1912

SMC
A GRAMMAROF OLD IRISH
 A GRAMMAR
OF

OLD IRISH

BY

REV. F. W. O'CONNHLL, M.A., B.D.

FELLOWSHIP PRIZEMANjIN1 CLASSICAL AND SEMITIC PHILOLOGY
TRINtTY COLLEGE, DUBLIN ;
LECTURER IN THE CELTIC LANGUAGES AND L1TKRATURE IN T]IK

QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY OF BELFAST.

BELFAST:

MAYNE, BO YD & SON, LTD

1912.
 EDVARPO I. GWYNN

COLLEG1I SANCTAE ET INDIVIDVAE TRINITATIS SOCIO

QVI

STVnilS LITTERARYM PRAEPOSITVS

I'ATPJAE AMORE INCENKVS

LINGVAM NOSTRAM DBS VET AM

AB OBLIVIONE HOMINVM IN DIGNITATEM PRISTINAM

PROPVGNATOR INDEFESSVS

A'lNDICAVIT,
 VII

PREFACE.

THURNEYSEN'S Handbuch des Alt-Irischen is destined to

remain, for many years to come, the standard grammar of
Old Irish. Unfortunately it is a sealed book to the majority
of our Irish students who are not acquainted with the
German language, and consequently the want of a grammar
in English has been felt in many quarters. Since it is a part
of my duties at this University to deliver two lectures on
Old Irish Grammar weekly during Term, I undertook a
year ago to produce a grammar which should at least prove
useful as a book of reference, and after many distractions I
have completed it. It has proved by no means an easy task to
compress the important facts of Old Irish grammar, together
with the indispensable indices, within the prescribed limits
of about two hundred page?,and no one can be more keenly
conscious of the present work's defects than the author-
but IN /cur u Mhur a di<-]n'<tll.

My best thanks are due, in the first place, to Dr. Rudolf

Thurneysen for his kind permission to make use of his
Handbuch and to adopt some of his classifications in the
hope of winning for them general recognition. I may here
express also my indebtedness to Zeuss' Grammatica Celtica,
Pedersen's Vergleichende Gframmatik dcr Keltischen
Sprachoi and Aspirationeni Irsk, Yeudryes' Gframmaire
dn rid/ irldiidiii*. Sarauw's Irske Studier, Strachan's Old
Irish PnradifjniN and Selection* from the Glosses, the
TliCNtitrrHN Palaeohibernicus, and numerous articles in the
Revue Celtique, Zeitschrift filr Celtische Philologie, and
 VI11

Kriu. My thanks are also due to Professor0. J. Bergin

of the National University, Mr. E. J. Gwynn, F.T.C.D.,
Mr. Walter J. Purton, and to my colleagues Professor R.
M. Henry and Mr. A. 0. Belfour for reading proofs and
for many valuable suggestions; further to the Finance
Committee of this University for a grant in aid of
publication : and lastly to Mr. John Boyd of the firm of
Mayne & Boyd for the courteous interest which he has
displayedand the careful supervisionwhich he hasexercised
in the production of the work.
To the scholar I apologise for the liberties I have taken
in the transliteration of Sanskrit words, especially in the
matter of Yisarga, but I did not consider that they occurred
so frequently as to warrant the expense of procuring special
type.
The Appendix containing grammatical terms I have
added in order to show Irish students who are interested in
the preservation and development of the Modern language
how, by a process partly of boldly borrowing, partly of as
boldly translating, our ancestors overcame the difficulty of
new technical terms.
In conclusion let me direct the student's attention to the
list of Corrigenda and request him to follow the advice of
the old glossator-' cocart!'
FEARDORCHA UA CONAILL.

QUEEN'S UNIVEKSITY, BELFAST.

 IX

SUBJECT INDEX.
[The references are to paragraphs.J
Abstracts, formation of, 65.
Adjectives, formation of, 67 ; declension of, 68-72 ; comparison of,
73-75 ; irregular comparison of, 76.
Adverbs, 78, Oil, 256. 257.
Article, 42, 43 ; with demonstratives, 45, 46,
Aspiration, 9, 14 ; loss of, 17.

( 'ases, uses of, (ill.

Compensatory Lengthening, 25.
(' pounds of v std, 212.
Conjunctions, 2-17 255.
Consonants, double, IS; quality of, 1!); groups of, 21 ; original initial
and final, 24 ; loss of, 25 ; origin of, 41.
Copula, 203-211.

Depalatalization, 22.
Diminutives, formation of, 65.
Diphthongs, 34.
Deponents, 108, 119.

Flexion, absolute and conjunct, 114 ; modes of, 116.

Fractions, 82.
Future, stem, 131 ;/-future, 132. 133; .-future, 135; s-futurc, 136;
preterite, 134; asigmatic, 135; reduplicated, 135; of \crb.<
1'. IV.. 135; forms without reduplication, 137; reduplicated
s-futurc, 138 ; preterite, 139.

(Jemination, 16.
Glides, 32, 33.

Imperative, 124, 125.

Indicative, present, 118 ; present deponent, 120 ; present passive,
122; imperfect, 123.
Interrogative Particles, 92.

Lenition, 9, 14.
Loan-words, 258-261.

Metathesis, 26.
Nasalization, 15.
Negatives, 101.
Noun, 47 ; declension of, -111(14: irregular declension of. (il.
Noun Stems, vocalic, 48 ; consonantal, 57.
Numerals, 79, 80 ; numeral substantives, 81.

Orthography, 4, 8.

Participle, past passive, 15,S; of necessity, 153.

Prepositions, 215-24li.
Preterite, stem, 140; .v-|>ivtrnle, 141, H'2 ; /-|>reten(e, 143, 144;
sullixless, 14.">;reduplicated, 1 t">,140; irregular reduplication,
,147 ; uisreduplicated, 148 ; irregular unreduplicated, 149,
150 ; passive preterite stem, 151.
PrevcrKs, I (12, 106.
Proclitics, vocalism of, 40.
Pronouns, personal, So; possessive. S4 ; aeeented form.- of, SI ;
iiilixed, 85 ; allixcd, SO; sulii\ed,S7: suffixed to prepositions,
88-90; interrogative, 91 ; demonstrative, 93; indelinite, 95.
Pronunciation, 4, 8.

Quality, 19 ; change of, 20 ; confusion of, -2o.

Relative, how expressed, 97 ; leniting relative sentences, 98 ;

nasalizing, 99; genitive of, 100.
.Bo, of possibility, 103; uses of, 104 ; position of, 1(15.

Self, '.U.
Strong Verbs, paradigm of, 176-190 ; table of, |>a-v 108.
Subjunctive, stem, 120 ; ((-subjunctive, 12(}-128 ; ."-subjunctive,
126, 129, 130.
Substantive Verb, 192-202.
Syncopation, 37.

Tense-stems, 109.

Verbal nouns, 154.

Verbs, 108; strong and weak, 11(1; number and person. 111; relative
forms, 112; classificationof, 115; personalendings,113, 117,
119, 121, 124; of existence,213 ; defective, 214,'
Vowels, in accented syllables, 27 ; in unaccentedsyllables, 35 ;
unaccentedin closedsyllables,36 ; developmentof new, 38 ;
vowel-contraction, 39.

Weak Verbs, paradigm of, 155-175.

 TABLE OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS AND SYMBOLS.

Anlaut =the initial sound of a word.

Absolute anlaut = the initial sound of a word unaffected by
a preceding sound.
Inlaut =a sound occurring in the interior of a
word or syllable.
Auslaut = the final sound of a word.
Ablaut = variation of the root-vowel.
Sh'va = the Hebrew name of the obscure unac-
cented vowel like e in Eng. ln'</in,
Proto-Keltic = the Keltic language before its division into
the Gadelic and Britannic branches.
Prototonic = accented on the first syllable.
Deuterotonic = accented on the second syllable.
= reduced from. = reduced to.
* denotesa hypothetical form. In the paradigmsof the
verbs, forms in parentheses are such as do not occur but
may be safely deduced.
Prototonic verbal forms are denoted by a point prefixed
thus - -tucad.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Arm. = Armenian. O.H.G. = Old High German.

Bret. = Breton. 0. SI. = Old Slavonic.
Goth. = Gothic. Skr. = Sanskrit.
Gk. = Greek \V. = Welsh.
Dor. Gk. = Doric Greek. Ml. = Milan Glosses.
Id.-G. = Indo-Germanic. S.G. = St. Gall Glosses.
Lat. = Latin. Tur. = Turin Glosses.
O. Lat. = Old Latin. Wb. = Wiirzburg Glosses.
Med. Lat. = Medieval Latin. L.U. =Lebor na h-Uidri.
Lett. = Lettish. Hb. = Handbuch.
Lith. = Lithuanian' Thurn. =Thurneysen.
Bk. of Arm. Book of Armagh.
V.G. Vergleichende Grammatik.
 Xll

CORRIOENDA.

Pasre7 lino17 f,n-.fied read//ad

24 ,, -m-stems -;V7-(?e-)stems
30
muice » ni nice
33 5 ,,
'host' ,, 'Host'
37 26 ,,
Erin Erin
37
*^ * 5* 27
26 ,, of 'Jesus' of JSM'Jesus.'
40
45 11,12 e.q. eq.
45 27,33 ,, jirii'in.&c. f Irian,kc.
con CO
46 36, 37
47
"*-" 1 nasalization leuition
30 n. side, pi. sidi n. side, pi. -s'"/'
57 ,,
Nitilhitr satthar
58 20 ,,
comtcachtmar comtachtmar
63 -)
 INTRODUCTION.

Old Irish may be divided into three stages as follows :-

First Stagfe, representedby many Oghaminscriptions
and a few early inscriptions in the Roman character. The
chief characteristic of this stage is the retention of some of
the originalcaseendings,e.g.magi (mace?'),
inigena,Ercias.
Second Stage, represented by later inscriptions in the
Roman character, the prinia IIHIHUXof the Wiir/bnrg
(! losses,the Cambrai Homily, the Turin palimpsest, the
Codices Philargyrii, and the Irish names recorded in the
Book of Armagh by Muirchu maccu Mactheni and Ti're-
chan, and in Adamnan's Vita Columbae. This stage is
characterized by the preservation of long 4, and 6, of the
true diphthongs oi and di, of unaccented e and o between
non-palatal consonants, of pretonic to (tu) in verbs, of i
and e after non-palatal consonants, and of -o in gen. sing.
of -i- and -«- stems, e.g. C&ran, Fe"cc, soos, ood, Loiguire,
Oingiifi, Bditdn, Cdi<'hdn, Aclicd, dchtei; cdocht, tuthcgot,
toncomra, Cajt/it, aiyit, Ailello, brdthn.
Third Stagfe, represented by the rest of the Wiirzburg
and other Continental Glosses;piecesof Old Irish prosein the
Book of Armagh, Lebor na h-Uidre and other MSS.; Old Irish
poems at St. Gall, Milan, and St. Paul's Kloster, Carinthia;
1'Ylire Oengusso, and the Irish Hymns in the Liber Hym-
norum. In the language of this stage e and 6 have become
ia and ua, oi and at are written oe and ae, e and o in
unaccented syllables > a, i and e after non-palatal con-
sonantsare written ai (HI) and ae,pretonic to (tu) > do
((/»), and -o in gen. sing, of -i- and -«- stems > a; e.g.
Ciuran, .<mas, Loegiiire, Baetdn, Achad, cdacht, do-
thtiujat, anjitit, brdtha. The verbal form tiithfyot (2nd
stage) contains three archaismsin as many syllables, viz.
tn- (later do-,du-), -tlieg-(later -thiag-),-ot (later -at), pre-
historic Irish = *to-steighont.
As the First Stage is represented merely by inscriptions
composed of proper names linked together by means of
iiniqi or or/, and as the Second Stage is practically confined
to proper namesor glossesconsisting of single words, Old
Irish grammar draws its material chiefly from the Third
Stage. The forms dealt with in the present work are mainly
those which occur in the Thesaurus Palaeohibernieus.
The total period covered by the three stages is, roughly,
from the fifth to the tenth century.
 I.-PHONOLOGY.

1. The cumbersome Ogham alphabet, itself based on

the Latin alphabet, with its curious system of easily con-
fused dots and strokes (in fact it resembled a signalling
code rather than an alphabet), was soon abandoned in
favour of the Roman. The latter, although more con-
venient for literary purposes, was far from being a perfect
medium for the representation of Irish sounds, the result
being that one letter frequently representedtwo distinct
sounds, so that a sentence in Old Irish is almost as incom-
plete orthographically as a sentencein unpointed Hebrew.
2. The letters k, y, and z only occur in foreign words,
e.g. pr(d kalde (pridie kalendas), ymmon (hymnum),
baitzisi (from baptizo]; q is found in loan words as
aequinocht, quart-, and also in Irish uisque (probably after
the analogy of Lat. usque); x is sometimesused for c/is,
e.g. oxalib from ochsal = axilla, foxal as well as fochsal.
3. h representedno sound,although a genuine /z-sound
existed in Old Irish. Its principal uses seem to have
been (a) to give greater substanceto monosyllables con-
sisting of only one or two letters, e.g. hi, h6, hd, hed, for
i, 6, d, ed ', (b) in suchwords as huile, huisse to prevent the
Latin pronunciation vile, visse; (c) to mark hiatus in cases
like Israhel, ro-hucad, rehe. ch, th, ph were used to repre-
sent the spirants \, ]^, f (c is sometimeswritten for ch, e.g.
act, feet, cumacte); ph is used instead of / when the
spirant results from an aspirated p and at the end of a
syllable, e.g. in phreceptriri, oiph, neph-ni; when the
spirant arisesfrom the aspiration of primitive .w either /
or ph is used,e.g. tinfed and tinphed (for -.werf). Apart
from these uses h seemsto have been an orthographical
luxury, (h is oncemiswritten for ch, viz. incinnnihi Wb.
18 a 21, and once used to mark a long vowel, viz. TERNOHC
in an Old Irish inscription.)
4. g, d, b, m, represented
not only the voicedstopsand
labials but also the voiced spirants 7, 3, f3, /JL(nasal v);
c, t, p, representedboth voicelessand voiced stops, the
latter after vowels and sometimesafter consonants, c, t, p,
represent voiceless stops in absolute anlaut, after vowels
either voicelessor voiced stops ; g, d, b, m, represent
voiced stops and the labio-nasal(a) in absolute anlaut, (b)
when doubled, (c) in the consonantal groups nd, Id, mb ;
after vowels and most consonants they may represent
cither voiced stops or voiced spirants.
The following expansion and illustration of the above
rules may prove useful to the student :-
The sounds k, t, p, are written :
1. c, t, p, at the beginning of a word not preceded by
another word causing nasalization ; e.g. coxwi, tfr, ]>eccad ;
but a cosset,a tir, a peccad (meaning 'their feet, &c.')
are sounded a goxsa, a dir, a beccad.
2. c, or cc, t, p, in the interior or at the end of a word,
cc usually after /, r, s ; e.g. olcc, sercc, coscc, mace, ic or ice,
freccor or frecor, ata, art, apstal.
The sounds g, d, b, are written :
1. g, d, b, at the beginning of a word not precededby a
word causing aspiration ; e.g. guth, dan, bus ; but a guth,
a dan, a bus (meaning ' his voice, &c.') are sounded
a yuth, a Saw, a /3ds.
2. c or cc, t, f>, in the interior or at the end of a word,
e.g. ec, becc,do-uccus,fota (Mod. I. FXVO.A),
apaig.
3. gg, dd, bb, in S.G. and Bk. of Arm. in the same cir-
cumstances as 2, e.g. arggit, condeilgg, ardd, abbaith.
The sounds y, S, /?, //, are written g, d, b, m.
1. in lenited anlaut, e.g. after a 'his,'a guth, a dan,
a ben, a mdthir.
2- in the inlaut and auslaut after vowels and most con-
sonants,e.g. tige-, I6g, adrad, lobur, marb, demin, iarum.
A comparison of the various spellings found is necessary
in order to determine the sound in some instances, thus,
that the g, d, b, m of condelg, ard, burbe (second b),
guidim, are unlenited is proved by the variants condelc,
art, burpe, guidimm.
 In doubtful casesthe Modern language is the only guide.
Probably y, (3,^ had eachtwo pronunciations as in Modern
Irish, viz. broad y = a voiced velar spirant, ft a rounded
bilabial spirant, /x= nasal (3; slender y = a voiced palatal
aspirant, (3= an unrounded bilabial spirant, /x= nasal ditto.
5. Long vowels are usually denoted by an acute accent,
in the older MSS. sometimes by doubling, e.g. baan, bees,
ruitit ; in casesof doubling frequently the accent is also
employed and is then written indifferently over the first or
second vowel : similarly in the case of the long diphthongs,
e.g. di or ai, 6i or oi, which for grammatical purposes are
in this book written invariably ai, ol, in order to distinguish
them from a long vowel followed by the glide i as in lann.
6. A dot written over the letters s and / denoteslenition,
it is also written over the transposed n and m in nasalized
anlaut, e.g. is inse nduit, dered mbetho, and over n in
inlaut between two consonants, e.g. frecndain:, Jun'ujaire.
7. In MSS. words which group themselves together
about a principal accent are written as one word, e.g.
triahesseirgesam, hicechoinalaithe. The following are
some of the contractions employed :-
T= Lat. et = I. ocus, 'and.'
"£= Lat. vel = I. n6, nu, 'or.'
aih = a>nal (older amail), ' like,' 'as,' 'asif.'
da = danau,dano, 'then,' 'further,' 'also.'
di = didiu, didu, ' hence.'
im or imr = immurgu, 'moreover,''but,' 'yet.'
.i. = Lat. id est, I. ed 6n, 'viz.'

PRONUNCIATION.

8. The pronunciation of Old Irish seemsto have differed

considerably from that of the modern dialects, notably in
the following particulars :-th was a voicelessspirant and
dh a voiced spirant as proved by the Old Icelandic tran-
scriptions of Irish names,e.g. Duflpakr = Dubthach, Tctikr
= Tadg. Short vowels were not lengthenedby groups or
by dying consonants,e.g. tige, rfini, f/cn; urd, &c. ; final
z and e were quite distinct, e.g. cele, cdli ; lenited b, m, d, g,
were fully pronounced and did not lengthen or diphthongize
preceding short A^owels. In Modern Irish th has become
an /i-sound, and dh is pronounced like gli except that in
anlaut before e or i, dh has a weaker articulation than gh
in similar positions.

ASPIRATION OR LENITION.

9. Jn Old Irish a. single consonant between two vjmLfils

was ninro liioM'l\ articulated than in alisolute anTim, and
j'lmiiiMii.1change lias IHVMKTIUCU Imtii uxjjirulimi and
lenition. Strictly speaking, aspiration occurs only iu the
caseof the stops c, t, (p in loan words), g, d, 6, and the
labio-nasal m, which are thereby reduced to the spirants
X>K /! 7) S>A fJ-! the spirants s, / the liquids /, r, and
the nasal n, undergo a similar change more properly called
lenition.

10. The aspirated forms of c, t, p, are represented in

writing by ch, th, pli, (v. § 3), and the lenited forms of s,
and /, are (in later MSS.) denoted by a dot written over
the consonants. In SG-. and later MSS. the aspiration of
c, t, p, is also marked by writing the sign for the Greek
spiritus asper over the consonants. In this phonology
lenited g, b, /, m, n, r are denoted by the Greek letters
7, /3, A, /i, v, p.
11. ch representsthe velar and palatal voicelessspirants,
i.e. ch in German ach and ich ; for the sounds of the other
spirants v. £"$3, 4, 8. Lenited * was pronounced as h,
lenited / was silent and consequently sometimes omitted
altogether in writing, e.g. immolang for immfolang ; in
this case lenition occurred before pre-historic n had de-
veloped to /, and the lenition of u producesa mere breath,
cf. English e'er, e'en, from ever, even. A true lenited /
occurs in Modern Irish and is pronounced h, e.g. mefhein
(liein), glanfad (glanhad).
12. /, n, r had each four distinct sounds which I repre-
sent by the following symbols:-I = a dental-guttural 7, the
thick I of Slavonic languages closely resembling the genuine
English sound of I in milk, mild ; Z= lenited form of -I, the
ordinary alveolar I in English lot; L = the palatal lateral /,
English II in million; £'= lenited L, an alveolar I with
slight palatalization.
11= an ambidental nasal, the thick n of Slavonic languages,
somewhat like initial n in French now; n = lenited 11,
alveolar n as in English not; N= the palatal nasal English
ni in pinion, French gn in agneau; w' = lenited N, a
slightly palatalized alveolar n. In the Modern Irish
dialects of Connacht and Ulster the above distinctions of
the sounds of I and n are still observed, but of the cor-
respondingr- seriesonly two soundsremain,viz., t1and r'.
13. I, n, are imlenited (a) in absolute anlaut, (b)
in anlaut after unlenited s, (c) in inlaut after r and *,
(d) in anlaut in the group nl (In are assimilated to t and
L), (e) in anlaut before s, t, d, and r, (/) II, nn between
"vowels or in auslaut = unlenited /, n. r probably re-
mained unlenited in similar positions, but here the modern
language gives little assistance towards reconstruction.

ASPIRATION AND LENITION IN ANLAUT.

14. Aspiration or lenition of a consonantoccurs-
A

(a) after the dat. sg.of the article and of substantives.

(6) after the nom. sg. of all feminine nouns.
(c) after the gen. sg. of masc. and neut. nouns and the
nom. pi. of masc. nouns of o- and io- stems.
(d) after the nom.and voc.pi. of neut.nounsexcept
when they end in -o, in which case the use varies.
(e) after the nom.ace.andgen. dual masc.and fern.
(/) after the neutersubstantivepronounalaill, the
interrogative pronouns cisi, ced cid, the pers. pronoun .«
('she'), the possess,
pronounsmo, TO-;do, t-, a (masc.and
neut.); the infixedpers.pronouns-in, -t and 3rd sg.neut.
a, (i)d.
 B

After verbal forms as follows :

(a) after the absoluteforms of the copulain relative
sentences.

(6) after all forms of the imperative and the 3rd sg.
pret. subj.
(c) after the conjunct forms of the copulawhich are
monosyllabic, with the exception of the 3rd sg. -did, -dib,
-dip, and the forms which have become monosyllabic by
contraction, e.g., -bin, -btis, -btar, -psa in the pret., ivr.
(There are someexceptionsin \Yb).
(d) after masu,cesu,pi. cetu, ceto.
(e) in later Old jrish after other verbs, whether the
followingword be object,subject,or adverb?

After uninflectecl words :

(a) after the preps,amal, ar, cen,dl, do, fled,fo, im. IK,
6 (ua), 6s (uas), tre, tri.
(6) after proclitic prepositionsand verbal particles in
relative sentences.

(c) After the particlero (ru) whenenclitic and preceded

by a preposition or verbal particle.
(d) after the conjunctionsocus,no (no),fa (bo), and
usually after ma, cia (ce), co, 6, and amal except where
nasalization interferes, the negative nicon, nacon.
(e) after the particle a (d) used with the vocative, and
the emphatic su, so used with pers. pronouns.
The second member of a compound has its initial con-
sonant aspirated or lenited :
(a) when the first member is a noun or adjective or a
numeral.

(6) after the inseparableprefixesso- (szt-),do- (du-), mi-.

(c) after the prepositions aith (ath), air (er, ir), di (de),
fo, imb (im(ni) ), ind, rem, ro, farm, to ; in later glosses
 8

after com-,frith-, iarm-, and sometimesafter jor and etar

from analogy with air. This rule holds good for verbal
compoundsalso except when the preposition is pretonic.
In short aspiration (lenition) occurswherever a consonant-
was originally vowel-flanked,thus don cheneul, ben chonn,
rig-snide are for older dondn ceneln, bend coimd, rigo-
sodios.

NASALIZATION.

15. Nasalization
is_the^phonejafi-jehaage_produced
in the
rmlaut <>fa word ><\;!" original lin.-il // (or )») of the >reced
ing word. Before a vowel or d the original » reappears :
5~a,nd~g
havem andn (i.e.to)prefixed; c, t, (p) arechanged
to g, d, (6), / to v ; s r I m n, when a vowel precedes,are
doubled. In writing nasalization is shown clearly only in
the case of vowels and mediae, and doubling is frequently
neglected. When two words are written apart » is some-
times placed separately between them, sometimes transposed
to the initial of the second word ; in both cases the n has
usually the pimctum delens affixed, e.g. dochion n dee or
dochum nde"e.

Sometimes the n is omitted before a word beginning

with h, e.g. dochnm hirisse, but dochinii »-iivs.se when the
h is not written.

Sometimes the intervention of an enclitic word between

the auslaut and anlaut concerned does not prevent the
aspiration or nasalization taking place, e.g. is si infio chioll
(wherechidll is aspiratedby sf), ddde didiu n-ctnd(where
dede causes the nasalization n-and)

Nasalization is found in the following cases:-

A

(a) after the ace.sg. andgen.plur. of all gendersand

the nom. sg.of neutersexceptalaill, na ('some ') ced (cid)
and the infixed pers. pronoun 3rd sg. neuter. Other neuters
which did not originally end in -n cause nasalization from
analogy.
 (6) after the numerals c6ic and sd in the gen. plural.
(c) after all the neuter casesof the dual and after the
dat. dual of all genders.
(rf) after the infixed pers. pronounsof the 3rd sg. masc.
o, rf, and sometimes after the 3rd sg. fern, and 3rd plur. s.
(e) after the plural possess,
pronounsar, far, a (' their '),
which are really old gens. plur.

