which makes transactions on the off-chain
safe from a man in the middle attack (MITM), thereby making them immutable. If a public
blockchain is used, the confidentiality of on-chain metadata becomes a concern [5]. Due to
a lack of trust between participants, a consensus is required to be strict. The fact that users
are required to pay fees to participate in the network is a problem that is associated with a
public blockchain [25]. Information distributed across the public blockchain network and
made available for every participant poses a challenge to information privacy. Both the
Ethereum blockchain and IPFS can be set up as private networks to ensure control and
data confidentiality.
Confidentiality becomes a concern, if s public blockchain is used, as data are not
encrypted in on-chain storage. Participants should therefore avoid storing confidential
information in on-chain storage due to security risks. To ensure data confidentiality, an
off-chain storage is used rather than an on-chain storage, as [5] indicated that storing
confidential information in on-chain storage is not considered safe. The proposed system
is set up as a private network with the use of Ethereum blockchain and IPFS to ensure
data confidentiality.
The proposed system uses IPFS to store and share data among the participants and
also ensures accountability for the DTs by restriction due to the smart contract function.
These functions can be amended to meet the specific needs of different industries. The
application of blockchain is resilient to several attacks and security vulnerabilities for the
creation process of DTs.

7.2. Performance
The evaluation results demonstrate the potential of our proposed system in achieving
low-cost transactions and also in supporting timely data sharing. As [5] indicated, in on-
chain, 50 and 100 transactions/second are supported in the private Ethereum blockchains,
and this means that more than 4 million interactions are possible per day. However, in
off-chain, multiple transactions are shared per second, while Swarm is currently restricted
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 24 of 26

to one update per second. Data shared in off-chain are secured, no data are lost, and data
can be shared in a timely fashion.
Furthermore, the use of digital twins ensures that the data being shared are accurate
and up-to-date, reducing the risk of errors and improving the efficiency of the system.
Additionally, the use of smart contracts can help to automate various processes, reducing
the need for manual intervention and improving the speed and accuracy of transactions.
The combination of digital twin and blockchain technology also provides a high level
of security, with data being encrypted and stored in a decentralised manner, making it
difficult for unauthorised parties to access or tamper with the data.
The proposed system has the potential to significantly improve the efficiency, trans-
parency, and security of data sharing and transactions, while also reducing costs and
improving the speed of transactions. As the technology continues to evolve and improve,
it is expected that the potential benefits of this system will become even more pronounced,
making it a valuable tool for businesses and organisations in a wide range of industries.

8. Conclusions
This paper has explored the underlying issues hindering information management
in DT. Blockchain-based digital twin sharing is designed to secure the information of the
DT during sharing. The performance evaluation of our proposed system shows that it is
secure and achieves performance improvement when compared with other methods. The
comparison of results with existing methods showed that the proposed system consumed
less gas. During registration, the transaction cost decreases by 10,896 gas, and the execution
cost increases by 11,720 gas when compared with the existing method. During deployment,
the initial deployment gas transaction used 24,464 for the proposed system with the ether
(Eth) cost at 0.00489 and the initial deployment gas 14,548 with an ether cost at 0.14548 for
the existing method.
One of the key advantages of the proposed system is its ability to ensure data confi-
dentiality. By using off-chain storage instead of on-chain storage, the system can securely
store confidential information without the risk of it being accessed by unauthorised parties.
The use of a private network with the Ethereum blockchain and IPFS further enhances data
confidentiality, making the system suitable for use in a wide range of industries and sectors.
In future work, the proposed system can be extended to other areas such as healthcare,
business, transportation, and more. By leveraging the benefits of digital twin technology
and blockchain, it is possible to create more efficient, secure, and transparent systems that
can benefit a wide range of stakeholders.
It is crucial for the system architects and developers to carefully analyse the scalability
requirements, evaluate potential bottlenecks, and design the system accordingly to ensure
it can handle the increasing demands and data volumes associated with a large number of
digital twins.
Overall, the proposed system has the potential to address the challenges of information
management in digital twin technology, providing a secure and efficient way to share and
manage information. As the technology continues to evolve and improve, it is expected
that the potential benefits of this system will become even more pronounced, making it an
increasingly valuable tool for businesses and organisations in a wide range of industries.
The proposed system has the potential to address the challenges of information manage-
ment in digital twin technology, providing a secure and efficient way to share and manage
information. This is particularly significant in the context of Industry 5.0, where the inte-
gration of advanced technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence
(AI), and automation, are revolutionising the manufacturing and industrial sectors.
Sensors 2023, 23, 6641 25 of 26

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.O. and Z.P.; Methodology, A.O. and Z.P.; Validation,
A.O., R.S., S.A. and N.R.; Investigation, A.O. and R.S.; Data curation, A.O.; Writing—original draft,
A.O.; Writing—review & editing, R.S., S.A., Z.P. and N.R.; Project administration, Z.P. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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