After verbal forms : only after the absolute relative

forms of the copula in relative sentences and sometimes
in interrogative sentences,e.g. cit n-6= 'Who are they?'
C

After unin fleeted words :

(a) after the numerals .sec/if, ocht, noi, deich (not in

compounds).
(b) after the relative particle (s)a, the conjunctions a
(while), ara, did, co (con), hua'1 (6-a").
(c) after the interrogative particle in (im before 6).
(d) after the prepositionsco ('with'), /, iar, re (ria) ;
after the compound prepositionsdochum, in-degaid, tar-esi
(which are in reality prepositionsand nouns in the ace.sg.)
the anlaut is nasalized only when it bears the principal
accent.

GEMINATION.

16.Geminationis the doublingor lengtheningof the initial

consonant of a, worn due to lJifl..ASsiQiilation._of_t;h.e-final
consonantnf the nrpfifi'^g wnrrl (usuallyan original -s).
It is represented in writing only after vowels when the
words are written together. In Modern Irish the only
trace of gemination left is the h- prefixed to vocalic
anlaut after vocalic auslant, e.g. n.A 11-6156, A Ii-
le l
 10

Gemination is found :

A
(a) after the article (inna, na = original sinddx) in the
gen.sg.fern.,nom.pi. fern,and neuter,and ace.pi. of all
genders,e.g.innammaccu(ace.pi. masc.),forsnammorchol
(ace. pi. neut.).
(b) after the nom. and ace. sg. neuter no, some.' e.g.
nanni, nailed.
(c) after the interrogativecia (which also aspirates),a
' her' (a = original *e,vas), and after the infixed pers. pro-
nounsda, ta, a, as 3rd sg. fern, and 3rd pi.
B

After forms of the copula :

(a) after the preterital and modal 3rd sg. ba except in
relative sentences.
(6) after ni = original *nist.
C

(a) after the prepositionsa (original *eks), co,/»"{',la.

(b) all prepositions which end in a vowel, the particles
ro, no, and the negatives ni (mani, coni, &c.), nd (arna,
conna), when no infixed pronoun is attached double the
anlaut of the following verb or verbal compound, except in
relative sentences.

(c) after 'assa between comparatives,e.g. massa assam-

ma.sso, »o, nor ', se ' six' exceptin gen.pi., the particlea
used before numerals.

Loss OF ASPIRATION(LENITION).
17. When,owing to syncopation,
two aspiratedconson-
ants of the sameclasscametogether they both gave up their
aspiration, and when one aspirated consonant united with
another unaspirated homorganic consonant the same result
ensued; thus ch + ch, or ch + c, or c + ch, > c, ; th + th,
or tli + t, or t + th = t: e.g. tecnate = teg-gndth-de (tey-
Se),-mitter - midther (miS-^er),marcir = marc-chir
 11

Aspirated t and d lost their aspiration after I, n, s, and

before ,9. After s aspirated d not only gave up its aspira-
tion but became unvoiced, e.g. beste, baste, < bes-fte,
bas-^e. Lenited I and n lost their lenition before d, t, n,
r, s, and after /, r. The above phonetic changesdo not
invariably appear in writing owing to the etymological
spellings, just as in Modern Irish we write cogtA,
but pronounce

DOUBLE CONSONANTS.

18. Double consonants frequently arise through com-

position or syncopation,e.g.freccor < *fret-cor, bronn <
*brusnos, ammus < * ad-mess; or in later Old Irish by assimi-
lation of nd, Id, e.g. inna < inda, mallaclit <maldacht.

QUALITY OF THE CONSONANTS.

19. InOldlrish every consonantexceptthe labialshadthree
distinct pronunciations, viz., palatal, neutral, and velar :
or as it is sometimes expressedan z-quality, an a-qualityr
and an M-quality. A consonant has the t-quality before or
after e or i, e.g. ce, cia, ice ; the o-quality before or after
a or o, e.g. cara, cos, -accat ; the it-quality before or after
u, e.g. c,u, .ruccu. In the first case the middle of the
tongue is raised to the hard palate, in the second the back
of the tongue is raised to the soft palate just behind the hard
palate, in the third the back of the tongue touches the
back portion of the soft palate while the lips are protruded
and rounded. In Modern Irish the a- and zt-qualities are
classedtogether as non-palatal (teACAti) in contradistinction
to the palatal or z-quality (c.AOt), but the distinction in
pronunciation between the a- and u- qualities is still marked
in many cases. In the case of the labials palatalization is
impossible, but as the lips are protruded when the labial is
preceded or followed by a, o, or u, and retracted when it
is preceded or followed by e or i this protrusion or retrac-
tion of the lips forms for the labials a distinction corres-
ponding to the palatal and non-palatal pronunciations of the
other consonants.
 12

CHANGE OF QUALITY.
20. When two consonants of different quality come
togetherowingto syncopation
the secondconsonant(except
in the case of w-quality + i-quality) takes as a rule the
quality of the first: thus non-p.+ pal. > non.p. e.g. -fodlat
(Sa Xa) from fo-dalet (5a- A*);. pal.+ non-p.> pal. e.g.
aithrea (K p') from * eithera (K-pa); pal. + M-quality5
pal. e.g.aingliu (g*X{)from*angilu (g{- AM);but w-quality
+ pal.>pal. e.g. foigde (yf S') from *fo-gude (gu-&).
Compounds are an exception to the above rules.

CONSONANTAL
GROUPSBEFOREe, i.
21. Before syncopationhad taken place,and before the
loss of the vowel of the final syllable, if a group of two or
more different consonants stood before e or i only the last
consonant of the group was palatal. When the group,
through the loss of the following vowel, came to stand at
the end of the syllable the whole group becamepalatal ; if,
however, the vowel was retained, the whole group after-
wards became non-palatal in accordance with the rule given
in § 20, e.g., sere made its dat. sg. seirc (?"'k') from *serJti,
but its gen. sg. sercae (ra k").
The consonantal groups /xA, pp mr, nd, dc (= 5g)
had become palatal at an early time, and accordingly
remained palatal even before a retained vowel, e.g., iminbi,
clainde, cuimrech. Single I, r, n, if they had been origin-
ally preceded by a consonant (the loss of which was
represented by compensatorylengthening of the vowel),
acted like consonantal groups, e.g., gabdlae, gen. sg. of
gabul irom*gabagld, so-sc^Zaefor*so-scetle; cele (from
*keglios)is an exception,but it has followedthe analogy
of aile, alaile. The group cht is always non-palatal.

DEPALAT ALIZATION .

22. At the beginningof a syllable when precededby

a, u, o or ua, the labials 6, p, f, m, and the gutturals g, c,
cA, ng become non-palatal,e.g., opair (dat. sg.) from Lat.
 13

opera; enaniai nom. pi. of cn<ti»r. Hii(/ae = uncia. In the

second stage of Old Irish the palatal quality was still
retained in unaccented syllables, e.g. ached, miitlicd, fiujell,
toceth ; later, acliad, natliad, fiujall, tocad. (seefurther
Bergin, Erin III.)

CONFUSIONOF u- AND a-QuALiTiES.

23. The consonants ch, cc, th (and the d = 5 which
develops from it), ss in auslaut after original a have the
«-quality instead of it-quality, e.g. cath (stem catu),
compound cocad<*c<>ni-ca(Ii: mace dat. sg. innn'""inaccn,
ivu : labials and gutturals which in the earlier glosses
usually have the it-quality, gradually assume the a quality
in the later glosses, e.g. cosmuil, mennniin, "cec/ntiii, later
cosmail, nicininiin, -cechain.

ORIGINAL INITIAL CONSONANTS.

24. Original s in the anlaut of proclitic words is lost, e.g.

itifOTO.*senti,Lat. Nioit ; innail from Namad, Lit. NIIIII/IN;
the article ind, a for *sind, ':'nen; t in the same position
changes to d, e.g. do, dor, for older to, tar.

ORIGINAL FINAL CONSONANTS.

Original final r, rt, It, cht, t (i.e. d or dd) from -nt

(-int), arcretained,e.g.siur, Lat. tioror,-berat (iorberont) :
det (tor*dent), W. daut.
Final m was changed to n before it was lost; it reappears
before vowels and d, e.g. dcicli n-nair (for *dekn) ; fer
n-firend for *uiran. Singled, t, k, n, (from -n or -m\
s disappearedin absolute auslaut ; also the groups -ks, -tx,
-ns, -st, probably after first being reduced to single -s,
e.g. *tod>to, * karat > -caret, *rek.y>ri, ~*meiit>>ini,
*karants>car(a)e, *steiyhst> -te.
Loss OF CONSONANTS.

25. By dissimilation, e.g. for-roichan <for-ro-echan <

 14

jor-ro-chechan,in-roigrainn < in-ro-egrainn < in-ro-ge-

grainn. By reduction of consonantalgroups, e.g. uildiii <
*dilndiu, -cumgat<*cui>mgat,-ort<*orcht.

COMPENSATOKY LENGTHENING.

In original groups of consonantsthe spirants ch, y, 3

between a vowel and r, I, n, and th before I and », dis-
appeared; the lost consonant was compensatedby leng-
thening a precedingshort vowel. A similar compensation
sometimes follows the loss of n and ngfo). Examples:
der < *dachr, dr < *u<jr, <h-<tin- *adram, ci'in'f "
cenethl, en < *ethn, cdt < '''rent, ceimni - '"c/ittjxi/iru,
v. §§ 26. rf, 28. 6, 30. b.

METATHESIS.

26. Metathesisis frequent in Modern Irish, but seldom

occurs in Old Irish ; examples from Old Irish are ascnain
for *acxnam from *adcosnam, ad-connai; luyburt for
*lubgurt, berle (once)for belre.

THE VOWELS IN ACCENTED SYLLABLES.

27. d represents-
(a) Id.G-.a, e.g.indthir, Lat. mater, Dor. Gk. /xarrjp.
(b) Id.Gr.o, e.g. dan, Lat. ddmtm, Gk. StSo./u
; ymltli,
Lat. notus, Gk. yvwros.
(c) d arisesfrom Id.G. longsonantr, e.g.gran <*grno.
(d) d alsoarisesby compensatory lengthening,e.g.«>"<
*agr-, mdl<*magl-, dram<*adram.

a represents-

(a) Id.G.a,e.g.anal,Goth,us-anan,
Skr.dniti; arathar,
Lat. aratrum, Gk. aporpov.
(6) Id.G.<S7iVa
(9), e.g.a^Az'r,Lat. pater, Gk. 7m-,;/!,
Skr. pita, Id.G. *pdter.
(c) a alsoarisesfrom Id.G. sonantr, Zbeforevowelsand
 15

spirants, e.g. barr<*bhrs-, *marb<*mrnos, all<*pls-,

tart<*trst-; from Id.G. n, m beforevowels,spirants and
m, e.g.tane<*tn-, Gk. ravaos; samail<*srri-, Gk.
28. ^ represents-
(«) Id.G. ei. e.g. "tdgot<*nteighont, Gk. o-ret'xw, Goth.
steigan. In later Old Irish this e was diphthongized passing
through e« into fa, e.g. "tiagat, sian-s (sensus), riagol
(regula).
(b) e arises by compensatory lengthening from e and a
e.g.cendl<*cenethl-,d&r<*dakr-, f&n<*uegn-.
e represents-
(a) Id.G. e, e.g. a-li " *ek'n-, Lat. equus; berid<
:/i/i/')'cti, Lat. fert, Gk. </>ep«i.
(6) Id.G. z when the following syllable contained
originally «, or o, or o which had not become il, e.g. fer
<*uiros, fedb<*uidua ; (i before nd remained, e.g. fiiin
<*uindos).

29. t represents-
(a) Id.G. z, e.g. rim, O.H.G. rtm ; It, Lat. livor.
(b) Id.G. e. e.g. fir, Lat. rent*: ri <""'rck*, Lat. rr.r ;
Z/rz,Lat. pleiut*.
z represents-
(o) Id.G. i, e.g. ibid, Skr. pibati, Lat. 6z'6zY.
(6) Id.G. e when the following syllable contained i or u,
e.g. "biur<biru<*bhero, mil<~"'-mcli, cinn<*kuenni, fiur
< *uiru.
(c) sometimes arises from Id.G. m and n, e.g. h»b<
"'tubhi, iixjnad< *n-gndt-.
30. 6 represents-
(ft) Id.G. an, on, en: e.g. tiiath<*tent-; Zttnd, Lat.
Zawslaudif<; rnad (older*r6d) Goth. ?'at<]w, Lith. randn ;
I6che,Gk. Aevicos,Lat. Z«.r,Id.G. V Ze?/A--.
(6) 6 arisesby compensatory lengthening,e.g.uar (older
*6r)<*ogr-; *r6n<*firokn-; suan (*son)<*sopn-, Lat.
somnus,Arm. k'un; by contractiont6<to-uo<to-fo,
 16

o represents-
(«) Id.G. o, e.g. ocht, Lat. octo, Gk. OKTM
; orbe, Lar,
OrbuS, Gk. dpqiavos.
(6) Id.G. u when the following syllable contained a <>rn.
e.g. cZo£/i<*kluton, Lat. in-clutus, Gk. /c/Wos.
(c) sometimes a before a palatal or ^-quality consonant,
e.g.boill (or baill) <*balli; brot <*brattu.
li represents-
(«) Id.G. H, e.g. cul, Lat. r/f//rs ; run, (loth. )-/l;/'r
(6) arises from uu before a syncopated A'owel, e.g. <li>
thracht <* duna = * de-no-.
u represents-
(a) Id.g. ii, e.g. xmth, Skr. xnihih, (!k. in-n'i^: dn/>,
Gk. Ti><£A.o«,
Goth. <litinl>K.
(b) Id.G. o when the following syllable1contained ;' (/) or
u, e.g.mruig<*mrogi-, sude<*sodiio-, mug<*mogu.
(c) Sometimesa before a consonant or consonants with
i- or ?Hniality, e.g.for-cun (Jean), Imlln " ' Imulhi <
balhi.

(d) in rii and lu from Id.G. r, /, e.g.cruim " krnii,

Skr. kriitih, Ijith. h/niii* ; dlui/j<*dlgi.
GLIDES.

32. When an accentedsyllable containinga non-palatal

vowel or diphthong ends in a palatal consonant or con-
sonantalgroup,a palatal glide representedby i is usually
inserted before the consonantor group, e.g. Idim for \iini':
teist for tes^i1;clainde for clan'd'e. Before an (H(nalitv
consonantor group no glide was representedin writing,
but that a glide was pronouncedis shown by Modern Irish
f eAts ceAngd. Before it-qualityconsonants
a glide n was
insertedaftera, c,i (sometimes
an o-glideaftere beforech),
e.g.baull<*ballu; neuchorneoch<*nechu;-biur<*biru.
GLIDES BEFOREVOWELS IN AUSLATT.
33. A palatalglide is usuallyinsertedbetween
a palatal
consonantor consonantsand a rinal a, o, or n, e.g. toim*co
 17

(i.e. s'o) esseirgiu(ylu). In olderMSS.asa rule no glide

is written between a non-palatal consonant and final e or i
although the word must have been pronounced with a non-
palatal glide, e.g. cndmi digle, later cndmai, diglae. In
still later MSS. final -ae becomes -a, and -eo, -ea become e.

THE TRUE DIPHTHONGS.

34. The true Dipthongsare ai (ae),oi (oe),ui, du, do,

eu, e"o,iu. In later MSS. ai and oi appears as ae, oe, and ae
and oe are frequently confused, e.g. ats is also written des,
ots, or 6es.
ai representsId.G. ai, e.g. cdech(caicli), Lat. caecus,
Goth, haihs.

oi represents(a) Id.G. oi, e.g.oin, O.Lat.omo,Gk. oivrj;

mom, Lat. moenia, iniimis.
(b) arises by contraction of o + e and reduction of oue,
e.g. -foimat< -fo-emat; toisecli <*to-uessach, W. tyivysog.
(c) by contraction from ani, eg. goi<*gdnin, con--oi<
con-aid.

ui arises from uni, e.g. drui,<*druui(d)s; ui<*uiiis,

Lat. ouis.

du (later 6) represents-
(a) Id.G. su, e.g. du (6), Lat. auris, Gk. ovara, Goth.
auso, Lith. arisis.
(b) Id.G. 6u, e.g.ddu (later do), Skr. dvau, Lat. cfoo,
Gk. Svw,Id.G. *duou.
(c) arisesby contraction, e.g. -tdu<*-td-u<*staid ; Idu
< *ld-u < Idthu ; also from du before a lost vowel, e.g. o/dtt,
(g6) < *gdua.
iu (eo) arises
(a) by contraction from e + u, e.g. beu, beo, 1st sg. subj.
from *be(s)u.
(b) from eu (olderiu), e.g.be"u,beo(adj.) from *beuas<
*biuos.
(c) in syllables containing e long by compensation,e.g.
B
 18

6un < *etnu. It is also used to represent the Latin lo- in

Euseph = Josephus.
iu arisesby contractionfrom i + u, e.g.-bin<*bi(i)u<
biio ; bin (dat. sg.of adj. b&u)<*biuu.

VOWELS IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES.

35. In original final syllables:

5 becameu, e.g.-bin firu, siur, from *biio, *uirons, or
*uiros.
o *suesor.
/^

e becamez, e.g. athir, mdthir, from *p&ter, *mdter ;

but -f/ie, terminationof 2nd sg.imper.dep.from *-thes.
o, before it dropped, becamea, e.g. in an Ogham inscrip-
tion ; maqua(n)for *maquon.
Final vowels disappeared,e.g. fir, -bered, car, for *uire
or *uiri, *bhereto, *kara. Short vowels beforeconsonants
were also lost, e.g. fer, con, sail for *niros or *uirom,
*kunos, *saliks. Long vowels before original final conson-
ants are retained as short vowels, e.g. firu, -bera, tuatha,
iov*uirus,*bherdt,*teutds. That/er (gen.plur.) remains
instead of *fi.ru is to be explained by the hypothesis that
uirom was shortened to uiron before the case-ending was
lost.

After i, i, or ii the vowels of the final syllable are

retained in a shortened form, e.g. aile, aili, do-gniu, for
*alios or *alia, *do-gmiu<*-gneio.

UNACCENTED VOWELS IN CLOSED SYLLABLES.

36. When an unaccented vowel, no matter what its
origin, stood between two consonants belonging to the
same syllable it appeared in writing:
(a) between two palatal consonantsas i, e.g. berid
(*bhereti),exceptionally
ase, e.g.soirfed.
(b) between
twonon-palatal
consonants
asa, e.g.teglach
from *teg-sl6g ; as-rubart from *as-ru-bert.
(c) between
two w-qualityconsonants
asu, e.g.cumung
(dat. of cumang)from cunwanwgu.
 19

(d) betweena palatal and non-palatalconsonantas e,

e.g. tuirem from *to-r(m.
(e) between a non-palatal and palatal consonant as i
(later ai), e.g.fodil from *fo-ddil, rethit ( = rethait') from
< *retonti.
(/) betweenan jt-qualityand a palatalconsonantas i or
in, e.g. cosmil or cosmuil (//,"- I1).
(g) between a palatal and an w-quality consonant as m,
e.g. imniud dat. sg. of imned.
(h) between an w-qnality and a non-palatal consonant
or vice versa,as o or u, e.g.figor ( figura'), flecliod or
fleuchud ; denom or d^-num; -dgor or -dgur.
In open syllables unaccented vowels were treated
similarly, but the writing varies considerably.
SYNCOPATION.

37. After the vowel of the final syllablehad disappeared,

if > wotd_£ori
_ ta.ined more than
^J~ two syllables,the vowel of the
secondsvJTa
bTqwas |QS^7[^T|jFE^Jw67d~Toi
11ai11cd five or
more syllables, the vowel of the fourth syllable was also lost.
This change takes place in fixed compounds as well as in
simple words and resulted from the position of the accent
which fell primarily on the first syllable and secondarily on
the third and fifth, e.g. dligthech, toimseo, -tomnibther,
for *dligethech, *tomesso, * to-monibither ; similarly in
loan-words, e.g. apstal, epscop, for apostolus, episcopus.
The vowel was retained before cht, e.g. cumaclitacli.
Disyllabic ia became
... e,I e.g.
! no-betis for *no-biatis. When
-
a deuterotonic verbal form become?JrQ^tomfo ,as,ln t^""
cpnjointJe^ojL^i.orimperatiye^jLhQ,.re_s.ulfcanJi..is_.§om
difficult to .....
reGQa;ni'7fi
owing t^p the fact tha±,nnf) fflly dnpH
syncopetake placebut the proclitic prepositionreturns to
its neccnted.formie.g..deuteroton.
an-berrttbecomesprototon.
"epret = ~*ekbrct< ' eks-bhen>nt,cL T.at. efferunt < ec-ferunt ;
deuteroton. do-rochair > prototon. -torcliair < *to-ro-cer.
The absence of syncopation is due to the influence of
another form, e.g. sochumacht as well as sochmacht owing
to the form cumachte. When for some reason the second
 "20

syllable remained unsyncopated the vowel of the third

syllable fell out in a word of four or more syllables, e.g.
cumachtchu for *cumachtachu.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW VOWELS.

38. When through loss of vowels in middle or final syl-

lables a nasal or a liquid came to stand between consonants,
or in auslaut after a consonant, it retained its consonantal
character only (a) when precededby a similar consonantor
n, m after a vowel+ r, I, 3, e.g. do-ar-r-chet<*do-are-
ro-chet, iarn < *isarnon, form < *uper-me, salm <
psalmus, naidm < *naftmn-; (b) when the preceding
consonanthas disappearede.g. air me<* ad-rime (\. S 25 ;)
(c) when the nasals stand before homorganic mediae,
e.g. frecndirc < *frith-comderc-, -fulngid < deuteroton,
fo-longid. In all other cases the nasals and liquids be-
came sonant, and from these sonants arose new vowels,
e.g., domun from *domn < *domnos; ecilse, ecofeo,
from eclse, eclso; arathar from aratlir < *aratron (W.
aradr).
VOWEL-CONTRACTION.

39. If two vowels cametogether in a word which after

syncopation had still more than two syllables, they fre-
quently coalesced,e.g.Idtlior as well as loathar<*loiiatron;
impud, andimpuud< *imb-soud. Alsoin weaklyaccented
disyllabic words contraction may take place, e.g. ddib and
doaib, dib and diib,mo nosyllabic leu as well as U'u ; so
also ds for 6 as, hdlailiu for 6 alailiu.

VOCALISM OF PROCLITIC WORDS.

40. e in anlautof procliticwordsbecomes

a,e.g.as-,a for
accentedform es(s)<*eks; adit<*ektos ; amioremm<
*esmi; a neut.article for *sen. If the word hasa in the
first syllablethe vowelof the secondsyllablechangesto a,
e.g. ala from aile, ata for *ate, la for le. In ocusfor acus
initial a is changed to o through the influence of the
w-quality c. Before a, o, e is often changedto z, e.g.ci
 21

as'bera for ce; lia = le + a ; o before a frequently becomes

u, e.g fu-a for/o-a.
THE CONSONANTS.

41. k (e) and Ch represent-

(a) Id.G. k', q and qu, e.g.cet, W. cant, Lat. centum;
deich, Lat. decem, Goth, taihun, Arm. tasn ; sechithir,
Lat. sequi, Gk. «T«T$GU,
Lith. sekii.
(6) Id.G. kh, e.g.cingid, Skr. khaujnti, O.H.G.hinkan;
scion, Skr. chydti, Lat. sciscere.
(r) e/ii also arises from y + f, e.g. -adit, i-preterite of
«£7«i (Jag), Lat. agere; from p + £, e.g. sec/z£Lat.
aeptem, Gk. eTrra.
g1(g1,C) and T (g1)represent-
(a) Id.G. {/ and g, e.g. gndth, Gk. yvwros,Skr. jdndti;
teg, Lat. tegere, Gk. reyos.
(6) Id.G. fir7i,g/i, and g"/i, e.g. gaimred, Lat. hieum,
Gk. X««MWI',
Skr. hinid : cum-ung, Lat. angere, Gk. ayx"1')
Goth, aggvus,(*Jang'h) ; guirid, Lat. formus, Gk. ^ep/xos,
t and th represent-
(a) Id.G. i (and Europ. £= Skr. </i), e.g. £ri", Lat. ires,
Gk. rpfis, Skr. trayah ; roi/i, Lat. ro£a, Lith. rdtas, Skr.
rathah.
(b) Id.G. ?7i, e.g. -^e (termination of 2nd sg. imper.
Dep.), Skr. -thdh, Gk. -6^ (]).
(c) Id.G. )?,e.g. art, Lat. ursus, Gk. ap/cros,Skr. rkshah.
(d) t also arisesfrom d + h, e.g. intamil<*md-samil,
int afhir<*ind.s athir<*sindos atfr.
d (d, t) and D (d) represent-
(a) Id.G. rf, e.g. daur, Gk. 8pi"s,Skr. ddru; saidid,
sinde, Lat. sedere, Gk. e'Sos,Skr. sddah.
(b) Id.G. rZ/;, e.g. denait, del, Gk. $??/V//,Lat. filius
<*felius, O.H.G. tila: mid, Skr. mddhu, Gk. /xe^v.
(c) d (written t) also arises from -nt, e.g. de'£,c^f, and
from t in proclitic words v. §. 25.
 (d) S (written d) represents Id.G. z before g and b :
with a followingd it combinesto fonn dd (written t), e.g.
Tadc (i.e. Taftg), medg, Med. Lat. niesga ; odb, Gk. OO-</H'S
;
we£, O.H.G. nes£, Arm. nist.
P arises from an older b which through syncopation
comes to stand before lenited s (= h), e.g. impude for
*imb-sude ; impti for *wn& sit. Id.G. _p in anlaut and
between vowels has disappeared,e.g. athir, Lat. pater,
Gk. irari'ip; lethan, Gk. w-Aar?'?,Lith. platiis ; tee, Skr.
tcipant-, Lat. tepere ; fo < uo < upo, Gk. ITTO. sp and sp/f
in anlaut are treated like SH; they appearas s, lenited to
/ (ph), e.g. sine, bd tri-phne, Lith. spenys, O.H.G. spunni;
seir, di pherid, (*spher-), Skr. sphnrdmi, Gk. vfyvpov;
se^(/(spleen)<*spelg'hd, Gk. o-TrA^f,cr7rAayxi/a ! Id.G. rp,
Ip, mp, became rr, II, mm, e.g. serr, Lat. sarpo, Gk. apTT-rj,
Lett, sirpe ; -tella, -talla, Lith. telpu ; camni, Gk. KO.JJL-,],
Goth, hamfs. Initial ^> in, Irish only occurs in loan-words.
The stages of the reduction of Id.G. p are p>ph (i.e.
p + h)>pf>f>h>null. In the Germanic languages it
reached the fourth stage, in anlaut, cf. English father.
b (written b, p) and |3 (written b) represent-
(«) Id.G. b, e.g. ibid, Skr. pibati; sliab, Eng. slip.
(b) Id.G. bh, e.g.biru, Gk. ^epw,Lat./ero, Skr. bhardini,
O.H.G. birti ; imbliu, Gk. o^^aAds Skr. nabhih.
(c) Id.G g", e.g.6^t, 6^0,Lat. vivus,Lith. gyvas,Goth.
QM/S,Arm. kea-; imb (butter), Lat. unguen, Skr. aiij.
O.H.G.ancho,Pruss.anktan,Arm. auc-fromJ any".
(d) (3arisesfrom u after r, Z,?z,t5,e.g.tarb<*taruos ;
selb, W. /le^w;; banb, W. banw ; fedb (i.e. /e5u) from
*uidua : fromm + M,e.g.cubusfrom *com-^issus; cobodlus
from *com-fo-ddlus.
(e) /3 (b) sometimesrepresents-sw-of the syo-futurein
inlaut after s, always as final, e.g. do-nesbe, -leiciub; cf.
also tinib 3rd sg. subj. of do-in-fet (i.e. do-in-suet).
f represents-
(a) in absoluteanlaut Id,G. u, e.g.fer, Lat. twr ; fir,
Lat. uerus.
 23'

(6) arises from lenited sn, e.g. mofiur (absolutesiur)

tinfed ( J sued).
(c) sometimes is written for 6 (i.e. (3) in inlaut and
auslaut, e.g. Belzefutli, graif (from Lat. gravis).
n and v represent -
(a) Id.G-.n, e.g. mite, nuae, Skr. ndvyah,Lith. ndujas,
Arm, nor <*novros ; sen, W. hen, Lat. senis, Gk. eVr?(in
fvr) Kal vea),Lith. ssnas, Skr. sdunli.
(b) Id.G. final -m, e.g. sceln<* sketlon.
(c) original m in compounds before d, e.g. condelc
< *comdelc.
m and H-(i.e. nasalu or u), both written HI, represent-
(a) Id.G. m, e.g. mdihir, Lat. mater, Gk. /i/yr^p ; dam,
Skr. ddmyati, Gk. Sa^dfa, Lat. domare.
(b) m arises out of another nasal before 6 (without
syncopation), e.g. zmft (butter), from ~"inb, imbiuth for *m
biuth.
(c) m arises from Keltic 6 before ??,e.g. slemon from
*slibno-, domun from dubno-, cf. Gaulish Dubnorex ; mnd
(gen. sg. and nom. pi. of ben) for *bnds.
n (written n) arises-
(a) from Id.G. n only before Keltic g, e.g. ingen, Lat.
unguis.
(b) from another nasal before g, e.g. congnam for *CO?H-

P and p (both written f) represent-

(a) Id.G. r, e.g. rogid, Lat. regere, Gk. opeyeu'; carid,
Lat. car us, Lett. ArTr.s.
(6) arises out of Zby dissimilation, e.g. araile as well as

(c) sometimes in unaccented syllables from Id.G. z be-

fore g, e.g.dtbirciud from do-bidci (i.e. do-bi^gi).
1 and X (both written 1) represent Id.G. Z,e.g. ligid, Lat.
lingere, Gk. Aei'x«i', Goth, bi-laigon ; melid Gk. /UI'AT;,
Lat. moZere, Goth, malan.
S represents Id.G. s, e.g. sruth, Skr. srdvati ; snechte,
Lat. wu-, Goth, snaiics, 0. SI. snegii ; is Lat. es£, Gk.
¬CTTt,
&C.
 '24

II.-THE ARTICLE.
42. The article has for its foundation a demonstrative
*sen to which, except in the nom. and ace.sg. neuter and
originally probably in the nom. and ace. plural, is added
the Id.G. pronominal stem to-, td-, found in Gk. TO,OV-TOS,
Lat. is-ta, Eng. that. The following is a hypothetical
paradigm of the Proto-Keltic forms :-
Singular.
masc. fern. neut.
N. sen-tos sen-td sen
G. sen-ti sen-ids sen-ti
D. sen-td sen-td sen-td
A. sen-ton sen-tan sen
Plural.
masc. fern. neut.
N. sen-ti sen-tds (seiia)
G. sen-ton sen-ton sen-ton
D. sen-tobis sen-tdbis sen-tobis
A. sen-tos sen-tds (sena)
In accordance with the laws of phonetic change in
proclitic words (v. §§24, 40.) the above forms would give
rise in prehistoric Old Irish to the following :-
Singular.
masc. fern. neut.
N. Hindus sinda san
G. sindi sindds *indi
D. sindu sinda sindu
A. sindan xiuddn san
In the plural the fern, forms oustedthe neut. as they
eventually did the masc.also except the nom. so that the
paradigm is reduced to-
masc. fern, and neut.
N. sindi sindds

G. sindan
D. sindaib
A. sindds.
With the lossof initial s (v. § 24)and the case-endings,
and the assimilation nn<nd this gives in the Old Irish
period-
 25

Singular.
masc. fern. neut.
AT " " j. /i c find', in. int\ n
N. in, int (bef. vowels) /,' , !\ r a
G. ind', in, int (bef. s) inna9, no? as in masc.
D. -(s)ind\ -(s)in,
' -(s)-int(bef.s) asin masc. asin masc.
A. in11,-sin" inn, -sin11 -an, -san
Plural.
masc. fern and nent.

N. ind', iri, int (bef. s) innaff, nag

all genders.
G. innan, nan
D. xmn'6, naib
A. innag, na9, -sna0.
43^ In the dual the article has always the form in.
In the above paradigm-', -ff, - ", indicate respectively
aspiration (lenition), gemination, or nasalization of the
initial consonant of the following word. The t of int
represents the unvoicing of the d of ind produced by a
following A-sound, i.e. s either of the original ending -os or
in the lenited anlaut of the succeeding word, thus : nom.
masc. *sindas atir>*ind(a)s athir>*indh athir>int
athir ; gen. masc. *sindi soni > *ind suin > int suin
(i.e. suin); nom. fern. *sinda soilse>*ind soilse> int
soilse (i.e. soilse). For aspiration (lenition), nasaliza-
tion and gemination after the article v. §§ 14A, ISA, 16A,
The initial s of the article is retained in the dat. and
ace.sg. and plur. after prepositions which originally ended
in a consonant,viz. a, co (with), fri, i, iar, la, re, tar, tri :
also after co (to) and sometimesafter for : e.g. asin, asnaib
<*ess sentli, *ess sentobis; isin, isa<*in sentu or sentan,
*in sen. *Sindaib*sindas (dat.and ace.pi.) aresyncopated
to snaib, sna, and after prepositions ending in a vowel the
initial si- are lost, e.g.don, din, 6naib,for do, di +*sindu,
6 *smdaib. In Old Irish of the 2ndstage(v. Introduction)
-nd- is sometimes retained, e.g. inda, dundaib. The d of
the article is retained before lenited I, r, n, a vowel or
lenited/, e.g. indlibuir (gen. masc.),ind ingen, indflaith
(noms. fern.)
 26

44. The neuter form of the article an, an is used as a

relative e.g. an asbiur = ' what I say,'arrupredchad<*an
ru-predcliad= 'what has beenpreached.' It is alsoused
with ar, co,di, 6 (hua) to form conjunctions,
viz. aran, co11
( = co+ an), dia'\ h6'\ huan, e.g. arambiat<*ar-an-biat,
combin < con-bin, diambad ; used alonebefore a nasalizing
relative sentence it means 'when,' e.g. an no-n-derbid
when you prove.'

THE ARTICLE WITH DEMONSTRATIVES.

45. The deictic particle -i, found in Gk. OVTOS-I,

Lat.
qui = *guo + i, is compounded with various forms of the
article to form demonstrative pronouns ; thus masc. nom.
inti, gen. indt or indlii, fern. nom. indl or indhi, gen.
innahi, neut. nom. ani, com. gen. pi. innani, <fec. Before
a relative verb the forms mean'he, shewho, that which,'
&c. ; before a proper name inti= the aforementioned,' e..n'.
intt Moysi, forsinni Dauid : note especially the use of the
neuter, e.g. ani as mane= 'that which is mane,'i.e. the
word 'mane.'

46. The article is used demonstratively in conjunction

with
' the particles so(sa)= ' here', sm = 'there', tall =
yonder' (lit. ' on the other side'), ucut = ' yonder' (lit. ' at
thee'), tuas= above'; so(sa) usuallybecomesse,seo,sea
after a word ending in a palatal consonant,e.g. in fer so
(/<??"")
ind fir se (fir1) in fer tall, in fer ucut, in ri tun*
(for the constructioncf. the French cet homme-ci,cet
homme-la). The above demonstrative may be further
emphasizedby the introduction of the particle -i, e.g. in fer
isiu (i + so),infer isin, infer itliall.

III.-THE NOUN.

47. Thereare three gendersof nouns-masculine,femi-

nine, and neuter ; three numbers-singular, dual, and
plural ; and five cases-nominative, genitive, dative, accu-
sative, and vocative. The dual is only employed after the
numeral da (di). The gen. and dat. sg. of some stems
were originally locative or instrumental, and the dat. pi. of
all stems is derived from the Id.Gr. instrumental. In dim
<*kuennei or *kuennoi= 'at the end of,' the old locative
is retained distinct from the dat. ciunn. In neuter nouns
the nom. ace. and voc. have the same form. In the dual
of all genders the nom. and ace. are the same and the voc.
is lost. Only the masc. -o- stems retain a voc. sg. distinct
from the nom. sg. and, with the exception of nasal stems,
the dat. and ace. sg. of fern, nouns have the same form.

48. For purposes of declension the nouns are divided

into two groups, viz- vocalic stems and consonantal stems.

A.-VOCALIC STEMS.

1. -o- stems. Masculine and neuter.

The Id.G. case-endings for N.G-.D.A.V. of -o- and -to-

ems are as follows :-
Sin g. Dual Plural
niasc. neut. masc. neut. masc. neut.

\-ou
N. -OS -om -01 -OS -a.
(-0
G. -0-sio 1 1 -dm
D. -oi -bhem -obh-
A. -om -om -ons -a
V. -e -om as nom. as nom.

Prehistoric Irish case-endings of -o- and to- stems :

Sing. Dual Plural
masc. iieut. masc. & neut. masc. neut.
N. -as -an -U -i -a
G. -i -i -U Illl -an
D. -U -u -abin -obis -abis
A. -an -an -u -us -a
V. -i < -e -an -u -a

49. Examplesof Old Irish declension; masc.fer, 'man';

neut. dliged, ' law.' (As in the paradigmof the article
-', -", denote aspiration or nasalization of the succeeding
anlaut.)
 28

Sing. Dual Plural

masc. neut. masc. neut. niasc. neut.
I dliged'
N. fer dliged11
/er dliged'1 fir< \dligeda
G. fir' dligid' fer' dliged11 fer'1 dliged'1
D. fiur dligud' feraib11 dligedaib11feraib dligedaib
I dliged'
A. fer11dliged11
fer' dliged11 firu (dligeda
V. fir' dliged11 firu not found
Nouns whose final syllable has e by compensatory leng-
thening form their gens.sg. in -friil, -eoil, or fuil: e.g. seel,
gen. sc&uil or sceoil; nel, gen. niuil. Short e is sometimes
retained in the gen. sg. side by side with infecting -i;
e.g. neirt, eich. In the dat. sg. -w-infection is not always
found; e.g. mace, salm, corp, bds : in such casesthe dat.
does not differ from the nom. in form. Sometimes the -it-
displaces the root vowel; e.g. son, ball, crann, dat. sg. sun,
bull or baull, crunn: ech makes dat. eoch, ace. pi. eochu
(v. § 32); iasc, fiach, Diet make gen. sg. and nom. pi.
eisc, f^ich, De, but biad, diall (disyllabic) make gen.
and dat. sg. biid, bind, diill, diiill; demun has nom.
pi. demnaethrough the influenceof Lat. daemoiiia (Thurn).
Some neut. nouns in -ch form plurals like s-stems, e.g.
tossach, nom. pi. tosge ; cuimrech, dat. pi. cuiiurigib.

-io- stems.

50. Examples: masc.cele, companion' neut. cride,

'heart.'
Sing. Dual Plural
masc. neut. masc. neut. masc. neut.
N. cele cride'1 cele '"ride11 cell cride
G. celi' i-i'idi' cele criden cele11 cride11
D. celiu' cridiu' celib'1 cridilt'1 celib cridib
A. cele11 cride11 cele cride11 celiu cride
V. celi' cride11 celiu cride
In nouns with non-palatal groups of consonantsthe dat.
sg. endsin -u instead of -iu, e.g. daltu, cumachtu, from
daltae, cumachtae, and in later MSS. their ending -ae is
 29

frequently written -a. Dnini occurs a few times for

duinin. The following nouns are irregular : duine, plur.
N.A.Y. doini, G. doine, D. doinib; Indldc, plur. G.
Jtt«V, T>.ludeib or ludeib, A.V. ludeu or ludc/n : lathe
has also the shorter forms N.A. sg. Zae, Zd«, G. Zfn, D. Zdu,
Zao, /<!», /u, N.G.A. pi. /oe, fci D. laib. The -/o- stems
had the same case-endings as the -o- stems but they are
distinguished from the latter by the retention of weakened
forms of the endings in all cases of all numbers whereas in
the -o- stems traces of the endings are found only in the
A.V. pi. masc. and dat. pi. and dual masc. and neut.
This is due to the -/- of the stem : thus *uiros givesfer,
but *keglw8> cele ; *dligeti, *dligetu> dligid, tlli/jud,
but *k'ridu, *k'ridid>cridi, cridiu.
51. The declension of -o- and -io- stems varies from the
original Id.G. in the following particulars : the dat. sg. in
-u e.g. *firu, c4liu is probably the Id.G. instrumental case
in -o; the gen. sg. masc. and neut. in -7, common to
Italic and Keltic, is probably the Id.G. locative; the nom.
pi. masc. in -i<-oi instead of Id.G. -os has, like Gk.
and Lat,, been influenced by the pronominal declension, but
the genuine nom. pi. is retained as a vocative, e.g. Jim
from *uiros. The dual N.A. masc. should regularly have
given fiur < *firu < *uiro or *uirou, but the influence of
the invariably accompanying da probably changed the -o to
-d and prevented it from becoming-u; thus del *uird ^
dd fer. The dual N.A. neut. causing nasalization instead
of aspiration show variation from the Id.G. vocalic ending.
3. -d- and -id- stems. Feminines.

52. Id.G. and prehistoric Old Irish case-endings.

Sing. Dual Plural.
Id.G. Pr.O.Ir. Icl.CJ. Pr.O.Ir. Id.G. Pr.O.Ir.
N. -d -d -ai -ei, -i -as -d*
G. -as -as, -es 1 -am, -an
D. -di -di, -ei, -i 1 -dbis, -idbis
A. -dm -an, en, -in -ai -ei, i -as, ~an$ -os-
V. -a -a -as -as
 30

Example
of the declension
of -a-stems,tuath 'people.'
Sing. Dual Plural
N. tuath' tuaith tuatha
G. tuaithe tuath tuath'1
D. tuaith' tiiathaib tiiathaib
A. tiiaith11 tuaith tuatha
V. tuath' tuatha
The noun ben ' woman' is declined : N.V. sg. ben,
G. mnd < *bnd, D. mndi < *bndi, A. mndi < *bndun ;
dual N.A. mndi < *bndi, G. ban, I), mndib < *bndib ;
plur. N.A.V. mnd < *bnd, G. ban, D. iirndib < *bndif>.
This is the only noun in which the declension follows the
original case-endings
of the -a- stems(except in the ace.
sg.) ; all other nounsof this declensionhave beeninfluenced
by the -z-, ie- stems. Nouns in -acht do not undergo
palatalization, e.g. d6inacht, G.sg. ddinachtae, D.sg. d6i-
nacht, A.sg. ddinachtrt. In verbal nouns the dat. sg. form
is often used for the nom., e.g. gabdl or gabdil, both or
buith, breth or brith. Some nouns in the sing, alternate
between the -a- and the -n- declension, e.g. bendacht-
G.sg. bendachtae or bendachtan; fortacht, A.sg. fortach,
tain as well as fortacht : persan, G.sg. persine makes
N.pl. persin.
53. Examplesof -id- stems: guide, 'prayer' ; bliadain,
'year.'
Sing. Dual Plural
N.V. guide' bliadain guidi' bliadain guidi bliadntii
G. guide bliadnae guide11 bliadnaen guide"11bliadnaen
D. guidi' bliadnai' guidib bliadnaib guidib bliadnaib
A. guidin bliadnai11 guidi bliadain guidi bliadnai
Like guide are declined soilse, ungae; like bliadain,
adaig G.sg. aidche, se'tig G.sg. seitche. Some nouns inflect
the G.D. and A.sg. like -i- stems,e.g. inis, G. inse, inseo,
D.A. insi and inis : others follows this declension only in
the G.sg.,e.g.m£it, G. incite, D. m6it; candin,G. can6ne,
D. candin. Nounsof the type of bliadain hadin the N.sg.
the ending in -i-; thus Id.G. bhrg'hntT, fern, of bhrg'hont-
'exalted'= O.Ir. Brigit (i.e. 'exalted lady') = Skr. brhatl.
In the N.A. dual they have the sameform as the N.sg. from
the influenceof the -i- stems. In the N.V. plur. all nouns of
 31

this declension have adopted the termination of the -i- stems.

4. -i- stems. All three genders.
54. Id.G. and prehistoric Old Irish case-endings:
Sing. Dual Plural
in.&f. neut. m.&f. neut. m.&f. neut.

N. -is, -is -i, -i -i, -i -i, -i e/e.i, -i -ia, -e

G. -zY-os,
-ifIN -iom(-eiom)-en
D. -ii-ai, -e -ibh-, -ibis
A. -IJH,-in -i, -i -ins(-is),-i -ia, -e
Examples of -i- stems : masc. cndim, 'bone'; fern, mi//,
'eye'; neut.muir 'sea.'
Sing. Plural
masc. fern. neut. masc. feni. neut.
N.V. cndim xt'til ninir11 cndmai sia'li inuire
G. cndmo, -a sido, -a moro, -a cndmae11sidle11muiren
D. cndim' suiV nniir' cndmaib xitilib inuirib
A. cndimn suiln muir11 cndmai si'iili inuire
Dual
masc. fern. neut.
N.A.V. end im suil muirn
G. as sg. as sg. as sg.
D. as pi. as pi. as pi.
Deviations from the original Id.G. declension :
the N.A. neut. cause nasalization from the analogy of the
-o- and -n- stems ; the G. in -o (later -a) is borrowed from
the -u- stems, the G. in -ias being found in Ogham inscrip-
tions. Nouns like fraig, graig make gens, frega, grega;
biail makes its G. b£la ; loanwords like abbgitir, textiun'n,
stoir, posit, comparit, superlait, dig aim show no ending
in the G.sg.
5. -u- stems. Masculine and neuter.

55. Id.G. and prehistoric Old Irish case-ending:

Sing. Dual Plural
masc. neut. masc. neut. masc. neut.
N.V. -us, -us -u, -u -u, -u -i, -i -cues, ones -nd
G f-e«s, ? -voni,
{-ous,-os -ubh-,-ouobis
D. -enai, -eu -blie"m,-bin
A. -um, -un -u, -u -u, -u -i, -i -uns, -us -us
 Plural.
N. nathraig airig rig
G. nathrach11 airech'1 rig11
D. nathrachaib airechaib rigaib
A. nathracha airecha riga
Dual.
N.A. nathraig', nathir airig' rig'
G. nathrach airech rig
D. nathrachaib airechaib rigaib
The -g of rig hasa-quality inG.sg., pi. and dual, i-quality
in D.A.sg. and N.pl. and dual.
Like nathir are declined cathir, ' city' ; the proper
name Lug aid, G. Luigdech (Ogham Lugudeccas) ; nail,
'willow,' G. fiailech : like aire, the proper name Ainmire,
G. Ainmirech ; are, 'temple,' G. arach; later alsomalae,i.
eyebrow,' G. malach, pl.D. mailgib : also the following
nouns ending in -u or -o, the proper names Cuanu, G.
Cuanach; Eochu, G. Echach; ceu (ceo) m. 'mist,' G.
ciach; 6u(eo), m. 'salmon'(du<*esoh<*esdks),G. iach :
like ri, but with a shortvowel,bri 'hill,' G. breg, D. brig ;
tru 'one doomed,'pi.N.troich, G. troch, A. trocha.
Many nouns whose N.sg. ends in -r or -Z have been
attracted to this declension ; thus Temuir 'Tara,' ail f.
'rock,' daur (later dair) 'oak' have G. Temro,alo, daro,
but later also Temrach, ailech, darach ; even the ?--stem
uasal-athir 'Patriarch' has D.pl. huasalathrachaib Wb.
30 d 1. The noun lie m. 'stone' is a stem in unlenited c
(i.e. gg), G. liac, D.A.sg.,N.pl.Uric (later liic). A.pl. leca,
Stems in a lenited dental (th, d).
58. Masc.andfern.only. Examples:'traig f. 'toot'fili
'poet'; tengae f. 'tongue.' (Pr.-Kelt. forms of noms.sg.
uncertain owing to analogicalchanges).
Singular.
N. traig fili tengae
G. traiged filed tengad
D. traig id', traig' filid' tengaid'
A. traigid'1, traig'1 filid" tengaid"
V. traig' fili' tengae'
 35

Plural.
N. traiyid fi/id teiiyaid
G. tniiyed" filed" temjad"
I). traigthib filedaib teuythaib
A. traigthea fileda tenytha
Dual
N.A. traiyid filid tenyaid
G. traiyed" filed" tenyad"
1). traigthib jiledaib tenythaib
Like traiy are declined :-
"cm,m. 'fault' D.A. rintiid andcin, D.pl. cintaib, A. cinta.
ciny, m. 'warrior/ G. cinyed, cimjeth.
mil, m. 'soldier,'G. mlled, D.pl. mlledaib.
ap, abb, m. 'abbot.'G. apad, D.pl. apthaib.
sui, 'sage,'and rf?-ut'druid,' makeG. mad, druad.
cr£ f. 'clay' and de i. 'smoke,'makeG. criad, diad.
luch, f. 'mouse'makesG. lochad,D.A. lochaid,A.pl.lochthu.
Like fili is declinedot'yi,deyt m., 'guest,'G. otyed,A.jil.
Like tenyaearedeclineda.scoem.,'rival,' G. ancad,D.pl.
ascadaib; tene m. and f. 'tire,' G. tened,D. /r///V/and ^en
(i.e. fern) D.pl. teintib ; niae m. 'nephew,'G. 7»'«rf(Ogham
niotta<*nepotas) (nio 'champion,'G. nioth is probably
the sameword) ; in later exampleslike leine f. smock,'
and seichef. 'hide,' the old -e and -i endings are no longer
distinguishable. To this declension belong also abstract
nouns in -tu<*-tuts e.g. ointu, oitin, bethu ; similarly.
bibdu m. 'guilty person,' coimmdin m. 'lord,' G. bibdad,
coimmded.

Stems in -t (i.e. -dd<*-nt). masc.and neut.

59. Examples: carae (*karants) m. 'friend'; fiche
(*uikents) m. 'twenty'; det (*dent<*dnt) n. 'tooth.'
Singular.
N. carae ficlie det"
G. carat fichet det
D. carait' fichit' deit'
A. carait'1 fichit'1 det'1
V. carae'
 36

Plural.
N. carait fichit det (later deta}
G. carat11 fichet'1 detn
D. cairtib, -dib fichtib detaib
A. cairtea, -dea ficlitea det (later deta)
V. cairtea, -dea
Dual.

N.A. carait fichit detn

G. carat fichet det
D. cairtib, -dili fichtib detail
Like carae are declined ndmae 'enemy,' brdgae 'neck,
and fiada 'lord' with -a in N.; like fiche, ainmne 'patience'
and dhin (*denonts) 'lamb' with -u in N.: tricha (pro-
bably older trichae) 'thirty,' coica 'fifty,'and sechtmogo
'seventy,' G. sechtmogat also belong to this declension;
like det is declinedlochet, li'tchat 'lightning,' G. lochet.
The nasalization in sg. N.A. of neuters is analogical.
Stems in lem'ted -n.

60. Masc. and fern. only.

Examples: britlie-mm. 'judge'; toimtiu f. 'meaning';
CM m. hound.'
Singular.
N. brithem toimtiu cu
G. brithemon, -mini toimten con
D. brithemain, brithem toimtin', -te,-tin coin
A. brithemain11 toimtin'\-tiu
V. brithem
Plural.
N. brithemain toimtin coin
G. brithemon",-mini" toiniten" con"
D. brithemnaib toimtenaib conaib
A. brithemna toimtena cona
Dual.
N.A. brithemain coin
G. brithemon,-mun con
D. brithemnaib conaib
 37

Like brithem are declined nouns in -em and -am, e.g.

suanem m. ' rope,'talam m. earth' ' ; also, with -it-quality
of the final consonant, escung L eel,' G. escongan, the
propernameMiliucc, G. Milcon, brdu (brdo, brd) ' quern,'
and in -e menmae m. ' mind,' G. menman; like toimtiu
noidiu m. ' child,' fiadu 'witness,' Mumu f. 'Minister'
genitiu f. ' genitive ' makes N.pl. genitne.
Stems in unlenited -n (-nn).
61. All genders. Examples: gobae m. 'smith ' ; Eriu f.
* Ireland ' ; ceim (*kingsmn} n. step.'

Singular.
N. gobae Eriu
G. gobann Erenn c4imme
I). gobainn Erinn ce"imin/nini ceimm
A. gobainn11 Erinnn
Plural.

X. gobainn cdimmen
G. gobann11
I), (gobannaib) (cSimmenaib)
A. (gobanna) cdimmen
Dual.

N.A. gobainn
G. gobann (c&mmen)
D (gobannaib) (<"<'"!
inmenaib)
Like gobae but with -u in N.sg. are declined dru f.
' kidney,' oblu f. 'consecratedhost,' and proper namesas
Ami, Ciialu ; like Eriu, iriu f. 'land,' D. irinn or ire;
bni (*brusu) f. ' womb ' makes G. bronn, D. broinn or
bni; retglii 'star,' G. retglann, dual di re~tglainn,D.pl,
retglannaib. In fern, nouns the D. form in-e is sometimes
used instead of the N. e.g.dtte 'flood' for dlliu. The
neuters form their D.sg. in imm instead of inn under the
assimilatinginfluenceof the preceding-??;-(-mm-}; that the
-mm is confined to the D.sg. is due to Pre-Celtic differences
of accentuation (Marstrander. Eriu, Vol. V.), thus
anmaimm<.*'nmeni but N. pi. anmann<*nmna; the
 38

changeof -inn to iviin is confined to neuter nouns because

by far the greater number of stems in -men are neuter.
The noun awnim n. 'name ' follows the inflexion in the pi.
but varies in the sing. G. mime, D.A. aiiininim and rniinani/:
arbor (arbur) n. 'corn ' is an r-stem in N.A. sg.,but in the
other cases it is declined as an ?j-stem, G. arbae, D.
arbaimm, d. Lat. femur, femini».
r- stems.

62. Nounsof relationship only. Example: athir (*pater)

m. 'father.'
Sing. Plural Dual
N. ath'~'ir u'thir N.A. atifir
G. athnr aithre"', atli >""<"'' athar
D. ath"ir' aithrib, athr"ib as in pi.
A. athairH aithrea, athra
V. atlfir
Like athir are declined brdthir 'brother' and mdthir
' mother'; the -th- has«-qualityall through the sg.,in the
pi. it has usually /-quality but sometimes also f/-quality as
in athra: shir (*suesor) f. ' sister,' with lenited anlaut
fiur m phiur (i.e. sviur), makes G. sethar, D.A. sieir, N/CT
(later siair), N-pl. sethir, D. (later) sethraib, A. (later)
sethracha after the analogy of cathracha, dual N.A. as in
D. sg.
Neuter s- stems.

63. Example: tech (*tegas) 'house.'

Sing. Plural Dual
N.A. techn (tegn) tige tech"
G. tige (taige) tige'1 tit/c
D. taig' (tig) tigib tigilt
The irregular G.D. sg. taige, taig beside tige, tig are
probably due to the analogyof maige, maig. The nasa-
lization in N.A. sg.and dual is analogical.
Like tech are declined :
may 'plain,'G.maige,D. maig,muig.
leth 'side,' G. lethe, D. leith.
Similarly glenn 'valley,' G. glinne, D. ylinn ;
 39

'mountain,' G. sleibe, D. sleib ; nem 'heaven,' G. nime,

D. nim; og 'egg,' G. ugae,I), uiy :' cm (i>) ear,'G. aue,
D. of, 6e, D. pi. auib ; probably also clu ' fame,' G. (later)
clua < *clnae.
IRREGULAR NOUNS.

64. mi(*mens) m. 'month,' G. D. A. sg., N. G. pi. mi*,

A. pi. mtfta, dual N.A. mi. bo (*bous) f. 'cow,' G. b6
(archaicbou),D.A. boin,N. pi. bat, G. 60(6aoS.G.22611),
D. buaib,A. 6«, du. N.A. 6ai G.D. as pi. (dia) 'day,' G.
dm, A. f/ei, rfe. Jndeclinable are toyit, rot/u, uccu, and
foreign names as Isu, Patrice.

FORMATION or ABSTRACTS AND DIMINUTIVES.

A
65. From adjectives :
(a) suffix -e<-iid (cf. Lat. memor-ia), e.g. dian swift,
dene'swiftness' ;fdilid,-ith 'joyous,'fdilte< ~fdilith-e joy.'
(b) suffix -tut- (cf. Lat. iuuentut-, Goth. mikil-du]>s),
e.g. beo 'living,' bethu 'life'; sldn 'healthy,' shoitn
' health.'
(c) suffix -us<-es-tu-, e.g. &tnf?.'melodious,' bhidius
'melody'; cosmuil'similar,' cowu'liiiH'similarity.'
(d) suffix -s<-sta added to monosyllabic adjectives in
-th, -d, e.g. gnutli 'customary,' gnus custom'; galth
'wise,' gats ' wisdom ' (-th + s = -sswritten -.s).
B
From substantives :

(a) suffix -acht, -echt<-akta, -ikta (cf. Lat. sen-ecta),

e.g. dia, God,' deacht ' divinity'; fili (G. filed) 'poet,'
filedacht ' poetry'; doini pi. ' men,'dolneclit and doinacht
' humanity.'
(6) suffix -os -es<-oss?(,
e.g.oclach'a youth,' dclachas
' youth ' ; anamcharae ' confessor,'anamchairtes.
(c) suffix -me, -sine<-Tnia, -fttTnfa, e.g. carae friend,'
cairddine 'friendship'; /rhY/i ' prophet,'fdithftine 'pro-
phecy';ambthine<*anboth-ine 'storm' in collectivesense.
 40

(d) suffix-red, -rad< >/ reth- ' to run,' as collective, e.g.

cdg 'ice,' aigred; luaith 'ashes,' luaithred; gaim-red
winter-time,' sa/m-rud summer-time '; as abstract, e.g.
mrecht 'variegated,' mrechtrad; carae, caratrad. This
suffix probably spread by analogy from words like ind-red
'invasion,' ech-rad'stud of horses,'in whichit hadetymo-
logical significance. '
(e) suffix -id, -thid, in nouns of agency,e.g. digal ven-

geance,'
' diglaid 'avenger'; dined 'defiling,' elnithid
defiler '; the -thid thus arising from -d (-8) +-id is also
used as a suffix, e.g. foglaimm ' learning,' foglimthid
*
learner.'

(/) ' suffix -em, e.g. breth 'judgment,'brithem 'judge';

duil creation,' diiilem ' creator.'
(g) the Lat. suffix -drius which appearsin early loan-
words as -ire and in later as 6ir, e.g. notire (notarius),
laitndir (latinarius), is employedto form nouns of agency
from native words : e.g. techt ' going,' techtaire ' mes-
senger'; fochell 'care,' foichleoir 'curator': the suffix
-tdir, -atdir is also used after the analogy of loan-words
(e.g.preceptdir, senatdir); e.g. lub-gort 'garden,' lubgar-
t6ir ' gardener.'
DIMINUTIVES.

(a) suffix -dn<-akno (ogham-agno in Corbagni,ivc.),

e.g. fer man ' ferdn ; duine, duindn : also -can in Isucdn,
rj-rrler/m rli^^^f., .Ifiaup^,];]d gj'/r/P JTigart,
'
(fe) suffix -e"n<-ikno,and -ene: e.g. duinen; claideb
'sword,' claidbdne; lair 'mare,' lair ene.
(c) suffix-at<-nt: siur 'sister,' siur-n-at; ti'r 'land,'
tir-th-at 'little field '; cenn'head,' cen-t-at'capitulum.'

USE OF THE CASES.

66. The genitive is used:

(a) adjectivally; possessive, e.g. ammi dee ' we are

God's'; qualitative, e.g. is meite ' it is of importance' ;

 41

objective,e.g. sere de ' love towardsGod'; G. of respect,

essaminprecepte'fearlessasregards '
preaching.' '
(6) adverbially: of time, cene so long as ' (N. cian a
long time ') ; (h)6re 'because' (N. uar 'hour.')
The dative is used :
(o) after the preps,a, co", di, do,ficid, iar, fe,6 ; oc.6s,
re and after ar, fo, for, i, which take the A. also.

Without a preposition.
(6) as instrumental: e.g. in chruth .so' in this manner,'
hiKU'tiib '&ttimes,'sen-messib'accordingto old standards,'
leh- inynii ' with diligent science' ; in apposition, tu.^n
tli-oenitr ' thou alone' (lit. ' thou in thy one-man'), lie-som
trinns 'he as third,' (for adverbialuse v. S7s).
(c) as ablative: after comparatives,e.g. lin c///.sno
thriiir ' more than two or three persons.'
(d) as locative: «iu 'here,' cinn 'at the end of; of
time, indiu 'to-day,' uid-crht-w 'this time'; possiblyalso
in the stereotyped phrases fris-cuirethar ceill cultivates,'
(U'-heir liii'th partakes of,' ar-muinethar feid 'honours.'
The accusative is used :

(o) after the preps, ceu, cciunHhd, co ('to'), echtar,

sechtar, etctf.fri, i»i. In. NCC/I,fin; li'i, and after ar, fo,
for, i, which also take the dative.

Without a preposition.
(6) as object to a vei'b ; also after verbs of motion as
indicating the goal, e.g. tingait baas ' they go to death,'
a mbc'istiagme-ni ' the death to which we go.'
(c) to denote duration or time when ; e.g. tri fichtea
bliadne 'for 60 years,'allae sin ' on that day.'
(d) after amal' ' like,' e.g. aiuai clilnndn ' like children';
after the adjs.adaftand tnctlany (whichalsotakesthe G.),
e.g.bid adasfar inbriich 'it will be proportionateto your
fighting,' tuaUuiyfurcititl ' capableof teaching.'
The vocative is always precededby the particle a (d'X
 42

IV.-THE ADJECTIVE.
Practically all adjectives have vocalic stems, only a few
traces remaining of the consonantal steins ; they are
accordingly reduced to five classes-I. o-n-stems,II. io-ia-
stems, III. z'-stems,IV. n-stems, V. consonantal stems
(Thurn.).

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES.

67. New adjectivesare formed in four ways:

1. From the present or preterite stem by means of the
suffix *-t/o-, *-tid>-the (-te, -de, -*e) of transitive verbs
(passive participle), e.g. morthae, oirdiude, claisse.
'2. by suffix-less composition ; adj. + adj., e.g. dub-glass :
adj. + noun, e.g. mur-clienn ; noun + adj., e.g. folt-bn/i/r ;
particle or prep.+ nomi, e.g.f<o-nirt, deithbir<*de-aithber;
noun + noun, e.g. cor-tJu'm.
3. by means of the suffix -de (-dae)-(/o-/«-stems), e.g.
nemdae, b^stae, tuatae (for -t"e v. S 17).
4. by means of the suffix -ach, -ech-(o-«-stems), e.g.
benn-ach, cretmech<*cretem-ech--ech becausea palatal
cons, precedes.
N.B.-In the case of 2, when the first part is an inde-
clinable particle, o and a- stems pass over to the t- flexion,
e.g. so + cenel = so-cheneuil; in the case of 3 the auslaut
of the stem reappearsbefore -de, e.g. ci't condae, aire-
airechdae, aireyde.

68. 1. o- a- stems.
Singular.
inasc. fern. neut.

N. becc becc becc"

G. bice', beicc' bicce bice', beicc'
D. bincc !>/<T bh/cc
A. becc'1 bice beccn
V. bice', beicc' becc bice', beicc
 43

Plural.

N. bice, beicc beera becca

G. becc" becc" becc1'
D. beccaib beccaib beccaib
A. biccu, becca becca becca

As in the declension of the article the neut. pi. forms

are not distinguished from the fern, but the shorter i.e. the
true neut. form occurs where the adj. is used substantially,
e.g.inna olc 'the evils.' In A.V. pi. whenusedsubstanti-
val ly the ending -u is employed. In the D. sg. m. n. -u-
infection is sometimes lacking as in the case of nouns (v.
§ 49). dian 'swift' makes G. m. n. <!<'/>i, f. ///hie, D. m. n.
diaii, f. dt'in ; olc 'bad,' G. m. idle, 1>. ulc, A. pi. til en ;
ben, beo'living,' G.Y. m. bi, IX bin, N. pi. m. bi, A. bin ;
bocht 'poor' makes G. sg. boielit although the group clil
is non-palatal. Dissyllabic adjectives like feel and ntixn!
are inflected in the pi. like i- stems when not used sub-
stantivally, e.g. N.A. pi. n/d*/i, but (/?) I'/i^ail (subst.).

2. io- ia- stems.

69. Examples : amrae 'wonderful,' idle 'all.'

Singular.
masc. fem. neut.

N. amrae idle amrae' idle' amrae" vile"

G. amrai' uili' amrae idle amrai idli
D. amru' uiliu' amrai id 11' amri( idliu'
A. amrae" idle" amrai" uili'1 ainrae" idle"
V. amrai idli' amrae idle amrae" idle"

In pi. in. f. n. X.A.Y. amrai uili; G. amrae", idle" :

D. amraib, itilib. In the A.V. jil. m. when used substan-
tially the ending is -u ; there is no specially subst. form in
N.A.V. pi. n. : aile 'other' and alaile 'another' make
N.A. sg. n. aill and alaill. dorchae is found as pi. of
dorchae ' dark' ; cle ' left' makesD. sg.m. cliu, f. elf.
 44

3. i- Stems.

70. Example: maith 'good.'

Singular.
masc. fern. nent.

N. maith maith' maith"

G. maith' maithe maith'
D. maith' maith maifli'
A. maith1 maith11 mnit/i"
V. maith' maith maith"

Plural m. f. n. N.A.V. maithi, Gr. maithe11 and maith'1,

P. maithib. Trisyllabic adjectives undergo syncopation,
e.g. N.sg. same-mail, G.f. sainemlae, N. pi. sainemlai,
D. fainemlaib : fudumain ' deep' makes N.A. pi. fiidumne
used substantivally as against adjectival fudumnai. The
longer form of the Q. pi. is only used substantivally.

4. u- stems.

71. Examples:dub ' black,'follus ' elear.'

Singular.
N. dub follus dub' folia*' dub" follnx"
G. duib' follais dubae foilfte duib' folia is
D. dub' follus' duib' folia in' dub' foil it*
A. dubn lollux" not found dub" folhvt"
Plural N.A. dubai, foilsi; D. dubaib, foilsib ; other
casesnot found. These adjectives follow the true declen-
sion of u- stems only in the N. sg. of all genders and in the
D.A. sg. m. n., the V. is not found. In the G-. sg.they
follow the declensionof the o- d- stemsand in the pi. that
of the i- stems.

5. Consonantal Stems.

72. Theonly certainexampleis tee,te<*tepents 'hot1

an old nt- stem which make N. pi. f. teit<*tepentes.
 45

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

73. The adjective has three forms of comparison,, viz.

equatme, comparative, and superlative. The equative is
forme'dl>ymeansof the suffix -ithir} -idir (i.e.JSir) : th as
a ruIeTchanges
to o whenseparated by two or moreweakly-
accented syllables from the syllable which bears the prin-
cipal stress, accordingly -idir is the form of the suffix usual
in adjectives of more than one syllable, e.g. dian ' swift,'
//('"nilhir 'as swift'; «o?V6'easy,' xoirliit/iir 'as easy';
but nii/h(iin 'lasting,' Kiillininidir : xmniirt 'strong,'
KoiKii-liiidh-\ nun; iin'ii- 'great' makes e.u. moir ; il
'many,'e.q. lir ; Icllnni ' broad,'e.q. Icllinlii;
N.1I.-The equative is followed by the A of the noun,
e.g.sonartaidir slebe(A. pi.) 'as strongasmountains.'

74. The comparative is foj-mftfj bv adding to the positive

the suffix -u: sincethis -u represents earlier *-his< /o.sit
causes, where possible, palatalization of the final consonant
of the adj. e.g. dian, den in : *en 'old,' niitiu : with
syncopation. I'lliml 'beautiful.' nililin ". *dilndiu; /<////</
joyous,' fdiltiu : but ard high, ardii : Irounn hea\ y.
trumtnu : cumachtach ' po\\i'rful,' i-iininrl/frlit/ : for the
depalatalization in doii-li, I/HC!IH, c<'>ir.c6ru, iVc., v. S "2- :
when the positi\'e cuds in a vowel the vowel disappears
before the suffix, e.g. /inn; asse, comps. taint, O.S-.SM. The
final consonant of the positive frequently retains its non-
palatal quality in the comparative also, e.g. irlain 'ready,'
irlanni ; Uridn ' just,'firidnu.

75. The superlative is formed by adding the suffix

-£ni<*-j.ftn')tin.-tof. Lat. -issimus^ or, aiter consonants
w'iiich do not admit palatalization, -am ; e.g. soirb ' easy,'
soirbem; foHus 'clear,' fciillneni ; but anse 'difficult,'
ansam : in the Ml. glosses this suffix appears doubled, e.g.
somme 'rich,' sommaimem ; firidn, firidnamam; nasal,
uaislimem.
 46

Irregular Comparison.
76. Pos. Comi>. ' Superl.
il ' many' Hit not found
lethan ' broad ' letha not found
indr, mur 'great' nw (muo),md(mdo) nidam (main)
"muu mda rnoam
oac ' young' ua 6am
air 'long' ftla slam
tren 'strong' tressa trennet»i
With comparative and superlative formed from other
roots than the positive.
accus,ocnft near' nessa nexsam
becc'little' lugu (laigiu, lauyu} lugam (lugimem)
maith 'good' ferr deck (deg)
olc ' bad' messa not found

77. Comparatives and superlatives are indeclinable.

When the pronom. adj. or an indefinite noun follows a
comparative it takes the dative case, e.g. diliu alailin
' dearer than another,' maixftiu maenib ' more lovely than
riches ' ; the more usual construction is with ol" (in Ml.
also in) + the subst. verb -tdu (-t6), e.g. sochrudin old6-sa
'more beautiful than I (am),' ferr olddi 'better than thou
(art),' faliu oldate cmgil ' lower than (are) the angels.'
4The more ' is expressed by means of de ' of it,' e.g.ferr de
'the better of it,' digthidiu de 'the more to be feared.'
'and ' in such expressions
as 'greater and greater' is ren-
dered by asset which ' caused gemination, e.g. moo «.s.somuo,
messa assamine-wct worse and worse.'

ADVERBS.

78. Adverbs are formed by using the D. sg. m. or n. of

the adj. with the article,e.g.in biucc ' little,' in mdr(mdr)
'greatly,' in deurb 'surely': adjectivesin -de and parti-
ciples in -the have adverbial forms in -id, -ith instead of the
dat. e.g. oindae ' single,' ind oindaid ' singly,' bdstae
'mortal,' in bdstaid 'mortally': the later method of
forming adverbs by prefixing co11is rarely employed,e.g.
commdr, commenic, commaith (this gemination after co11
 47

instead of nasalization is probably analogical). Com-

paratives and superlatives are used adverbially by means
of the D. sg. of the article, e.g. int serbn ' more bitterly,'
ind Ingu ' less,'in vidam 'mostly.' Some adjectives are
used adverbially prefixed to verbs, e.g. caln-temadar
'may
' he guard-well,'mad-gcnatar 'happy are they'(lit.
well-born were they,' mad-bocht ' it was well-reaped';
moch
' ' early' in the form mos, WHS is so used to express
soon,' e.g. mos-riccub ' I shall soon-come,' mos-regae
'thou wilt soon-go.'

V.-THE NUMERALS.

79. Cardinal.
1 ohi-, uen- 30 tricha, G. trichat
'2 dfiu (d6) 40 cethorcha, G. cethorchat,
3 tri N. pi. cethorrhiiit
4 cethir 50 coic.a,G. coicat (cdecat)
5 ct'iic' 60 sesca, G. sescat
6 s69 70 sechtmogo, <.T.sechtmogat
7 .iechtn 80 ochtmoga, G. ochtmugat
8 ochtn 90 n6cha, G. nuchat
9 not11 100 cet, G. ceit
10 deich'1 1000 mile
20 fiche, G. fichet 2000 dt mfli (dual)
om- (uen-) as adj. only occurs in compounds; it is some-
times found inflected and then follows the declension of adjs.
of o-a-stems, e.g. inna oenameite (G.sg.f.) ' of the same
size ' : the form ddu (d6) is only used when no subst.
follows as in counting, and when the numerals are so used
they are preceded by a geminating particle a, e.g. a dan,
a tri, a ocht (pron. a liocht and so written in Mid. and
Mod. I.) ; its composition form is de, e.g. de-sillabach
' dissyllabic' ; the form used before substs.is da, f. di, and
is declined as follows :-
X.A. dd' di' da'1
G. dd' dd' ddn
D.
dib11(deibn)
 48

tri has as compositionform tre (tri, tre), cethir has

cethar and cethr-; tri and cethir are declined thus :-
masc. fern. neut.
N tri cethir teoir, teora cetheoir, cetheora tri' cethir
G. trin(cethren) teora11cetheora11 tri"(cethre"
D. trib(cethrib)teoraib cetheoraib tril>(cethrib)
A. tri cethri teora cetheora tri' cethir
c6ic and se cause nasalization in the G., ocht nasalizes
after the analogy of secht; cet is declined like a neut.
o- stem (v. § 49), mile f. like guide, (id- stem), fiche,
trichae itc. are dental stems. The numerals 11-19 are
built up by addingdeac to 6en, ddu, tri, Arc.,e.g. a trideac :
when used with a noun the noun
' is placed between the two
numerals, e.g. tri mis deacc thirteen months,' coic sail/n
sechtmogat ' 75 Psalms': after 20 the numerals are ' con-
nected by the prep, or (foil, by D.), e.g. oen ar fichit 21,'
fiche ar diet ' 120,'note alsob6 ar fichit ' 21 cows.'

80. Ordinal.

1st cdt-, cetnae 8th ochtmad

2nd tdnaise, aile 9th ndmad
Srd tris, tres 10th dechmml
4th cethramad 20th fichetnmd
5th cdiced 30th trichatmad
6th sessed 50th coicetmad
7th sechtmad 100th cet mad
cet<*T<entu (cf. Gaulish cintugnatus 'first-born,' W.
cynt), while cet 'a hundred'<*kanton, is only used in
compounds, e.g. in ce't-fer; cetnae (is- stem) is used
adjectivally, e.g. cetnae fer ; when it follows the noun it
means'same,'e.g.infer cetnae'the sameman' : 6enmad
is used instead of cetnae before the tens, e.g. uenmad ar
dec,ar fichit 'llth, 21st,'ind 6enmadrann fichet 'the
21stpart.' As a verbalprefix it takesthe form cetu (ceta,
cita) e.g. cetu-ru-pridach 'has first-preached,'ceta-deni
' does first,' ad-cita-acae ' saw first.' tdnaise follows its
noun, oZa (aile) precedes; before the noun with or
without the art. aile becomes oZo and remains uninflected :
 49

the termination -mad is a compoundof the endings-amo +

-eto ; the ending -amo- was originally confined to sechtmad
and dechmad (cf. Lat. Nepttatin*,decum/us)and afterwards
spread through analogy : c6iccd has the ending -eto- alone,
seissed the same ending through analogy. Some of the
Lat. ordinals were also borrowed, e.g.prim-abstal, secnd-
abb, and in grammatical phraseologytert-cobedan third
conjugation,' quart-diall 'fourth declension.'
X rMERAL SUBSTANTIVES.
81. /'infliiiil 'one thing,' dfrle, tri'-ilc, ff/hurdat; .srVr.
whim', '2, 3, £c. things'; the forms for 5, 8, 9, 10 do
not occur (later <"<>/<"(/<",
ilcii-hdc). For personsare used the
following forms which, with the exception of <//>/*,are the
cardinalscompounded
with jcr 'man': oinar, (6enar),<!.
oinair, D. ofnnr ; din* f. (J. f/c.s.sr,D. <///'.s-.<///*, ((//'^), D. pi.
(/('x.s/'/j; ti-iar: cctlirar ; cdiccr ; sesser; mor-feser (lit.
great-six'); ochtor : inni/ior : deichenbor.
FRACTIONS.
82. \ = leth (n. -o- stem), C. AvVA,also used in com-
pounds; }<=trian n. I), triiui : \ = cetliramthu f. G.
cethramihan ; from -5-onwards the ordinals are employed
either aloneor with rann 'part,' e.g.c6iced=},, xcclijitiad
rann =}. Multiplicatives arc formed by the prep. Jo with
the A. e.g.fo di 'twice,' fo thrt, fo deich, fo ocht ficliet
'twenty-eight times.' oen-fechtis usedfor 'once.' Distri-
butives are formed by prefixing each, e.g. each oin ' each
one,' each da, each cdi'-cr &c. each-la <cach-ala= every
other, 'every second,'e.g.cadi-In *el 'alternately.'
VI.- THE PRONOUNS.

83. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Sing. Plur.
I me (messe,mese) we sni
thou tu (tusmi, tusu) sinn>\ nun')
he e (hd, e som(siiim)) ye si (sib, sissi,
she si' (sissi)
it ed' (lied, ed 6n) they e, neut. e s6n
d
 50

The N. of the 1st. pers. correspondingto Lat. ego, Gk.

w, Skr. ahum is lost, me"being an obliquecase(cf. Lat.
me, Gk. l/ze,Skr. »>za).The longer forms (thosein paren-
theses) are emphatic; they are produced either by the
addition of a demonstrativeparticle tie, sa, som, s6n or by
reduplication of the pronoun itself as in the 3rd f. and 1st
and 2nd pi. The s of sni may be borrowed from the
originalverbalendingof the 1stpi. *-mos,thus *-mos-ni-
*-mo-sni, or may have arisen from the -s of the 3rd sg. of
the copulausedwith it, e.g.*is ni-is sni: st 'ye' comes
from *sui (W. ckwi) and the reduplicated form sib (i.e.
"sift) < *sif< *sui-sm (cf. W. chwychwi): the personsof the
verb are emphasized similarly, e.g. 1st sg. asbiur sa, 2nd
sg. asbir siu, 1st pi. asberam ni, 2nd pi. asberid si.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

84. Sing. 1st pers.mo' (mu) ; 2nd do' (du'); 3rd m. and
n. a, f. a?; plur. 1st arn; 2ndfarn (for*1),after a prep.
ending in a vowel or -r also bar'1 (i.e. /3arn) ; 3rd a" for all
genders, mo comes from an apocopated G. men<*mene
(cf. O.W. myn) but aspiratesafter the analogyof do; a
comesfrom a form with vocalic auslaut *esio, ag<*esias,
an<*esian; arn and farn, bar'1 probably " *nsaran and
*suaran old Gs. pi.
ACCENTED FORMS.

Sing.1st mui 'mine,'emphaticmuisse,with art. iniiam-

mui sea (pi. n.) cf. French les miens; 2nd *tul (Mid. I.
tai); 3rd sg.and pi. ai (ae),e.g.a n-ai 'its' (art. + n. sg.),
cechtarn-ai 'each of them'; pi. 1st nathar (ndr) in the
phrasecechtarnathar (ndr) 'each of us two'; 2ndsethar
(sdr).
After preps, which end in a vowel and after for the
proclitic forms mo, do become-m, -t, e.g.dom, lat, fort;
beforea vocalicanlautor beforelenited/ they maybecome
m-,i-,(e.g.
moart OTm'ort'my dignity,'m'oteitiii.
(foi-
"sitiu)
'
' my confession,'tar mo chenn or farm chenn(lit.
over my head ') on my account.'
 51

INFIXED PRONOUNS.

85. The personal pronouns are termed " infixed " when
they are closely attached to the verbal forms by means of
certain proclitic particles. This method of incorporating
pronouns is not peculiar to Celtic but is common to such
widely separated languages as Basque, Zulu, and the
ancient Accadian ; cf. also the transition stage in French
iindi (spoken for il me dit). The infixed pronoun is
usually in the ace. case, i.e. as object of a transitive verb
whether active or deponent in form; but with passive forms
the prons. of the 1st and 2nd pers. are used to express the
subject, and with the verb ' to be ' the pron. is visually in
the dative. When the infixing particle ends or originally
ended in a vowel the prons. appear in reduced forms; after
those which end or originally ended in a consonant, and in
relative sentences, longer forms are retained. In relative
sentences there is a special form for the 3rd sg. m. and n.
Shorter forms. Longer forms.
,, / \< c. i f-dom-(m)- .
Sg. 1 -m(m)- Sg. 1-\.-dam(m)-
, , .
"2 -t-' 2 -dot-' (-dot-')
fm.-«-" (-"), t" (m.-dan,-d-n
: re
3-f.-«-",-s- 3\i. -da--'
[n. -a- (-'), t' in. -d- ; rel. -id-
I'l. 1 -n(n)- PI. 1 -don(ii)-, -dan(n}-
"2 -b- (/) -1 dob-, -dab- (-dib-)
3 -N-", -N- :; -da-"
Examplesof the shorterforms: ni-m-charat ' they love
me not' ; no-t-beir (i.e. no-t-fieir) 'it brings thee '; rall&c
<*ro-an-leic 'he hasleft him,' r-an-uc<*ro-an-uc ' he has
brought him,' ni-n-aithgeuin 'he did not recognize him ' ;
du-sn-adbat 'he showsher,' du-s-gni<*du-sn-gni 'he
makes her ; r-a-chualatar<*'ro-a-chualator they have
heard it,' after ni the -a- disappears but the aspiration
remains,e.g.
' nt-thabur<*nl-a-thabur
' ' ' I do not give it ''
;

ro-n-soir he has saved us ; ro-b-car he has loved you ;

the 3rd pi. for all genders has the same forms as the 3rd
sg. f. e.g. no-sn-guid ' he prays them,' fo-s-didmat ' they
will suffer theny'
 52

Examples of the longer forms : the final consonant of

fri(tli), con (com), ad, aith, tvc. unites with the initial d-
to produce-t- (v. § I1),f)-itammorcat<*frith-domm-orcat
'they offend me,' nu-dam-chrocha' who crucifiesme,' no
dom-bera (i.e. fiera) 'which will bring me'; attotaig<
*ad-dot-aig ' which impels thee ' ; no-da-pridcha '(
(i.e.
bridcha) ' who preachesit (lit. ' him '),' nu-dn-erbai who
entrusts himself,' rel. ad-idn-opair ' who sacrificeshim-
self,' fitandrogab<*fo-an-d-ro-gab
'in which he^has
uttered it (lit. ' him ')' ; atarimet<*ad-da-rimet 'they
count her ' ; atbeir (i.e. /3eir)<*as-d-beir' he says it,' rel
amal anindbmr<*as-i(n)d-bitir (b= (3)'as I sayit,' here
the n of the nasalizing relative-clause
' is inserted before the
d of-id-; for-don-cain he teaches us,' no-don-nerta who
'
strengthens us ; for-dob-moinetar ' they envy you,' h6re
no-ihdob-tnolor(rel. n before-dob-)'because
I praiseyou ';
ataxamlibid<* ad-da-samlibid 'ye will imitate them,' nu-
da-xcara ' who separates them,' with gemination in-da-
mmoidet ' in which they boast themselves ' ; the excep-
tional aspiration after -da-J in nu-da-chelat, nu-da-ch&ltis
(Ml.) is explained by Thurneysen as arising from forms
without infixed prons. e.g. mi-clieUti*. After the negative
HOC/Ithe foi'ms appear as sg. 1. -im-, -am-, ; 2. -it-, -at-,
3 m. -n- or unexpressed f. -a- n. -id-' or merely aspiration :
pi. 1 -in-, -an-; 2 -ib-, -ab-; 3 -a-: e.g. nach-am-didna
doesnot consoleme,' nach-im-rindarpai ' that he has not
cast me away'; nach-it-rindarpither 'thatthou be not cast
away,' nach-at-toscdlfat'that they will not experience
thee '; con-nach-n-ing^uin so that he did not recognize
him, unexpressed con-ndch-moidea that he boast not him-
self '; con-nach-a-ddnaigfea ' so that he will not bestow
it (lit. her ') ; nach-id-chualatar ' who have not heard it,'
with aspiration only nach-beir (i.e. /3eir) ' who does not
bring it' ; nach-in-rogba ' that it seize us not,' nach-an-
Hoirai that thou dost not deliver us '; nach-ib-erpid ' do
not entrust yourselves' ; ar-nach-a-moidet ' that they
boast not themselves.' In "Wb. the forms in -im, -it, ivc.
are found, in Ml. those in -am, -at, &c.
Examples of the dative with the verb ' to be ':
 5:5

ni-m-thd ' I have not' (lit. ' there is not to me'), ro-t-bia
' thou shalt have' (lit. 'there shall be to thee'), ni-n-td
we havenot,' no-b-td 'you have';but (accusative) ni-m-fil
' I am not,' ni-n-fil ' we are not,' ni-s-fil 'they are not' (v.
substantive verb).
Examples of 1st and 2nd pers. as subject with passive
forms: no-m-glantar 'I am cleaned,'no-n-lintar 'we are
filled,' ro-b-hicad ' ye have been saved.' When no conjunct
particleor prepositionprecedes
theverbthe particleno (nu)
is employed to infix the pronouns. The infixed pron. is
frequently used prolept ically, e.g. d-a-giiiK-xa .sw ' I do that'
(lit. 'l do zYthat'), du-da-forsatin mi i/ii/i 'who hascreated
the elements' (lit. 'created tlirni vi/,. the elements'): the
neut. pron. may refer to a noun of another gender, e.g.
r-a-fitir cretim 'he knows // vi/. the fnith (f.)'; it is con-
stantly infixed in the verb at-bail<*ad-d-bail 'lie dies'
and usually in fort-gillim 'I guarantee,' ura-rhrin 'he
perishes,' and imma-airic 'he suits'; when infixed in
rirgab he has taken' in nasalizing ' relative sentences it
changes the meaning of this form to he is,' rond-gab. In
the verbs fo-fera and testa (do-es-ta) it lias the force of a
neut. rel. ' pron. e.g. fod-era<*fo-d-fei-u ''which causes,'
do-d-exta which is lacking.' After cia although ' and
ma if' with their negatives ci'iii. mini!, -d- is infixed
before verbal forms in the indicative which have no infixed
pronoun, e,g. cia dod-chommar 'although we went,'
ceni-d-fetar-sa'although I do not know,' ma du-d-rii/iiinn
'if I have done,' mani-d-chretid ' if yo do not believe.'

86. AFFIXED PRONOUNS AFTER THE Corn.A.

These are added to the 3rd sg. of the copula, e.g. /,sx-om
ecen 'it is necessaryfor me,' ix-d(t) dilnutiii, /ti-b eceii,
ixN-id n-aithrech.

87. SUFFIXED PRONOUNS.

After verbal forms :

Suffixed pronouns are found after the 3rd sg. and 1st and
3rd pi. of simple active verbs : the forms are-
 54

Sing. Plur
1 -nni 1 -mm
2 -ut '2 not found
.-,(m. and n. -i. -if
"i . " "> -it*
[i. -"«*

' Examples: sdstum<*sdsaid-um 'it satisfiesme,' tdth-ut

thou hast' (lit. 'it is to thee'), beirthi <*berid-i 'he
carriesit,' moit-i<^)noid'th-i<.*inoldid-i ' he boasts }\vn\-
&e\i,'iti-as<*ith'thius<*ithid-u£ 'he eats her,' tdth-unn
'we have,' tdth-us 'they have'; -tY is used after 1st and
.'!rd pi. e.g. bert-it< *berit-it
' ' they take it,' gebt-it ' they
will receive him,' guidmit we pray it.
After prepositions : Prepositions with dative.
88. d<>' to' di ' from' 6 (MO)' from'
Sg. 1 doni, (linn dim uaim(m)
'1 didt. dnit (Ut naif
(It'll. (Hi
.'( in n. do, ddu de (de) t'nnJ,imid
f. di di lien I i
PL 1 di'tu(n) din(n) i'«'iin()i), ihnidi)
"2 <h'db dib indb
.'i doail), dumb diib, diib uaidib (6dib)
r/o?'6,doib dib
a 'out of: sg.2 exsiut,3 m. n. ass, «.%f. e.s.s-i,
ew.sv',
es
pi. 3 P.S.S/VJ,
cinNib.
fiad 'in presenceof: sg. 1 fladam, pi. 2 ft'adib, 3 fiadib,
fiudaib.
iar 'after': sg. 2 ittrmnt, 3 in. n. utrum.
in ' under': sg. 1 /.S.S-/OH,
:'" m. /.ssa.
oc ' at': sg. 1 ocmn,ocom,2 oc?i^,3 m. n. oc(c)o, oc(c)o,
f. oc«, occcii, ocae, pi. 1 ocunn, 2 occaib, 3 occaib.
6s, lias ' ' above':sg. 1 iia^um, 3 m. n. »a.so,?to.s-o, pi. 3
re ' before':sg. 1 i-iu»i, 2 (remut), 3 m. n. rm»i, f.
pi. 1 ram (remunn), 3 remib.
Isolated forms are de.<<sum
'on my right,' tiiathmn 'on
my left.'
 Prepositions with accusative.
89.fri 'against' la 'with' tri, ire 'throughr
Sg. 1 friumin, friin lem(m),Ihn(in) trinin
lium(m)
2 frit, friut lat triut
3 m. n. fris(s) A'/XN,/f.s(x), lais triit, triit
f. frie lee, laee, ldj tree, /m?
PL 1 frin», fi'in linu, lenn friini (-111)
"2frib lib triib
3 friu leu, leu, leo tren, f r('i<, Ireo
lethu (Bk. of Arm.)
co to' im about' eter ' between'
Sg. 1 cncciim iiinnuin etroin, etruni
~1 cucut, cuccnt iiinniit
3 m. n. cncci inihi ctir, it/r
f. cuicce, cucae impe
PI. 1 cncinii! inninnni /, I'/nuui
"1 cucanb, cucuib ni etruib
3 CUCCU illl/iH, illl/Ki etarni, etarro
amal 'as': sg. 1 sainliun, '2 (samlut), 3 m. n. M
Ninti/ttli, xainlaid, pi. 3 xamlaib
cen without': sg. 2 ce/ntt, '"> m: n. cene, cenae, pi. 2
cenuib, 3 cenaib
seek'past': sg. 1 (aechion),2 (sechut),3 m. n. mediae
f. (secce),pi. 3 seccu
tar, dar 'over': sg. 2 torut, 3 m. n. larai.*, f. (tairxe),
pi. 1 tonoin, 3 tairxiu
The peculiar reduplication of the prep, citcum, cucut,
&c., is possibly due to the analogy of ocum, oc/'t. 'Vc
(Thurn.).
Prepositions with dative and accusative.
90. i'in' /or-'on' or'for'
Sg. 1 mdi'um(tn) form airium, erum
2 indint fort crut
3 D. m. n. and
f. nirf/ fuiri, furi
A. m. n. ind fair, fair airi
f. inte forrae
 56

PI. 1 indiunn fornn eninn, eronn

2 indib fuirib, foirib dirib, eruib
3 D. indib foraib
A. intiu form airriu, erru, erriu
fo ' under' : sg.3 D.m.n. f6u, /o, A. foi, f. (foce), pi. 3
D. foib.

91. INTERROGATIVES.

Substamival forms :

Sg. N. m. and f. cia, n. cid ; pi. N. citn6; G. coicli : eta

and cid are followed by the relative form of the verb : e.g.
cia rannas 'Who divides'?', cid asmbart 'What has he
said ?', is inderb coich in mug it is uncertain whose slave
he is,' citn4 robatar ' What were they1!'
Adjectival forms :
Sg. m. ciau; f. ce-sl', ci-si' ; n. ced', cid' ; pi. all genders
citn6: e.g. cia gnim What deed?', cisi chomairle What
advice1?',cia clienel What kind1?', citn6 briatlira What
words?': in certain stereotyped phrases cia (ce) is
found for all genders, e.g. cia-mm&it, ce-meit (f.) ' How
great1?': cia indas, c'indas 'In what manner? How?'
cia is also found intensified by the addition of dono ' then.'
The oblique cases are expressed by means of the preposi-
tions, e.g. cia du jorcunn 'to what end?', cia in olcaib
' in what evils ?', cia du neuch ' to whom 1'
In conjunction with the copula m. ce-, n. ci-, e.g. ce-bad,
ce-ptar, ci-pad, c-ip.
The forms cote, catte, pi. coteet,cateet, cateat, are found
in the senseof 'in what consists'; e.g.cate in f triune 'In
what consists the righteousness?', cateet diuitiac stutd
' What are diuitiae here?'

92. INTERROGATIVEPARTICLES.
The particle inn (im before 6) is used to introduce a
direct or indirect question, e.g. in-duccatar (tuccatar),
iin-bem : frequently an indirect question is introduced by
 57

'
dus, duus, (i.e. do fins) + in = to know whether,' e.g. duus
in-comalnid, duus in intamlitis. In a double question
either the in is repeatedor anotherparticlefa (ba, bd) is
used, e.g. im-bem imbethu, im-bein imbdas ' whether we
be in life or in death,' in duit fein fa do nach ailiu
whether it is for thyself or for some other person,' in-
dcnnsoirfad fa-nacc ' whether he would deliver me or not ' ;
fa is really part of the copula. Negative interrogatives :
in-ndd, in-ni (rare), in-nt-ndd, cani (cini) cain before
pretonic ro ; all expect an affirmative answer, e.g. in-ndd-n
-accai or cani-acciti ' Doest thou not see 1 ', hrul in- ' \Vilt
tin in not slay?', in-ni nad-roilgisid 'Have ye not read1?',
cain-ro-noibad ' Has he not been sanctified ?': the nazali-
sation of in" is carried over the negative mid in ndd-n-accai
as also happens at times after the copula, e.g. /// dul
m-briathra ' Is it the words'? ' v. § 15.

93. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

so (sa, se) and sin are usedas neuter accusatives after

prepositions and the equative of adjs. : detnint/n'r so as
sure as this,' demnithir sin ; co-se 'hitherto,' cossin 'so
far ' : as I), sin, sin,
'
e.g. de-siu ' from here ' ; after com-
parative mda sin greater than that ' : siu without a prep.
means ' here, in this world ' as contrasted with tall
'yonder, in the other world ' : N. and A. for all genders,
inso (inse), insin ; is he inso, in HI
The anaphoric pronoun suide.
N. only in the phrase ol suide ' quoth he,' ; sg. D. m. n.
mi id in, f. suidi '; A. m. miide, n. sodain, f. mtidi : pi. D.
suidib, A. m. suidiu : enclitic forms, sg. N. m. side, sede ;
f. side, ade, ede. A. sidi ; n. side ; pi. sidi, side, adi, ade :
examples,do ntu'diu'to him,' la suidi'vfifh her,' la sodain
" therewith,' m6o suidiu ' more than that ' ; enclitic e-side,
xi-ade, = ' he,' 'she,' emphatic,a ires-nidi' his faith' (i.e.
the faith of this particular person), a dilde ade " her
beauty,' insamlathar-side' he imitates,' amal dia/yniat
sidi ' as they do.'
 06

94. SELF.

1 /em, fadein, ce'iti, nuli'ln Jcm'nc,Jnninin, ciDii*i»

"1fein, fadeiii feisne, fesin, fadeisne,
fadisin
3 m. n. fesNi'n,fein, fade-in, fexine, feisne, foxin, fadeisne
I'csin, cadexiii
i. fesine, feisne, fadisin fi/dc^inc, faiJcsin, cadesne,
caddsin

Theseformsare compounded of part of the copula(fad ,

/-) or da, <"/</"though' (reducedto cttd, r-) +a pers.pron.
3rd sg. m. f. 1st, L'nd, and 3rd pi. + a demonstrative (v.
Pedersen V. G-. 153). The clearest forms etymologically
are 3rd sg.m. n. fadesin<*fad-^-sin or *fad-ed-sm, fenniii
<*fa-d-sin or faed-sin, cadesin<*cid-e-sin ; i. fadisin
<*fad-i-siu ; pi. 1. fanisin, cftnim'n <'.*fa-n{-sin, *ca-ni-sin
2. fadisin <*fad-si-sin but following analogy of 3rd sg. f. ;
3. fadesin, cadesin<*fad-d-sin, *cid-e-sin. In the sinv.
the forms for the 1st and 2nd pers. were originally
3rd m. n.
'
Examples: me fein 'myself,' mo nai'thcn-
fein my own
work,' mn menma.cein my own mind '; tu fein 'thyself,'
deit fein 'to thyself,' hescmifesin 'himself,' a chorp
fadesin'his own '
body'; liuadi fadisin ' from herself';
dunn chdiiiH/n to ourselves,' frinn fanisin ov fcftinc
against ourselves'; daberid-xi feixsne 'ye yourselves give
it' ; a fili fesine their own poet.'

95 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
nech <*ne-kuos,N.A. nech, n. ni, (Jr.neich, D. nench,
neoch,n. nin, neo (Ml.) anyone,anything,' in origin a
negative: e.g. ni-fel nech 'there is no one,' doergairi
neich 'for the forbidding of anything'; followed by a
relative sentence,do neuch as doraid ' concerning what-
ever is difficult.'
The proclitic forms N. nach, n. na'-', G.m. naicJi, f.
nacha, A. m.f. nach", n. na'J. are used adjectivally; -e.g.
nach noib 'some saint,' naich baill 'of somemember,'
naach rainne 'of somepart (f.)'; beforea relative sentence
 59

>ii frequently becomes nni or nn-iii, e.g. cnif n* innner

na-ni-ti'te 'whatever it comesto'; the pi. undid is only
used in negative sentences, e.g. ui'iltnd iindin di-in <iili
' let it not ' be any other arms'; for positive alaili is used
necht(tr = one (of two),' nechtar n-di ' either of them.'

each <*/v'V7//'o.sX. I). A. each, G. cit/di, 'everyone';

before a relative verb with the art. e.g. in cdchforsamitter
'everyone on whom thou passest judgment,' in dn'iidi
cretes 'of everyone who believes.' Proclitic adjectival
forms cddi, ci-di, G.f. cncha, redid, n. cdidi : pi. i-m-hd,
cechd, i-di-li. fi'<-li, e.g. ciii-h hull 'every member.' <-,;-lid
dethidnea 'all cares,' hi cacha jierxtind/li 'in all person-' ;
distributively with the numerals, i-ack <>i'n 'cadi out1,
rndi <lit every two,' ivc.; with G. of 3rd pci-s. of pron.
i-ddi <ic 'each of them.' cechtar =' each (of two),' <
cechtar in <l<imnu 'each of the two part.-.' cechtar n-di
' each of them (two).'
aile <"dl/os, N.A. sg. n. dill, is usedsubstantivallj after
the art. or inu-li : e.g. m. //// di/c. f. iiu! tiilc, n. «
)i-d//l ' the other : nach aile ' some other'; tlie indefiniti1
subst. form is m.f. alaile, n. dtdi/l, uncontracted G. sg. f.
a/d di/c, G. pi. did n-dilc, X. pi. in S.G. dld-nili :
X.B.-alaile with a noun = certain, some,' but also
'another,' e.g. di-dldili/i di/din/ 'of another forgiveness';
dldi/i d/nili= ' some-others,' in// did -abiilc 'the one
-the other.'

96. ADVERBS OF PLACE.

HIDid here ' il-lei. //-/c, ' liither '
'
tnll on that side ' inn-onn ' to that side '
ti'i.dx 'above stias ' upwards '
f/.s below ' sis ' downwards '
tail' 'east' sair '' eastward- '
'
ti'ar west ' star westward- '

fc.s-.s- south ' ' southwards '

fa-den .1
sa-ik&aid \
tnaid ' north ' ' northwards '
fa-thuaith .1
 60

Adverbs of Place-continued.
de-xiti ' hence.'
(in-all ' from that side.'
an-iias '' from above.'
fin-i* from below.'
nn-iiir ' from the east.'
'
(tn-i(tr from the west.'
'
an-dess from the south.'
an-tuaid ' from the north.

'
tess is formed after the analogy of tuaid ; sechtair -
out of,' an-cchtnir ' from outside.'

97. RELATIVE SENTENCES.

The relative is expressed in the following ways :

(a) by meansof the demonstrativesan, a" (ftam, <n>i
before a labial) after a preposition ; san stands for all
genders, cases, and numbers ; e.g. ar-an-dentar for
which is made,'fu-an-d-ro-gab'in (lit. 'under') which
he has uttered it," tre-san-tccatar ' through M'hich
are saved'; it is not employed after in11 or after a
negative, e.g. in-atreba 'in which he dwells,' di-na-
conbi ' of which he has not'; san (sam), an (am) changes
to KIU, s/n> (in, im) before the d of the infixed pronoun
and the 3rd sg. -d and -b (-p) of the copula except in
dian-, foan-, (km-, e.g. ar-in-d-epur ' for which I say it,'
tre-sin-da-bia ' through which they shall have' ar-im-p
'ut sit.'
(6) by the relative forms of the verb which are found in
3rd sg. and 1st and 3rd pi. of simple verbs in the absolute
flexion, e.g. beres who bears.' beirme ' which we bear,'
berte 'who bear.' In the pass,and dep. the conjunct
forms are used as relatives.

(c) by prefixingno to the 1st and 2ndsg.and 2nd pi. of

the pres. ind., pres. subj. and fut. of simple verbs, e.g.
no-yiiidimm 'what I pray,' no-thechti 'which thou
possesses!,'
no-berid ' which ye carry.'
(d) by infixing a relative elementwhichappearsas -e,
 61

a', or merely lenition, e.g., imm-e-churetar 'who cany,'

ar-a-thd 'which is left,' no-chairigur 'what I blame,'
ad-chess 'what was seen.'

98. LENITING RELATIVE SENTENCES.

(a) In Ml. and S.G. the anlaut of relative forms is
lenited,e.g. inti charctx 'he who loves,' uni clidiitiN 'what
he sings.'
(b) The absolute forms of the copula h'liite the following
anlaut, e.g. r/.s-rlmffirxnc 'which is contrary,' «1n cl/<>xi/i<///>
'which arc similar,' />rxi-liobnir 'which will lie an aid.'
99. NASALIZING RELATIVE SUNTENCKS.

(«) AAThen
the relative denotes time when, e.g. in tan
mberes when she bears,' hvre no-n-dob-mulor-na 'because
I praise you' (hi'u-e(I. of tiar 'hour' was originally tem-
poral); similarly after n'/ii. cdne'as longas,' d" 'while.'
(b) When the relative denotes quantity or manner,
e.g. in i ine/'t do-n-indnagar 'that is the proportion in
which it ' is bestowed,' iml<tn no-m-bie<!-N/ 'the way in which
you are ; similarly after /titnt/ and feib like, as,' and in
the case of the 'figura etymologica,' e.g. ni legend ro-1-
le"gnsaact is ciirRagad ro-n-d-ctirsagusa'it is not a
reading I have read but a reprimand (with) which I have
reprimanded him,' a forcital for-a-dob-canar 'the teaching
by which ye are taught.
(r) Sometimes instead of lenition when the relative is
the object of the verb in the relative clause, e.g. cech
irnigde do-n-gneid'every prayerthat ye make.'
(d) When the relative representsthe predicate noun, e.g.
co-mbi oin-clwrp pectho as-m-berar 'so that it is one body
of sin it is called,' plebsdei as-n-dan-bertheni 'we used
to be called plebs Dei.'
(e) After ol, e.g. ol-daa* <*ol-n-taas.
(/) sometimes to denote reason why: e.g. i* lied
dathar doin (d = nasalizedt) 'that is why peopleare
angry with me.'
 62

(<j) explanatory and to mark oratio obliqua: e.g.bad

nertad duib inso, ax-n-dirsid 'let this be at) encouragement
to you, that ye will rise,' bes anbera-su o.s n-ainm dosom
animus 'perchance thou wouldst say that anim/iN is its
name.'
(/j) the relativeformsof simpleverbs(exceptthe copula)
have nasalizedanlaut usually in Wb. and regularly later ;
e.g. in tain m-bis 'when he is,' hdre dete (d = nt) be-
cause he goes.'
(i) the absolute forms of the copula used relatively
nasalize the following anlaut when it begins a syllable
which bears the principal accent; e.g. cein has m-beo so
long as he is alive.'

100. THE GENITIVE OF THE RELATIVE.

The genitive of the relative is expressed :

(u) by a formally non-relative sentence containing a
genitive pronoun, i.e. a possessive pronoun ; e.g. rdte ni
reid a mbrith, lit 'things not easy their referring'=
'things whosereferenceis not easy'; biit alaili rofinnatar
a pecthe,lit. 'there are sometheir sins are found out' =
' whose sins are found out.'
(6) by a relative sentenceintroduced by an ' which is,' a
relative preverb, the negative na, nad, or relative nasa-
lization ; e.g. inti as h&nirt hires* ' he (his) faith is
weak'= ' whose faith is weak ; lasna cumachtgu foambait '
mam to the mighty ones under whose yoke they are :
bind nad-rdncatar less 'food that they did not stand in
need =: of which they did not stand in need.'

101. THE NEGATIVES.

ni3, nicon ; before the imperative and optative net-',net'-':

before infixed pronouns nach, ndch; in relative sentences
and after interrogative inn, ndd, nad; sechni-ni or ni-
ocusnach=' neither-nor.' Examples: ni denim 'l do
not,' aicon-choscram'we destroynot' (in later O. Ir. it
nasalizes,e.g. nicon-ddt = -ntdt), na-de'ne 'do not'! nach-
in-rogba nail may pride not seize us'! nalii-nad-chrenai
 63

those \vho buy not,' in-nad-cnolnid ni 'have ye not

heard?' sech ni-thartsat NO»I,nt-comtcachtmar iii 'neither
have they given nor have we asked,' ni hid jc^in eirbthi
~]inii'li do (hi-diNt'llii nanni do-gni 'it is not in himself
that he trusts, neither does he ascribe to himself the things
which he does.'

The independent negative is naicc, nacc='no, not';

//; -fft 11ace 'is - or not': emphatic nacce 'by no
moans,' adjectival or composition form in nacca dim 'a
non-entity' Ml. 75 b 20: nade, nate < nad + hd='no'
in answer to either a positive or negative question (the
form natho is ace. to Pedcrsen borrowed from \Y. mn/d/i
used in reference to a preterite tense), a later form is ate;
tacco, taccu = 'no ' as either simple denial or strong con-
tradictory, cf. German dock, French x/.

102. TEMPORAL PRKYKKI.S.

ro, com, ad, od, ess, to-od-, de-ess-, to-com-.

A perfective meaning for indicative or snbjiim-tivc verbal
forms is expressed by means of certain preverbs of which
ro is the most usual.
(a) the preterite with perfective preverb has the
meaning of a perfect or pluperfect; e.g. as-bert ' he
said,' as-ru-bart 'he has said'; argart d6ib nant maith
con-ro-itatar a-rrig 'he taunted them that they had not
guarded their king well.'
(b) the present indicative with preverb, in a dependent
clause, becomes a perfect consuetudinal present, i.e.
denotes what precedes a customary action ; e.g. in ni'«tll
do-n-ijniat ho ru-maith for a ndimtea remib 'the cry
they make when their enemies have been routed by them.'
(c) in a dependent clause the imperfect indicative
with preverb becomes a perfect consuetudinal preterite
when the verb of the main clause is an iterative past, i.e.
denotes the completion of a repeated action in the past.
(tZ) the future with the preverb becomesa futurum
exactum, i.e. denotes an action that is imagined as having
 64

taken place at some future time : e.g. mani roima fur a

cenn,ni memo,forsna btdln ' if their headbenot defeated,
the members will not be defeated' ; (Thurn. however,
takes roima = romd, subj.) similarily with pres. subj. used
as future, dia-n-de-r-b(tlaniui, ni-bia nech 'if we should
die, there will be no one.'
(e) the imperfect subjunctive with preverb = future
perfect; e.g. act ar-roi-lg ither ind epintil no duibsi as
soon as this epistle shall have been read to you.'

103. ro of possibility.
(a) present: as-beir 'he says,' an-ro-bair 'he can
say,'ni ru-bai ' it cannotbe.'
(b) future: nl de-r-genat 'they will not be able to
do it.'
'
(r) conditional: d-a-ri-gente ye could have done it.'
(rf) pres. subj. : cia ru-bd 'though it couldbe.'
(e) imp. subj. : frinli do-ro-nad nach aile ' at a thing
which any other could do/
104. Further uses of ro.
'
(a) in wishes : ro-p c6rae doib may there be peace
to them.'

(6) in 'commands : only in negative sentences: ni to-

r-gaitha let him not defraud'! ni-mde-r-saige ' wake me
not.'
(c) intention : arna de-r-lind 'lest I should scandalize.'
(d) necessity: i'.s-ecen con-dd-r-bantar ' it is necessary
that it should be shown.'
(e) permissive: after acht ' provided that'; e.g. act
rop ' provided that it lie,' act ni ro-bat ' provided there
be not.'

105. Position of ro.

(a) fixed ro: as a rule this ro comesimmediately

before the verbal stem after the other prepositionse.g.
as-ru-bart, ni-erbart < *es-ro-bert.
 (b) movable ro : conies immediately after the last
pretonic preverb ; e.g. im-rui-d-/irJ [' im-ro-di-bed, ui-
ro-im-di-bci/, iu-r-iut-lilutm- < .''i,i ro-o:l-l<><luttu\ nud-r-
ind-ua-ldatar: it is placed after the prep, fo, when fo is
the second part of a compound, to avoid the contraction
ro-fo>ru ; eg. im-fo-r-laing : ro or an infixed pron. + ro
is inserted in the prep, for as though for=fo + r; e.g.
fo-rro-r-brift (rr=nr), fo-da + ro-r-ci'//nfoi-cenna.
106. Preverbs which usurp the functions of ro.
com : e.g. with pres. subj. fris-chom-arr fromfriN-oirg;
with preterite ax-com-ort (as-oirg).
ad: with verbs compounded of com, e.g. conatil
<* con-ad-til (com-tuil) conacab<*con-ad-gab (com-yab).
od : con-oi-t-eclit(itar<*con-od-t- (con-dieig).
ess : ass-ib-sem (ibid).
de-od: do-o-mmalgg <*do-od-m (mlcij-), t-o-j>richt
<*to-od-bacht (bong-}.
de-ess: des*id<*de-ess-f<id (sad-).
to-com : du-cu-ti'j < *to-com-ti<j (tong-).
107. Verlts which do not admit perfective preverbs.
1. verbs compounded \vith ro, e.g. rofitir, rocluinethar
rolaimethar.
2. compounds
from the rootsgne,ice (-ong-).
3. the prototonic forms of ad-ci, and the perfect ad-
con-dairc.
4. ithid, tella, talla, duthracht, at-bath, fo-fuair.

VII.-THE VERB.

108. The verb hastwo Voices-Active and Passive,and an

Active verb may have either an active or deponent flexion.
The latter has arisen from the Id.Gr. Middle and differs
from the passive flexion in form ; in the imperfect indi-
cative, preterite subjunctive, preterite future or conditional,
the 1st sg. pres. hid. abs. of denominatives in -igithir, igidi/;
the 2nd pi. of all tenses and moods, and the 3rd sg. im-
perative the deponent forms are the same as those of the
active.
 66

There are three moods : indicative, imperative, and

subjunctive. The indicative mood hasfive tenses: present,
imperfect,preterite,future, and preteritefuture (alsocalled
secondaryfuture or conditional). The subjunctivemood
has only two tenses,present and preterite ; the imperative
mood has no tenses.

109. TENSE-STEMS.
The tenses and moods of a normal verb are formed from
five distinct stems.

1.Present
StemXlmperativeP
(Indicative
present
and
imperfect.
2.Subjunctive
Stem
£,. {( Subjunctive
^^ present
and
3. Future Stem -.Future and future preterite.

These three stems belong to both active (or deponent)

and passive flexions.

4.Active
Preterite
Stem
jPl>eterite
Indicative
( and deponent.
active
5. Passive Preterite Stem [ Preterite Indicative
passive.

110. STRONG AND WEAK VERBS.

Verbs are divided, in accordance with their mode of
stem-formation, into two classes,Strong and Weak. Strong
verbs are primary, weak verbs denominative ; the chief
characteristics of the latter being the formation of an
.s--]_uvteriteand an /-future.
The weak verbs are divided into a-verbs and z-verbs
_ of the 3rd sg.
conjunct flexion, e.g. -cam, -Jeici. In the case of the
strojog_ver^s-there-
is JIQtermination, e.g. -heir, -ben.
HI NUMBER AND PERSON.
The verb has only two numberssing,and phir. (a dual
subject takesa plural verb, so also maya sing, collective
 67

noun). In the active and deponent there are three persons

in each number, in the passive there are only forms for 3rd
sing, and 3rd plur.

112. RELATIVE FORMS.

01In the simple verb in the absolute flexion separate relative

forms occur in the 3rd sing, and plur. and usually in the
1st plur.
113. PERSONAL ENDINGS.

The personal endings may be divided into five classes :-

1. Pres. ind. and subj., future, .s-preterite, the plur. of
act. and dep. and imp. pass., the sing, of the ^-preterite.
2. Imp. sing. act. and dep.
3. Imperf. ind., pret. subj., pret. future.
4. Suffix-less pret. ind. and plur. of ^-preterite.
5. Pret. ind. pass.
114. ABSOLUTE AND CONJUNCT FLEXION.

In most tenses and moods the personal endings have two

sets of forms called absolute' and conjunct.'
The conjunct flexion occurs :-
1. In all verbs compounded with prepositions.
2. In the simple verb (a) after the verbal particles ro and
no, (b) after the following particlesand conjunctions,nt,
nicon, nd, ndd, (nach-) nacon, in, ara", dian, con, con",
huan, a particle and relative (s)dn.
Absolute flexion occurs in the simple verb with the
exception of the cases above mentioned, e.g. abs. berid,
gaibid, marbaid, leicid ; conj. do-beir, fo-gaib, ni-x-marba,
ara-leici.
Tliejibsolute and conjunct flexions correspondto the
Primary and Secondary personal endings of Td.G. Some
verbs which always take a preposition before them when no
conjunct or verbal particle is prefixed appear only in the
conjunct flexion, except in the imperative where the accent
falls on the first syllable and the preposition is dropped,
-e.g.,ro'duinethar, ro-fitir, 3rd sg.imp. cluined, finnad.
^fttotim*****($**&*)

115. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

Weak verbs are denoted by A, strong verbs by B.

A I. a-presents : present stem = verb stem + -«" ; e.g.
caraid '-'.*kar-d-ti, -earn <*kar-a-io.
A II. i-presents: present stem= verb stem+ -»'-; eg.
leicid <*liwku-i-ti, -leiciu <'.*Un)kui-io.
A III. stems ending in a vowel, e.g. -gnii' " '.*gne-w.
B I. present stem= verb stem+ thematic vowel -o-, -e-
(v. § 116) with consequentvariations of quality in the final
consonant of the stem; e.g. berat (ra) <'.*bher-o-nt, but
berid (r'') <*bher-e-ti.
B II. present stem= verb stem (with nasal infix) +
thematic vowel: e.g.bo-n-g-id'breaks' (.Jbog), to-n-y-id
'swears',cf. Lat. pa-n-go,ta-n-go(\/pag, tag).
B III. present stem = verb stem+ 4-suffix; e.g. gaibid
'takes' <*ghabh-ie-ti, cf. Lat. cap-io.
B IV. presentstem= verb stem+ -nd- (-na-); e.g. benaid
'strikes' <*bhi-nci-ti, renaid 'buys' <*pre-na-ti cf. Gk.
Trepi'Tj/xi. In Proto-Keltie -nd- had become shortened to
-na- after the analogy of the plural be-nci-Diexi, iVc.
B V. as in IV. but originally with i quality of the -n-
which frequently remains; e.g. ara-chrin 'perishes' ; in
ad-gnin 'recognizes' and ro-cluinethar 'hears' the
z-quality of the n is probably the result of infection before
a -to- suffix; thus *gn-n-i>-gnin, *clu-n-i->-cluin-, cf. Gk.

116. MODES OF FLEXION.

In Id.G. there were two modes of flexion, viz.
thematic and non-thematic. Verbs with thematic
flexion had in the indicative-o-or -e-beforethe personal
ending, e.g. *bher-o, *bher-e-si,*bher-e-ti, *bher-o-mos,
*bher-e-te, *bher-o-nti: those with non-thematic flexion
had no thematic vowel before the personal ending in the
indicative, e.g. *es-mi, *es-si, *es-ti.
 G9

117. PERSONAL ENDIXGS.

Id.G. had two seriesof personal endings, viz. primary

and secondary.
Sing. Plur.
Prim. Sec. Trim. Sec.

J. f-ini -ni -me*, -mos -iue,-mo

{-o -mesi, -niosi -»ient,-mom.
2. -.s-i -s -tlir -te
3. -ti -t -nti -nt

InjD. Ir. tke_.pxiiaarx..eaij3jngs_weremdonlil

less originally
employed only in the absolute JLsxiou.-.and ih<> >ccondary
enoirigsin the conjunct, luit owing to ;ina]ogythe primary
endings are frequently found in the conjunct Hexion also,
e.g~-7-et/if "" *rct-r-ni, 'thou runnest' beside-bir " bher-
e-s ' thou bearest.'
Ending of 1st pers. sing.: -i>». -innu (-ai>», -aim-in) cor-
responds to the non-thematic primary ending -mi, the i
arising from the palatal quality of the )» ; that the m
should have remained unlenited is probably due to the
influence of the 1st sing, of the copula am <*es-mi
(Thurn.) : the thematic ending -5 appears as -o, -?t, e.g.
arco, tlagii <*prk-o, *steigh-o ; it appearsas -it regularly
in the 1st sg. conjunct of monosyllabic stems in /, e.g. -bin,
"gniu, otherwise it appears merely as it-quality of the final
consonantof the stem in conj. 1st sg., e.g. -biur <*beru
<~~blier-d, -cnn <*canu <*c(ni-<>. The ending -im
gradually ousts the -o- ending until in the Modern
language it is universal.
Ending of 2nd pers. sing. : the -i is reduced from the
thematic primary ending -e-, + si whence it spread analogi-
cally to the other verbs: thus beri <*ben <*bherei
< *blier-e-si. In the conjunct form the secondaryending
disappears,e.g. -bir <*bher-e-s.
Ending of 3rd pers. sing-. : -id, -itli (-aid, -a/th) rejire-
sents the thematic primary ending -e-, -i-, -ft-, + -ti; e.g.
berid <*bher-e-ti, l<'i<-id<*limku-i-ti, <-fi/-aid<*kar-a-ti:
the secondary ending is represented by the conjunct forms
"earn, -leici, -beir <*kar-a-t, *//».A'"-7-f,*blier-e-t.
.-* 70
Ending of 1st pers. plur. : absolute -mi represents Id,
G. -mesi > mei > mi, the m unlenited through analogy
of the 1st pers. pi. of copula aituni <'.*es-mesi: the con-
junct ending-ni (ma)represents-mos,e.g.berain <\*bher-
o-mos ; this -m was originally lenited but gradually loses
its lenition through the influence of the absolute -mini.
Ending of 2nd pers. plur. : absolute -the is either Id. G.
dual ending *-thes or a new formation analogousto 1st
pi. -»?/. -»ie ; conjunct -id comes from the thematic vowel
+ Id.Gr.secondaryending -te thus -berid <*(e)-bher-e-te.
Ending of 3rd pers. plur. : absolute -it, -ait represents
thematic vowel + primary ending-nti, e.g. <-ar«it <:*kar-
cl-nti, Ifii-it <~*linh"-1-nti \ conjunct -ft, -at, (older -ot) =
thematic vowel + secondary ending -lit, e.g. lecet <*//»&"-
i-iit, berat <*berot <*bher-o-nt.
The relative forms for 3rd sing, and pi. and 1st pi. are
probably verbal forms + suffixed pronouns.
N.B.-For a different explanation of the personalendings
v. Pederseu V. G. 341- 344.

118. Paradigm of Present Indicative.

Active.

Examples: caraim 'I love', leicim 'I leave' bint 'I

bear.'
absolute flexion.

A I. A II.
Sq. 1 ecu-dim U'-ii-im
'2 cfi fa i li'it-i
3 caraid,-aith li!/<-id, -ith
rel. carets I6icex
PI. 1 Cdiinni /i''ir))i/
rel. carmae /i:/i-nic
2 cart hi if li'u-tlie
3 cam it leidt
rel. f cardae, -tae. fleicde, -te,
\ caraite, -ate
 71

conjunct flexion
s "cam "leiciu (-leicim)
2 -careti "leici
3 -cara "lei <"i
PI 1 -ca/'/nn "I e icon
2 -carn/i] -aith "/<:/rf<J, ith
3 -carat "leicet

BI.
absolute conjunct
accented ."n-litic
Sg- 1 bir it "biur "ta-bur
2 beir, (beri) "bir "ta-bair
3 berirJ, -ith "bcir "ta-bair
rel. bereft
PL 1 bermai "beram "tai-brem
rel. bermac
2 berthe -ith "tai-briil, -ith
3 berait "berat "tai-bret
rel. hcr<bi(\ -fae
The distinction betw§fiu_a.han1j.ite.
a,nc\ go^innct fle.vinn is
n_ot_im'ari;ilily <>]»IT\cil: thus, in weak verbs, 1st and 2nd
sg. abs. are used also for conj.; further in strong verbs abs.
forms like for-cctnim, -rethi are found used as conjunct
beside regular forms like foi-cnn, -bir. The relative
ending of the 1st pi. -me is found regularly only in AVb., in
Ml. the ordinary ending -ml begins to replace it. The
unsyncopated form of the rel. 3rd pi. in -ite H due to the
influence of the non-relative form in -it, e.g. techtnite
beside techte <*techt-de.

119. DEPONENT PERSONAL ENDINCS.

ist pers. sing-. : -in; -or both <:*or (but v. § 108),

explanation uncertain, cf. Lat. sequ-or.
2nd pers. sing1. : -ther, -do\ ])robably -the + r.
3rd pers. sing1. -. absolute -f/uV, -dir, conjunct -tlmr,
-(Jar; the vowel before this ending is never dropped,
consequently the original ending was -tr'-, -tr"-, cf. Lat.
sequi-tur.
 1st pers. plur. : abs. -mir, conj. -mar, -mer (archaic
~mor\ with unlenited m cf. Lat. seqiti-in/n:
2nd pers. plur, : as in Lat. a special deponent ending
is lacking ; the ending of the 2nd pers. plur. act. is used
instead.
3rd pers. plur. : abs.-tir, conj. -tar <*-ntrl, -ntra, cf.
Lat. sequn-iilt'i:
120. Deponent.
Examples:labrnr 'I speak,'cuiriur 'I place.'
A I. AIL
abs. conj. abs. conj.
Sg. 1 labno- "Icibrur cuiriur "cuiriur
2 labrithet- "luliritlier cuirther. "cifi'rther
3 labi'ithit- "htbri'th'ir cuirithir "ciiii'dh'ir
PL 1 labrimmir "labrininiiiir cuirittunif "I'uiremtna
2 labrithe "labraid cuirihe "cuirid
3 Inbritir "labratar cuiritir "cniretar

121. PASSIVE PERSONAL ENDINGS.

In the passivethere are special forms only for 3rd pers.

sing, or plur. : Sg. abs. -/r, -thir, conj. -ar, -thar, -ther ;
PL abs. -tir, conj. -tar, -ter. -ir, -ar arises from -r ; -thir
irom -ti-r; -tu, -tar from -nti-r, -nto-r ; cf. Lat. agi-tur,
agu-ntur.
122. Passive.
alisolute.
A I. AIL
des.
Sg, 3 carthair l&icthir cuirthir
PI. 3 cartair Idict&r cuirtir
conjunct.
Sg. 3 -rarthar "l(:i<-ther -cnii'ther
PL 3 -cartar "Uicetar(l£icter) -cu
B I. AND II.
absolute conjunct
Sg. 3 berait- "berar (-berr)
PL 3 bertair "bertar.
 The remaining persons of the passive are expressed by
infixed pronouns \vith the 3rd sg. ; e.g., no-m-charthar,
'I am loved,' no-t-bercn; 'thon art borne,' no-n-l&icther,
'we are left.'
The relative forms of the deponent_an_dpassive are
tho.se.flL
2nd pi. deponent, which take in addilion the nreverb no-.

123. Imperfect Indicative.

No satisfactory explanation of the personal endings
is forthcoming : only conjunct forms are found, since the
imperfect always takes the preverb no before it.
AT. All. BI. £11.
Sg. 1. no-carainn no l&icinn no-berinn
2. no-cniilut no-l&cthea (iio-li<',-fli</)
3. no-can id no-li'lrcd nobered (-hri;id)
PL 1. no-fit nmtiH no-leictnis no-bermis
2. no-i-iirthtic no-leicthe (no-berthe)
3. no-cartais no-ldictis no-bertis (beirtis)
Deponents inflect like active verbs. The passive forms
rt
Clli»rt
C i.

Sg. no-carthae no-l/'irtlic no-berthe

PI. iiu-i-,-ii'tiiin '-Ii'-ii-t'tK no-bertis(-beirtis)

124. IMPERATIVE.

Personal endings.
2nd pers. sing. : the 2nd sg. imper. act. conies from a
form consisting of the verb stem + a vowel, and had originally
no personal ending; e.g., cor <*kar-a, leic <~"'liuk"-l,
beir, <*bher-e, cf. Lat. am-a, aud-i, ag-e: the -the, -te
of deponentsis an old Middle ending -*tJicn.
3rd pers. sing. : ending= -to; e.g., bered <*bhere-to,
carad <*kard-to, leiccd < *linkwi-to. The
the plur. are the same as in_jbhe._cnnjiii]flt.Jle^jniii_of the
preserrTinrTicatiYe.
 74

r Thftrn_ia no di^ijfftion between absolute and conjunct^

the principal accent .'thraysjallgjon the first syllable except
when the form contains an infixed pronoun.
Deponentshave active flexion in the 1st pers. plur., but
in later MSS.dep. flexion. The verb tiayn 'I go' has a
form for the 1st pers. sing'., viz., tiag, ti'ach let me go.'
Some verbs retain a vocalic ending in the 2nd pers. sing. :
e.g., ddne 'do' from do-gniu, deicce 'see' from do-ciu
(ac-ciii) and in dep. the act. form cuire beside cuirtlie
125. Active.
A I. All B I. cv II.
Sg. 2 car Uic beir
3 carad, -ath -eth bond, -ed
PL 1 caram leiccin beram
2 car aid, -aith Idicid, -ith berid, -ith
3 carat berat

Deponent.
Examples: 'Coinalnadar ' fulfils: cuh-ithir 'places';:
ro-cluinethar 'hears.'
A I. A II. B V.
Sg. 2 comalnaithe, -de cuirthc cluinte
3 comalnad, -ath cuirr/l cluined
PL \ (coinalnam,-amar)(cuirem) (cluinem,-emmar)
2 comalnaid, -aith cltiinid, -ith
3 comalnatar cuiretar cluinetar
Passive.
A I. A II. B I.
Sg. carthar berar (-berr)
PL carter r/urter bertar
Verbs B III. inflect in the abs. like A II. but in the
conj. 3rd sg. pres. act. the forms have no final vowel;
contrast -gnib with -Icici.

126. THE SUBJUNCTIVESTEM.

The subjunctive stem has two forms, VIZ. the
a=subjunctive and s=subjunctive.
 75

Thf fl°g"h,i""^^ i'° fnn-nftH bv adding -r7 tn the

root, thus A/CO
r - card _: accordinglythe sub]. stem and
pres. stem are identical in verbs A I ; the thematic
vowels -o-, -e- (B I.) and na- (B IV) are dropped; the
-i- of A II. is also lost but causes the final consonant of the
root to retain an /- quality, hence the subj. endings become
-ea, -e- instead of -a, -a- : in B III. the final consonant of
the root loses its palatal quality, e.g. pres. stem
gaib- - subj. gab-.
Thg__.«;-siihjunctive is confined to strong verbs whose
root or vfrb atp." purls in dental or guttural stons and
spirants or in nn ;_ e.g. fed-, fesa- ; retli-, rexx-; a tig-,
rf?e.s.s-
," /("-, r«x; senn-, .sr*.s. TJie .s is added immediately
to the root, consequently the nasal infix of B II. is dropped
and compensatory lengthening takes place, e.g. bong-,boss-
<*b«<f 8.

127. a-Subjunctive Present.

Active.
A I. A II.
abs. coni. abs. conj.
Sg. 1 cin-ii -car l/'ii-rii
"_' carae "cm-ac It'-in-
3 caraid -ith -cara l<'i<-itl, -ith
rel. car as /r'/rr.s
PI. 1 cannai (-immi) -caram /I'irnii
rel. carmae(-imme) /<"'/<"»/,"
'2 cartlifti' -caraid^-aith l^icthe l<'i<-i<l,-ith
3 caraii "rurat l<'i<-ii l,'ir,-i
rel. canlae, -tae l&cde, -te
Like cara are inflected a-subjs. belonging to B I. as bera,
cela, &c. The deponents inflect abs. and conj. exactly as in
pres. indie, except that 1st pers. sing. abs. ami eonj. ends in
-er, -co; instead of -in; -or; -er after a palatal consonant,
-ar after non-palatal.
The passive forms are the same as in pres. indicative
passive except that strong verbs have in the sing, the
endings -thir, -thar as contrasted with the indie.
 76

128. a=Subjunctive Preterite.

Examples of strong verb B I.
sing. plur.
1 -berahin -berinaifi
2 -bertha -berthae
3 -berad, -ath -bertais.
In strong verbs the final consonant of the root retains
the non-palatal quality due to the -a-, in other verbs the
flexion is exactly that of the imperfect indicative. Deponents
inflect like active verbs.
Passive.
A I. AIL
Sg. -carthae "berthae "It'ifthe
PI. -cart/1in "bertain "le"ictis

129. s-Subjunctive Present.

Examples,tlagu 'I go,' guidid 'prays.'
Active.

abs. conj. abs., ^ con].

Sg. 1 tfilnt!
"2 tesi "tt'in gessi "geiss
3 teis 1-frV, -ie geiss ("ge (-16)
rel. tinn lencl. -t gess lencl. (-1)
PL 1(tiasmai) gesmi
rel. tian»iac ijenine
2 (tiristae) "tesid geste "gessid
3 tiasait "tianat gessit "gessat
rel. tiastae

Deponent.
Abs. Conj. Abs. Conj.
1. (fessar) "fessur (fessimir) "fessamar
2. (fesser) "fenner (feste) "fessid
3. "fentar (fessitir) "fessatar
Passive.

Sg. tfantair (festir)

Conj. "tiastnr "gefiftf/r "fentar
PL (tdisitir) fennitir
Conj. ("tiasatar) "yenftcitar "fesfta
tar
 I t

The 1st sing. abs. is not found, but it probably ended in

-a ; tictftu has been influenced liy the indie. pres. t(agi<.
Only two examples of the abs. flexion of depnnontx are
found, viz., 3rd sg. e*ti>- '(though he) eat,' rel. iitcxtctr
' (who may)judge.'
Stems with ablaut, or variation of vowel, restore the
original vowel before the addition of the -s- ; thus <jiu'<Um,
stem gnid <*gwhod-i is ablaut from ged<guhed-, and
ged + 8- becomes ge**-.
For beginners difficult forms are those of the 3rd sg.
conj., e.g., ge, -tdi, -16,but the loss of final consonants is in
strict accordancewith phonetic law (v. § 24 and cf. N. of con-
sonantal stems,§ 57); thus, *ged + s + t > ge, *nteigh + s
+ t > t&, *log + s > 16; in the other personsthe -.swas not
final, e.g.,2nd sing, geiss< *ged + « + */. Still more difficult
are the enclitic forms of the 3rd sing, where the stem is
reduced to merely the consonant or consonants of the
anlaut : e.g., t-in^fet<*to-in-sued 'inspires,' enclitic 3rd
sing. pres. subj. -t-ini-b (unless he) ' inspire ' (for 6 =/<
szf- v. § 41 b (e) ; scochid, subj. stem (sces'.s),enclitic
con-roi-sc; deuteroton. fo-16, prototon. -fill. The stem
sag- is reduced to -a in -cuintea<*con-di-xa and -tei to -t
in con-eit. Final -rs becomes -IT and does not disappear,
e.g., orgid, 3rd sing. subj. -orr, enclitic -com-ar stems with
initial f=n in enclitic positions after a vowel disappear
altogether, e.g., do-coi < * de-co-uess-t,dn-di', <*to-di-
fed-s-t.

130. s-Subjunctive Preterite.

Sing. Plur.
1. -gessinn -teisinn -gesmifi -tiasmais
2. -gesta -tiasta -geste
3. -gessed -tewed -gestin
Passive.

Sg. -geste -tiastae PI. -gestis 'tiaxtais

Under the influence of the a-subjunctive the personal
endings tend more and more towards o-quality ; e.g. sg.
 78

1st sexainn(-tteinn),3rd -bdsad(bongid),pi. -mais, -tae,

-tais : the forms in -tae become later-in. Deponents inflect
like actives, e.g. -fessinn, -festa, &c.
N.B.-As no (or ni, dia", t/rti", <v.c.)is always prefixed
to the subj. pret. only conj. forms are found.
THE FUTURE STEM.

131. There are three types of future, viz., («) the -/-
future, (6) the asigmatic future, and (c) the -s-
future. Weak verbs form the -/- future, strong verbs the
asigmatic or the -s- future according as they make their
subjunctives in -a- or -s- : by way of exception some strong
words adopt the -/- future, while a few weak verbs follow
the asigmatic future ; e.g. -ic, fut. -icfea ; caraid, fut.,
"cechra, scaraid, fut. scera.
The /" Future.

132. The/- future is formed by adding the suffix -fa,-fea

to the future stem: in the conjunct. 1st sg. act. it is
written -b (i.e. /3), and has w-quality, e.g. l&cinb ; it is
sometimes also written -b in inlaut, especially after -s-
The / becomes palatal after a palatal vowel; e.g. l&cfea
<* -linku-i-fa, but verbs A I. change the quality of the
stem final to palatal before this suffix ; e.g. anaid re-
mains,' fut. ainfed. The following explanations of the
origin of the suffix, none of which are quite satisfactory,
have been offered :-
(l) That it is part of the verb 'to be ' like -60 in Lat.
ama-bol. and cf. nseoiasmi ' I am ' in Skr. 1st fut.
ddtdsmi. If this theory were true, we should
expect to find 6 written more frequently than /, but
the reverse is the fact.

(2) That it first arosefrom the reduplicatedfut. of a

verb whosesubj. stem was*sud, whenceredupl.
fut. = *simd- < *sifa, but such a verb does not occur
(Thurn).
tAccording to Thurn. this is a new formation from -bam on the
analogy ero : eram : : amabo : amabam.
 79

(3) That it corresponds to the Old Welsh fnt. in -liau

(from sd-\ the suffix -.soafter a stem ending in
spirantb (/3) wouldgive-fa<v + h (Thurn).
The probabilities are that it is some form of the -.s fut.
{-sud, -sno 1).
133. Dep. endings.
abs. conj. abs. conj.
Sg. I leicfea -leiciub -fer -fer, -far
2 leicfe -Uicfe -fider -fider
3 l&icfid, -fith -leicfea -fithir, -fidir -fedar, -fadnr
rel. Uicfes
PL 1 l&cfimmi -leicfem -fimiuir
"leicfem -fimmir -faniniar
rel. leicfimme -femmar
2 leicfithe, -fide "leicfid -fid
3 Uicfit "leicfet -fetar
rel. Idicfite
0! Examples of the deponent forms in the sing. abs. are
rare. In the 1st sg. dep. unsyncopated forms are found,
«.g. -cuirifar beside -molfar.
Passive.

Active and deponent have the same inflection.

abs. conj.
Sg. le"icfidir, -ithir -Uicfider
rel. Idicfider
PI. leicfitir "leicfiter, -fetar
rei. leicfiter, -fetar
134. Future Preterite.
sing. plur.
2 -Uicfinn -leicfimmis
2 -leicfeda -leirfide, -fithe
3 -Uicfed, -feth -leicfitis.
Passive.

Sing. -Uicfide, -fithe. Plur. -leicfitis.

The deponents inflect like actives. Only conj. forms
occur (v. §123).
 80

135. THE ASIGMATIC Fi TTRE.

This future is formed by reduplicating the a- subjunctive _^

stem! Jt is further sub-dividedinto three types (1) the
ordinary reduplicated future, (2) the e-future, (3)
the future of verbs B IV. (v. S 11">).
1. The ordinary reduplicated future. The vowel
of the reduplicated syllable is either i or e, the latter
usually before a non-palatal consonant; e.g. with /, yttiitilhir
'is born,' subj. stem gena-, fut. stem gigne- <*gi-gena-;
ddhnid 'admits,' subj. stem dama-, fut. 3rd sg. -didma
<* di-dama \ ibid 'drinks,' subj. stem eba-, fut. stem
iba < *i-eba (i long through contraction of vowels) :
with e, canaid '.sings,' subj. stem cana-, fut. stem cechna-
<*ce-chana-; do-roigu (perf.) 'has chosen,'fut. 3rd sg.
do-gega. , ,, ^ ^t. 9 A*-I^~
'2. The e- Future/ Almost all the forms round of this
future are the result of widespread analogy from a few
genuine reduplicated futures with a weak form of the root
like the Skr. desideratives: e.g. cela < *cechla<*ki-kl-a,
kl being the weak form of the root kel. Examples are
berid, -bera; celid 'conceals,'-cdla; gaibid 'takes,' -geba;
do-gni ' does,' -gdna.
3. The Future of Class B IV. e.g. renaid ' sells,' fut.
3rd sg.-riri ; lenaid 'adheres,' fut. 3rd sg. -lili; benaid
forms a future without reduplication, probably from the
influence of -fen.
^ of_.^ejjveutures _2^_and3j^s hat of the
__

snbjunctixe_prese111.
136. The s- Future. The stem of the s- future, is
formed,from the s- sq^j^.byjfifj^plication, thf^tem vowe1
The vowel of the FedupTj cation
iyllable is normally i, but before stems with a it usually
becomese : e.g. guidid 'prays,' subj. gess-,fut. gig..s;
bongid ' breaks,'subj. 6o*.s--,
fut. stembib..s-; but maidid
'breaks,' subj. mass, fut. stem mem..ft-.
 81

Note specially the following phonetic peculiari-

ties :-

(a) cli and d are retained before I, e.g. ad-claid

'hunts,' fut. 1st sing.ad-cichlus; dlongid 'cleaves',fut.
stem did..I*-.
(b) Verbs with an initial vowel only take the i of the
reduplication, e.g. orgid ' strikes,' subj. orr-; fut. iorr-:
ithid ' eats,' subj. ess-from >Jed, fut. fas- by contraction
(of. ib-).
(c) Roots with initial si drop the leuited s altogether
after the reduplication, e.g. sluiiliil 'strikes,' fut. seL.N
<*.sr-.s7...v-
: xligid, fut. sil..s<*si-sl..s.
(rf) Verbs with initial s = su have /<% after the re-
duplication, e.g. Nciniid ( ^ Niieiiu-), subj. .sw.s-,fut. N/'f..*-.
(e) saigid, subj. suss-,makes fut. siass- <*si-sass.
(/) Roots with initial /< u drop it after reduplication;
e.g. subj. fenN, fut. ^a.s-.s< tti-iteHf*: as this z'a becomes e
when the stem does not form the final syllable, a confusion
of the subj. and fut. forms results, e.g. ro-fitir 'knows,'
fut. -fiastar also as subj., while -festar (subj.) occursas fut.;
midithir judges ' form its fut. stem in miass- from analogy.
(g) The consonant of the reduplication syllable is lost
after fo- and to- when they bear the principal accent, e.g.
"folsitis (MS. Wb. 15 a 20)<*fotlsitis <*fo-li-lositis, from
fo-loing; foichiurr but deuterotonic fo-cichurr from
fo-ceird.

FORMS WITHOUT REDUPLICATION.

137. AVhen the stem is unaccented throughout all its

forms, as is the case when two preps, precede it, it is not
reduplicated and does not differ from the subjunctive, e.g.
nigid 'washes,' fut. -nimiN, but do-fo-nus; orgid, fut.
ion; but do-ess-arr ; tiagu ' I go,' fut. 3rd pi. -inotsat
<*in-od-tessat.
2. Some verbs use the s-subj. without reduplication as
future, even when the stem is accented : e.g. rethid, fut.
3rd sg. -re ; iaigid, -lee (i.e., le) ; saidid, 3rd sg. abs.
seiss.
f
 82

138. Paradigm of the reduplicated s= future.

abs. dep.
Sg. 1 (gigwa), gigse "fessur
2 (gigfii) "gigis "fesfter
3 y/y/s "flastar
rel. giges
PI. 1 (gigsimmi) "gigsem
rel. (gigsimme)
2 gigeste "gigsid
3 gig fiit "gigset "fessatnr
rel. gigsite.
139. Future Preterite.

Sg. 1 -gigftinn "mrr "cichiurr

2 (-glgesta) "iirr, {IT ("cichirr)
3 -gigsed "iarr, "tor "tidier r
PI. 1 ("gigsimmis)
2 ("gigeste)
3 -gigsitis "errat, -iurat -cichret.
In the conj. 3rd sg. the vowel of the stem is sometimes
retained, sometimes lost as in the s- subj. e.g. mai(!i</,
"memo. ; nascid, -nenn ; but sin id id, -sel ; -anich, -ain ;
"sil

PRETERITESTEM (act. and dep.).

t40. The preterite stem appearsonly in the pret. indie.
act. and dep. It is formed in three ways :
1. the s=preterite : all weak verbs and a few strong
verbs.
2. the f=preterite : strong verbs in -I and -r and
several in -m and -g, active flexion only.
3. the suffix-less preterite ". further sub-divided into
reduplicated and unreduplicated : all other strong verbs.
141 The s= Preterite.

The ,foimf,d by
-ss-) to the verb stem ; the form correspond-' !<].(-.
s- aorist.
 142. Paradigm of the s- Preterite.
Active.
abs. conj.
A I. A II.

Sg. I y(t(>*n "caras "leicius

2 gabui "carais "l&icis
3 gabaift "car "leic
rel. ijadniK
PI. 1 (gabsimmt) "cai-Nam "Idicsem
rel. gabsimme
2 (gabNi'thel)
3 yabm't "carsat "lei'-set.
Deponent.
A II. conj.
Sg. 1 -suidigsiur PI. -suidigsemmar
2 "suidigsid
3 "suidigsetar.
Of the abs. only the 3rd sg. is found, viz. cichnaigistir >
A I. 3rd sg. e.g. "inolt^liu; -labranfa):
4lWl
143. The /- Preterite.
The t- preterite is
if the steni endsJiL-j^Jiie ja_disappearsand the preceding
voweLjp Iftngtlip.nfiH iyi compensatioiv^fffele the ( after a
vo\vel_=d
' -i : ifii - ,|,n^
the stem ends in -fjf t^e q rhfiPgpg t.n -<"
.'-^^.^""ahBMM^^BMMMa^M"*!""'^^^
before-t. The t \yas_originallythe ending of the 3rd sg.
only.
144. Paradigm of the t- Preterite.
conj.
accented enclitic
Sg. 1 -biurt "ru-lna-t
2 -bh-t "ru-bairt
3 -bert "ru-bart
PI. 1 (-bertammar) "riirbartmmar
"2 (-bertid) "ru-bartaid
3 -bei'tar, -bertatar "ru-hartatar, bartat.
 84

Of the abs. flexion are found only 3rd sg. birt, rel.
bertae, pi. rel. bertar, bertatar ; the 1st and '2nd sg. were
probably *birtu, *berti.
Further examples: alid ' rears/ alt ; at-raig arises,'
atracht ; celid 'hides,' celt ; -em-,-et ; -sem,-set; orgid
' slays,' ort < *orcht.
145. The suffix-less Preterite.

A. reduplicated.
The vowel of the reduplication syllable is e ; the initiaL.
consonant of the root syllable which follows has always
non-palatal quality, even when the verb stem has a palatal
vowel. The consonantal groups chl, gl, gr often remain
after the redupl. syllable, but si, sn- give sel-, sen- as in the
6--future.

146. Paradigm of reduplicated Preterite.

Example: canaid 'sings.'
con.

Sg. 1 -cechan PI. -cechnammar

2 -ceclian -cechnaid
3 -ceclutin -cechnatar.
Absolute forms are rare. Further examples are :-
claidid digs,' cechlad-; maidid ' breaks,'memad-; ad-
greinn 'follows,' -gegrann-; fo-gleinn 'learns,' -geglann-;
sennid ( J suenn-) 'plays,' sephann- or sefann- ( = *se-
suann) ; ligid ' licks,' lelag- ; sligid ' strikes do^'n,' selag-
( = *se^slag)
; snigid' drops,
' senag-( =--*se-imag.IrT^JT^M'
from the dep.gainithir ' is born,' *ge-gn-hasbecomegen.
In later O. Ir. there is a tendency to substitute the vowel
of the present for the e of the reduplication syllable, e.g.
"cachainfor -cechain(canaid), bobig for *bebig (bongid
'breaks'). In prototonic forms with perfectivero the
consonantof the reduplication is lost and ro + e give rde-,
roi-, e.g. ro-cechan, prototon. roichan ; ro-gegrann, pro-
toton. -roigrann. After this analogy the prep, com
changesto coim-, cdem-, e.g. do-nig ' washes,'3rd pi. do-
cdemnachtar ( = * nag-tar} ; fo-loing 'endures,' fo-coim-
 85

Iwhtar (=*lag-tar). In Ml. a confusionbegins_to

arise
between thero- of the deuteroton. redupl, fnrmg a.pH
roi- of the prototon. redupl. forms;yrfrinhha.vAInsf.
cons., e.g. Jor-ro-cliain for for-roichain and vice
"roichechnatar for ro-cechnalur.

147. Irreg-ular reduplication.

Compoundsof -ic have,as, prp.fcerite stemdnac- (c= g)
i.e. an-ac, cf. Skv. dn-arc- from arc-, e.g. t-ic ' comes,'pret.
t-an-aic.
litigid 'leans' makes leblany-, with ro-, roiblang; lin<j
:*pling- redupl. *ple-plang hence, with loss of initial p,
leblaixj ; analogically i/i-ini/id 'climbs' makesdrcbrang.
Rnnta enrlinp; in ^a vowel ara jreduced to the initial con-
sonant after the reduplication, e.g. le-n-aid. 3rd sg. -HI;
re-n-aid, -rir : cre-n-aid 1st s^. "cdr<*cecnr-. 3rcF-c7»;V
;
"gnin recognizes' 1st and 2nd sg., -gen <*gegn- ; did
Aveeps,'cich. The dep. ro-cluhiethqr hear^' |)ftd 11,as
vo^\\el(if redupl. syllable, 0.3. pi-ct. Nt >X-r««/«< "'"/ -
*cochl-<*cu-chl-,J kleu^cf,Skr.ftu.-ftrn.v-(]}
ru-rac-a.CJ[
It.
148. Unreduplicated forms.
The unreduplicated forms are divided into a-preterites
and /-preterites.
a-preterite : some verbs have a in the preterite stem
when accented instead of the e or « of their root syllables,
«.g. rethid 'runs,' rath- (encl. -ro-rth-atar, -ro-rth-etar
<*ro-reth-atar; techid 'flees,' tdch- (encl. admr6e-thach).
/-preterite : J per, subj. -era ' grant,' pret. 3rd sg. ir ;
midithir 'judges,' 1st sg. ini'dar (encl.-ammadar).

149. Irregular unreduplicated forms.

The verb ' to S[Q'forms its^ureterite sg. 1 and 2 -lad,
\ pi 1 _.(nrTnin.^3rrl -Intn.r (p.ncl."tu-ltaf.q.r.in-
?<r<\.-g. -In', i>\. -beotar,
 86

150. Paradigm of unreduplicated Preterite-

Examples: (juiclid ' prays'and midithir judges':
cou.j. dep.
Sg. 1 -gad midar
2 -gad * midar
3 -tjaid (midair)
PL 1 "(jddai)iinar *midammar
1 (-gadid) *viidaid
3 -gddatar (mtdatar)
A relative form gdde is found in 3rd sing. : in later
MSS. the 3rd sg. conj. is used for absolute, e.g., tuirh
' fled' (techid). In contradistinction to the deponentending
the 3rd plural -atar of the active maybe shortened to -tar.
151. PASSIVE PRETERITE STEM.

The passiyepreterite-
&ken\_
cprresponds
to
dj^m -to^td-, cf. Gk. and Lat. verbaTadjs.AV-TO-S,.
scrip-tn-s.
The t of the suffix becomesth or d (S) after vowels,e.g.
cara-d, Idice-d, -gni-th, -fri-tli : c and g become ch Ijefore t,
e.g. bonyid ( V bog), -bocht; filigid, -slecht; -ic, -icht: a
dental or s + t = ss, e.g., nu'd-ithir, me*8 : claidid, class;
ad-ci ( *Jquis),-cess: also stemsin -im, e.g.,-ylaui, -yla* :
oryid makes -art < *orcht as in the ^-preterite.
Strong verbs with roots containing -er, -el changeto reT
le, e.g. berid, -broth ; celid, -cleth ; fo-ceird, -cress.
Strongverbsin -nand -in make preteritesin -et (t = d),.
e.g.canaid 'sings,'cet ; daimid, det ; do-moinethar,-met;
yonaid ' wounds' makes-goit, -gdet(from a differentroot).
152. Paradigm of Passive Preterite.
Absolute.
A I. AIL BY.
Sg. 3 carthae leicthe brethae
PL not found not found not found
Conjunct.
Sg. 3 -carad -leiced,-eth -breth (-brad)
PL -cartha -leicthea -bretha
 87

153. THE PARTICII-LES.

The Past Participle Passive: This is formed from

active verbs like the passive preterite, but with the suffix
-tio-, tid-, e.g. carthae, l&icthe, dep. moltae (moladar).
Strong verbs have the same root as in the pret. pass., e.g.
benaid, bithe ; orgid, ortae ; claidid, claisse; canctid,
c^ie: irregular are gniid, gnethe (contrast sniid, snitlie} ;
for-feu, for-baide (unsyncopated),but also foir-bthe (used
as adj.). This participle sometimes has the force of
'possibility,' e.g- renaid 'sells,' rithe 'saleable'; ncpli-
icthe 'incurable.' The declension is that of adjs. in
-e, -ae, § 69.
The Participle of necessity : The suffix is -// (-thi., -di.\
corresponding
taAVpl^li.--/^^in caradlCi/-.-aiidJ1s,Tadeclin
a¥le. Thurneysen(after Zupitza) suggeststhat in origin these
participles are old predicative datives of verbal abstracts
with the suffix
' -tei-, -ti-, and compares Skr. in-tuye ' for
drinking' = to be drunk,' e.g. carthai, lt'i<-1hi; i-miii'
'sings'makes cdti, but in compoundf<»-<-<ii>i
both /o/V-
ctki and Jor-canti;-em (do-em) makes -iti (diti)- Verbs
with stems ending in a dental or s make -««/, sometimes
-xti, e.g. gitidid, gessi, midithh\ inesxi ; ctN-gleiiui,
eclastai: benaid and Hernaid make bethi, urethi; the
]>articiple of berid is only found in syncopated com-
pounds as ta-barthi, eperthi, the abs. form was probably
'"brethi.

154. VERBAL NOUNS.

In 0. Ir. there is properly speaking no infinitive, but

th'e_us_e
of a verbalabstractnoun_inthe_aat.with the prepT,
tin somft^imes approaches the use of the infinitivelin orEe!*
langjiaggs.
1. As a rule the verbal noun has the same root as the
verb, but some feAv verbs use a different root as verbal
noun, e.g. gal v.n. of fichid 'fights,' di-gal of do-ficli,
&c. ; denominative verbs may have the noun from which
they are derived as verbal noun, e.g. ice v.n. of iccaid
 88

*heals5;the usual ending for denominativeverbal nouns

is A I. -fid, -ath. A II. -iud, -iuth, -ud, -utli, declinedasit-
stem, e.g. moraid ' magnifies,'mdrad ; leicid, Uiciud ; also
anaid (primaryverb),anad.
2. Compoundswhoseroots end in a guttural or -nn have
no termination and decline as ueut. o-stems,e.g.fo-loing,
fulach ; ad-slig, aslacJi; do-seinn, D. sg. tofunn.
3. Neuters in -e (zo-slems), e.g. saidid, suide ; laigid,
Hye > fris-gair, frecre ; ad-gnin, aithgne.
4. Femininesin -e (m-stems), e.g. guidid, guide; sligid,
xliye ; claidid, claide.
5. Suffix -ti-, f. : e.g. breth, G. brithe ; cleith (celid),
mlith (melid).
Suffix-to-, n. : e.g.mrath (mairnid), -mat (-moinethar).
Suffix -tu-, m. : e.g.mess<*med-tu (midithir), fiss (ro-
fitir).
Suffix -tio-, f. : e.g. dttiu (di-em-}, Joditin (fo-daim),
toim-tiu <*to -men-tin (do-moinethar).
6. Suffix m. -mu-, f. -md-, n. -smn- or -mn-: e.g. gnim, m.
(gniid), cretem,f. (cretid), ceimm,n. (cingid).
7. Suffix -ni-, -nd-, f. : e.g. buain<*bog-ni (bongid), din
< *ag-ni (*agid) ; orcun, G. oircne (orgid), fedan, G.
fednae (fedid).
8. Nouns in -I: e.g. cttal (canaid) anacul (-anich),
gabdl (gaibid).
N.B.-renaid and crenaid make *ricc *cricc (D. A. sg.
reicc (rice}, creicc), lenaid, glenaid, tlenaid make lena-
mon, glenamon, tlenamon. The loan-words scribaid and
Ugaid make scrtbend and legend from Lat. gerund, and
do-lega'destroys' make dilgend after the analogyof Lat.
delendum.

Complete Paradigm of the Weak Verbs.

Examples: caraid loves,' leicid ' leaves,' suidigidir
(dep.)' places.'
 89

Active : INDICATIVE ,
A I. A II. Deponent.
155. Present absolute.
Sg. I caraim li'ii'hn suiditjim
9 carat lf'ii-i xniditjther
3 car aid Idicid xitidiyidir
rel. car as Idicex Nuidiyedar
PI. 1 cannai li'-icini Ni(i<liymir
rel. carmae l&r/i/r suidigmer
2 carihae leicthe *i(i<Ii</t/ir
3 carait li'li-tt suidigitir
rel. caraite AYr"(/(-,-ite suidigetar
156. Conjunct.
Sg. 1 "earn "leicin, -im 'Suidigur
2 "carai "leifi "suidigiher
3 "cara "I6ici "Niiiiliyedar
PL 1 "caram "Il'iri'lll "suidigmer
2 "caraid "li:i/-ill "suidigid
3 "carat "Icii-t / "NKidiyetar
157. Imperfect (always conjunct).
Sg- 1 "carainn "leiciii,! "Niu'diyinn
2 "cartha "leicthea "suidigthea
3 "carad "It'iced "miidiyed
PI. 1 "carmais "Idicmis "Nitidiynu's
2 "carthae "li'ii-fhc "suidigthe
3 "cartais "l&ictis "suidiytifi
158. Future absolute.
Sg. 1 car fa. leicfea Hiddiyfer
| * carfe leicfe xi'tdiylider
X". "3 carfid leicfid xitidiyfidir
'. rel. carfas leicfes suidigfedar
yPl. l carjimmi Uicfimmi suidigfimmir

rrel.
carfimme
leicfimme
suidigf
2 carfithe
3 carfit
rel. carfite
leicfide
leicfit
It'ii-fite
suidigfide
*uidigiitir
Hnidigfetar
 90

159 conjunct.
Sg. 1 -carnh "leiciub "suidiyfer
2 -carfe "leicfe "suidigfider
3 -carfn "Iricfea "suidigfedar
PI. 1 -car/am "leicfem "siiidigfemmar
2 -earful "leicfid "suidigfid
3 -car/at "leicfcf "suidigfetar
160. Future Preterite (alwaysconjunct).
Sg. 1 -carfinn "leir.fi in) "suidigfinn
2 'carfeda "lAicfeda "suidigfeda
3 -car/ad "suidigfed
PI. 1 "carfimmis "leicfimmis
2 -carfide "Uicfide "suidigfide
3 -carfitis

161. Preterite (absolute).

Sg. 3 caretis suidigistir
PI. 3 carxait Idicsit suidigsitir
162. conjunct.
Sg. 1 -earn* "l&cius "suidigsiur
2 "suidigser
3 -ccn- "leic "suidigestar
PI. 1 -carsam "l&icsem "suidigsemmar
2 -carsaid "l&csid "mtidigsid
3 -ccirf<at "suidigsetar
SUBJUNCTIVE.

163. Present (absolute).

Sg. 1 cora l&cea *suidiyer
2 carae Idice suidigther
3 caraid suidigidir
rel. caran l&ices suidigedar
PI. 1 carmai leicmi suidigmir
rel. carmae leicme suidigmer
2 carthae leicthe suidigthe
3 carait leicit suidigitir
rel. caraite leicde,-ite suidigetar
 91

164. conjunct.
Sg. 1 -car "],'"/," "Kitidiger
2 -carae -leice "suidigther
3 -cant -leicea "fniidi'i/cdur
PL 1 -caram -leiccni "suidigmer
2 -can/id "le'icid "suidigid
3 -carat -leicet "suidigetar

165. Preterite (only conjunct).

Sg. 1 -carfinin -l^icinn "xnidi(jiini
'2 -cartlut -leicthea "suidigthea
3 -cat-ad -Ir'iccd "suidiged
PL 1 "caniia/N "lc/cinin "Niiidi</>iiiH
'2 "cai-l/iac -Icicthc "Ntn'dii/the
3 Tai'taiN "IcH'ti* "xi'ldl'i/tin

166. IMPERATIVE (al>s.«Srconj.).

Sg. 2 car Icic suidigthe
3 carad Ic'/ccd suidiged
PL 1 cm-am /i:ir,'n/ (suidigmer)
2 caraid le'icid suidigid
3 carat Icicct xii idiy etar

Passive: INDICATIVE.

167 Present, absolute.

Sg. 3 carthair leicthir suidigthir
rel. carthar Uictlicr Niu'diythcr
PL 3 cartair, -atair h'ictii; -itir snidigtir
rel. cartar, -atar leicter, -etar xiiidigter
conjunct.
Sg. 3 -carthar -leicther "suidigther
PL 3 -cartar, -atar -leicter, -etar "Ni'idiyter

168. Imperfect (alwaysconjunct).

Sg. 3 -carthae -U'icthe -suidigthe
PL 3 -cartais -Itictis -snidiytis
 92

169. Future, absolute.

Sg. 3 carfidir leicfidir suidigfidir
rel. carfedar leicfedar suidigfedar
PI. 3 carfitir Uicfitir suidigfitir
rel. carfiter, -fetar -Mcfiter, -fetar suidigfiter,
-fetar
conjunct.
Sg. 3 -carfider -Uicfider "suidigfider
PI. 3 -carfiter, -fetar -leicfiter, -fetar -midigfiter,
-fetar
170. Future Preterite (alwaysconjunct).
Sg. 3 -carfi.de -leicjide -suidigfide
£ PI. 3 -caifitis -Uicfitis -suidigfitis
171. Preterite, absolute.
Sg. 3 carthae leicthe suidigthe
PI. 3 (carthai) (leicthi) (suidigthi)
conjunct.
Sg. 3 -carad -leiced -suidiged
PI. 3 -cartha -leicthea -suidigthea
Perfect.

Formed from the pret. by means of ro with infixed pro-

nouns of 1st and 2nd pers. sg. and pi.
Sg. 1 ro-m-charad PI. ro-n-carad
2 ro-t-charad ro-b-carad
3 ro-carad ro-cartha

SUBJUNCTIVE.
172. Present, absolute.
Sg. 3 carthair Uicthir zuidigthir
rel carthar leicther suidigther
PI. 3 cartair, -aitir le"ictir, -itir suidigtir
rel. cartar, -atar leicter, -etar suidigter
conjunct.
Sg. 3 -carthae -leicther -suidigther
PI. 3 -cartar, -atar -leicter, -etar -suidigter
 93

173. Preterite (ahvays conjunct).

Sg. 3 -carthae
PL 3 -cartais

174 IMPERATIVE (ahs. & conj.).

Sg. 3 carthar suidigtlier
PL 3 cartar l&icter xnidigter
175. Past Participle Passive.
carthae leic the sn idig the
Participle of Necessity.
carthai Uicthi xtiidigthi
Verbal Noun.
carad Iririud suidigud
Q. cartho, -a leictheo, -ea snidigtheo,-ea
Paradigm of Strong verbs.
Examples: biru ' I bear,' gaibim ' I take,' benaim ' I
strike.'

Active: INDICATIVE.
176. Present, absolute.
BI. BII. BIY.
Sg. 1 biru gaibim benaim
2 bir (beri) gaibi benai
3 berid gaibid benaid
rel. beres gaibes beivi*
PL 1 bermai gaibmi benmi
rel. bermae gaibme benme
2 berthe gaibthe bente
3 berait gaibit benait
rel. bertae gaibte bente
177. conjunct.
Sg 1 "biur "gaibim ("benaim)
2 "bir "gaibi "benai
3 "beir "gaib "ben
(end. -be)
PL 1 "beram "gaibem "bennm
2 "berid "gaibid "benaid
3 "berat "gaibet "benat
 94

178. Imperfect (always conjunct).

Sg. 1 -berinn "gaibinn "benainn
2 -bertha ("gaibthea) "beutu
3 -bered "gaibed "beixnl
PI. 1 -bennix "gaibmis "benmis
2 -berthe "gaibthe "bente
3 -bertis "gaibtis "bentis

179. Future, absolute.

Substituting guidim (B III.) and renaim (B IV.) for
gaibim and benaim.
Sg. 1 6e'ra g/gsea (rirea)
2 berae (gigsi) (rire)
3 bdraid gigis riri
rel. fre'ras giges rires
PI. 1 be"rmai gigsimmi (rirnii)
rel. bermae (gigsimme) ( I'irme)
2 bdrthae gi'jeste (rirthe)
3 &ero j £ gigsit ririt
rel. bertae gigsite (rirte)
conjunct.
Sg. 1 -6eV "i/igius "ririu
2 -berae "gigis ("rire)
3 -b£ra "gig "riri
PI. 1 -beram "gigsem "rirem
2 -bdraid "gigsid "ririu
3 -berat "gigset ("riret)

180. Future Preterite (always conjunct) with itliim for

benaim.

Sg. 1 -berainn "gigsii ni ("issainn)

2 -bertha "gigesta ("issta)
3 -berad "gigsed "issad
PI. 1 -bermis "gigsimmis ("issmais)
2 -berthe "gigeste ("isstae)
3 -bertis "gigsitis "isstais
 95

181. Preterite, absolute, with guidim for benaim.

Sg. I *birtu gabsu *gdda
2 *berti yab*i ""gddae
3 birt yabais gaid
rel. bertae gabes gdde
PI. 1 *bertimmir (gabsimmi) *gddimmir
rel. *bcrtemmar gabsimme *gddemmar
2 *bertitlie (gabsithe) * gad the
3 *bertir gabsit *gdditir
rel. bertar,-atar gabsite gddatar
conjunct.
Sg. 1 "&«>»"£,
-biurt "gabus "gdd
2 -6ir< "gabais "gad
3 -6er« "gab "gdid, -hi
PI. 1 -bertammar "gabsam "gddammar
2 -bertaid "gabsid ("gddid)
3 -bertatar "gabsat "gddatar

SUBJUNCTIVE.

182. Present, absolute, with guidim for benaim.

Sg. 1 6e?-a gdba (gesso)
2 berae gabae gessi
3 beraid gabaid geiss
rel. bera.1 gab(is ges
PI. 1 bermai gabmai gesmi
rel. bermae gabmae gesme
2 berthae gabtlia geste
3 berait gabait gessit
rel. bertae gabtae geste(bete}
conjunct with benaim.
Sg. 1 -&er "gab ("b6u)
2 -berae "gabae ("biae)
3 -bera "gaba "bia
PI. 1 -beram "gabam "biam
2 -beraid "gabaid *-biaid
3 -berat "gabat ("biat)
encl. -bet
 96

183. Preterite (only conjunct).

Sg. 1 "berinn "gabiim *-biinn
2 -bertha "gabtIn/ *-bitha
3 -berad "gabutl "biiul
(end.-bed,-bath)
PI. 1 -ber)iiift "gabuitN *-binus
2 -berthe "gabt/ic * -bit In-
3 -bertix "gabtis "betis

134. IMPERATIVE (abs. & conj.).

Sg. 22 beir gaib ben
3 bered, -ad gaibed benad
PL 1 beram gaibein benain
2 &eri'e? gaibid benaid
3 forai gaibet benat

185. Passive: INDICATIVE.

Present, absolute.
Sg. 3 berair gaibthir bcuair
rel. berar gctibther bencr
PL 3 bertair gaibtir bentir
rel. bertar gaibtcr bentar
conjunct.
Sg 3 "berar -gaibtlicr -benar
PL 3 "bertar -gaibter, -etar -bentar
185. Imperfect (alwaysconjunct).
Sg. 3 "berthe "gaibtlie "bentc
PL 3 "berti* -gaibtis "bcnti*
1S7.
Future, absolute.
Sg. 3 bcrthir (gebthir) *bethir
PL 3 bertir (gebtir) *betir
conjunct.
Sg. 3 "berthar (-gebthar) *-bethar
PL 3 "bertar (-gebtar) *-beta>-
 97

188. Future Preterite (always conjunct).

Sg. 3 -berthe (-gebthe) *bethe
encl. -betid <>
PL 3 -berti* (-gebtis) *betis

189. Preterite, absolute.

Sg. 3 brethae gabthae (bithe)
PL .3*brethai *gabthai *btthi
conjunct.
Sg. 3 -breth -gabad -biih
PL 3 -bretha -gabtha *-beth«
Subjunctive : present as in Indicative abs. and conj. ;
preterite as in imperf. indicative ; imperative as in pres.
indicative conjunct.
190. Past participle Passive.
(brethe) encl.-berthe (gaibthe) bithe

Participle of Necessity.
(brethi) encl.-berthi (gaibthi) bethi
Verbal Noun.

breth, brith gab/'il beiunn

(j. britlie gabdlae beinnnc

191. The Verb ' to be.'

The verb has two series of forms: one series contain-;
the forms which denote existence-the substantive
verb ; the other series is composed of forms which are used
merely to connect subject with predicate-the copula:
the forms of the copula are always weakly accented (pro-
clitic). The verb is built up by employing several different
rootsin the senseof ' being': thus, the substantiveverb
employsthe rootsstd (Lat. std-re), ncl (AV.gu-el-ed'to
see'),' bhu (Skr. bhdv-ati,Gk. <£i'-o/i<xi,
Lat. fu-i) ' to be-
come ; the copula employs, in addition to bhu and std, the
g
 '
Id G. root ex to be ' ; cf. French, Italian and German use
of se trouver, star, and sich befindenin the senseof
'being'; also the different roots in English am, be, «"«*.

SUBSTANTIVE VERB.

INDICATIVE.

192. Present from *J std.

conjunct.
Sg. 1 -tan, -t6, -tu PL -taam
, \-taaid, -taaith
\-taid, -toad
3 -to, -taat, -tut

The usual form is nttd, atd<*ad-std-w, but the prep, ad

is dropped when a conjunct particle precedes the verb, e.g.
irtdu 'in which I am,' h6-taat 'from which they are.'
With ol or in 'than' the following forms are found : sg. 1.
olddu (old6), 2. oldai (oltai). 3. rel. oldaas, indaas ; pi.,
3. olddtae (olddta), inddtae : the 1st and 2nd sg. olddu,
oldai may mean either 'than I,' 'than thou,' or 'than
mine,' 'than thine': an abs. form of the 3rd sg. tdith is
found in poetry with suffixed pronouns (v. § 87). The
relative passiveform is found written dathar (d = nasalized
/), e.g. is lied dathar dom Wb. 21 c 9, dathar dun, Wb.
28 d 4.

193. Present from J ucl

Fil (fel, fell, later fail), rel. file, fele, is used for
all numbersand persons: originally HI, wa.^a. '?nH Hyt
imperative ='lo!_' and jbhp.oldest use is with suffixed
pronouns; e.g. jjl-us 'there are' (lit, bebnlrl thprp ! ' .

'J'he etymology ot Jil explains the fact that it takes

the accusative case after it, e.g. ni fil aimxir (X.
aimser) ' there is not a time.' With infixed pronouns-.
e.g. con-dum-fel' so that I am/ con-dib-feil ' so that ye
are,' ci-ni-n-fil 'though we are not.' N.B.-ni-s-fil' they
'if<- not,' beside ni-s-ta, 'they have not.' Relative use :
 99

J'il or file, e.g., a J'/'l ' which is,' (ima/ file t'n'iilii/ eter
baidln as there is unity between members,' inna fer fel
and 'of the menwho are there,' (t-rrad file <nidN<»H,
'the
grace which is in him,' I'miai'lt rcndaih fail hiias gre/in 'in
the stars which are above the sun.' In question and
answer, e.g. in fill fit, 'Is there ' Yes (there is).'

194- Tenses from ijbhu.

Consuetudinal Present.

Absolute. ('onjunct.
S-. 1 binu -hi/i

2 (b(\ -hi
3 bud, -ith -hi (end. -lmi)
rel. bin
PL 1 bimmi bid in
rel. bimme
3 biit -bint, -hi,,I (encl. but)
rel. bite

Passive.

Sg. 3 bitliir "bither

195. Imperfect.
Sg. 1 "biiiiii PL 1
"bith

196. Future.

Sg. 1 bia not found

2 biae 'bia
3 bieid, bied 'hin
rel. bidn
PL 1 bennni 'Ilium
2 bethi 'bieid, 'bied
3 bieit, biet 'biat
rel. bcfc
 100

197. Future Preterite (conjunctonly)

Sg. I -beinn PL "bem)in'^
3 -biad -beti*
The infixed pronounsare added to the forms of the
future of the substantive verb by means of ro instead »f
?io; in the fut. preterite they are infixed by either ro or
no, e.g.,ro-m-bia 'l shall have,' n>-ni-ln'<itl
or no-m-biad
' I should have.'

198. Preterite.
conjunct.
Sg. 1 'bci, encl. -ba PL "bdnnnnr, encl. -bammar
"2"/>«,encl. -&« -betid,encl. -6ai'rf
3 -60?',"&(«, encl. -bae -bdtar, encl. -batcr,
Passive.
"feoife.

The only absolute forms occurring are sg. 3 boi rel.

boie ; pi. 3 6a£«r : pass, bothae, rel. botha.

199. IMPERATIVE.
Sg.. 2 6i 6ftd
3 6/f/z., bid biat

SUBJUNCTIVE.

200. Present.
Sg. 1 ben, beo (-ben,beo)
2 bee
3 beith, beid -be (encl. -6)
fee#/i,bed
rel. 6es
PL 1 bemmi -bem (encl. -
2 bethe -berth, -beid (encl. -
3 be'it -bet (encl. -
rel. bete
Passive.
bethir -bether
 101

201. Preterite.
Sg. 1 ("beinn) PI. -bennni*
1 -betha -bethe
3 -beth, -bed, enc\.-bad -bcti*
202. Participle of Necessity.
buithi.

Verbal Noun.

(ntith (both, bith, beit/t). G. bnithe.

THE COPULA.

INDICATIVE.

203. Present, absolute.

Sg. 1 am PI. iiiinni. <ii>n>ii,>
1 at, it
3 is it
rel. as ata, <il 'Ml.).
Peculiar forms of the rel, 3rd sg. and ]>1.are used after
fin, ce 'although,' and ma, ma 'if,' e.g. sg. cia-s-uf (cesu,
rc.su), -ma-H-ii' (massif, maw), in Ml. ciasa, masa ; pi.
ce-t-u (ceto), ma-t-u. The palatal vowel of in, it is pro-
bably due to their frequent use with the prons. he, hed.

204. conjunct.
There are two distinct seriesof forms viz. (a) those used
after the negative ni, in. (b) those used in caseswhere the
longer forms of the infixed pronouns would be employed
(v.'§85).
(a) with )ii (6) with con.
Sg. 1 ni-ta fini-da
- ni-ta i-ini-fiit
3 nl'1 I'nii-ilid, con-id
PI. 1 ni-tam, -tan, -dan' con-dan
"2 ni-tad, -dad con-da<!
3 ni-tat -dat
 10:2

1'u the (b) series the 3rd sg. is sometimesreducedto -t,

e.g. diftn-t ftinim, and sometimes disappears, e.g. arm, ni,
nach. After amal 'as' personswhich have no special
relative forms prefix no, e.g. sg. 1 and 2 no-n-d<i, pi. 1
no-n-dan, 2 no-n-dad, but 3rd sg. (mini a*"', 3rd pi. mnnl
atan.
After the negative nd in leniting relative sentences, sg. '">
ndd, pi. 3 natat " in nasalizing relative sentences sg. "''>
nant, nand, nan, ndt, nut, pi. 3' nandat, natnt " with
ce-?ii 'although not' and ma-ni if not' 3rd sg. mud,
niininl.

The («) formsare from v/ s£«with the exceptionof the

3rd sg. where ni (geminating)<*ms<nist<:*ne est: in
the (6) formsthe -d- is an infixed pronoun,and the archaic
forms -r/-r>», -d-c<l, -d-et show that they do not belong to
J std, but to J en. Thechangein theterminationof the
1st pi. tanxtau is due to the influence of the infixed \<<-<>
noun of the 1st pi.

205. Consuetudinal Present.

Only the 3rd sg. bi (with short t as distinct from 3rd
sg. conj. of subst. verb) ; e.g. ni-pi <jl"'<'. ni-pi <-ian ' it
does not be clear,' it does not be long,' com-bi ilc^ci]>n/
'
so that he becomes a disciple, com-bi did* i»6r so that
it becomes a great ear.'

206. Future.
absolute. conjunct.
Sg. 1 !>r
3 bid, bith -ba, -pa
rel. ben, has
PI. 1 bemmt, bimmi, Ixm/i
3 bit -bat, -pat
rel. beta

207. Future Preterite.

Sg. 3. abs. bed, conj. -bad, -pad " pi. 3rd conj. -bfi.-<,
-ptis, with infixed rel. pronoun romdis<*ro-m-bdis.
 103

208 Preterite and Imperfect.

absolute. conjunct.
Sg. 1 Ixi.-m -bsa, -psa, -set
2 (basa) (-bfta),-sa
3 ba -bo, -po, -bu, -pu
rel. ba
PL 1 (bammar) bomniar,-bummar
3 batir, battir -btar, -ptar, -tar, -dar
rel. batar

cla (ce)takesthe conjunctforms,e.g.,cia-bo,cin-/>t<n:

Some forms are much disguised owing to phonetic
changes, e.g. sg. 1 rom bithbdii where rom = rom-b, '2
romsa" = ro-m-b-sa, pi. 3 romtai; comtar = ro-m-btar, con-
btar : the -sa of sg. 1 and 2 is the emphatic particle. The
3rd sg. abs. and conj. is used also in a conditional sense.

209. IMPERATIVE.

PI. 1 ban, badn

Sg. 2 ba 2 bad, bed
3 bed, bad 3 bat.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

210. Present.

absolute conjunct
Sg. 1 ba -ba
2 ba -ba
3 ba (ba) f-b, -p, -dib, -dip
rel. fees,
bas \-bo,-po
PI. 1 not found -ban
2 bede -bad
3 not found -bat
rel. bete, beta, bata.

Before the conjunct forms mani and aran usually become

shortened to maw, arn, e.g. main-ba, arm-ba <*arn-ba ;
 104

beforethe 3rd sg. aran becomesari'\ e.g.arimp, airndip

<*airin-p, arin-dip; conbecomes
com exceptbefore3rd
sg. e.g. comba, combad,and the forms may be written
]ihonetically,e.g. common= coin-ban. The form of the
3rd sg. -dib, -dip is used after aran, co'\ in 'in which,'
and sometimesafter in (interrog,) and na e.g. arn-dip,
con-dib, in-dib, in-dip, na-dip ; the form -6, -p is used
after TO,in, m, na, ce (interrog.) and sechi whoever,'
e.g. rob, rop; itnb, imp; nib, nip; nab, naip ; f/b,
sechiv : further ro-po, cor-bu <*co"-n>-b/t, m-bo; with
bds perhaps,'bds-u,bes-o; with cia ' although,' and ma
'if s.g. 3 cid, cith, n-d, re////, mud, pi. 3 fit, mat.
211. Preterite.

absolute conjunct
Sg. 1 not found -bin, -boiii
'2 not found -ptha
3}
, (bid, bed,bin/ -bad,-bed
PI. 1 bentmis, binimis -bimiinn
3 bitis, beti* -bdis, -])ti*, (-dis, -tin).
Examples : corn-bin or commit, ni-ptha main-bad,
commimmis, coni-ptis, comtis, a intuits or ardin: with
cia and ma sg. 3 rid, mad, pi. 3 mat is.

Other compounds from N/std.

(ar-td) rel. ara-tha ' which is left;' rf/-£o= Lat. distare
1stands'apart,' 'differs,' e.g. di-taam gl. on distamu*, ni-
(11-1lid t they do not differ': tes-ta<do-es-ta'is wanting,'
'is lacking.'

213. Further Forms used as Verbs of Existence.

1. Adcomnicc<*ad-com-dn-icc(lit. 'it happened')used
as copula: this form is used with infixed pronouns to
express existence,e.g. Setanta atomchomnaic-se (<*ad-
dom-chom-n-ic)
'I am Setanta';(later) atancomnaig'we
are.
 105

2. Dicoissin, docoissin : an impersonal form used

relatively in the sense of 'is,' 'exists' (subst. verb), e.g.
ftntal do-u-rainin 'as we are' tiniali itilih I'iniiactib
in. nin>' for all the powersthat exist in heaven,'
rtnnt ncirt duchoissin ' every part of strength that
there is,' r/.s lir kaird docni.^in 'how many (kinds of)
bards are there 1 '

3. Dixnigur<*di-coissin-igur : a deponentformed from

<//ro/W» ; it is used both as subst. verb and copula, e.g.
in-dimigedar '(inest) ' there is there ' nad n-dixnigedar
ni'i-h
'
'that there is no one,' ciu he nu-n-dixnaigiher mi
who thou art ' (as copula).
4. Rondgab : ro-preterite of gaibim with infixed pro-
noun 3 sg. n. (as subst. verb) : form used in nasalizing
relativesentences,
e.g.rev/; ron(d)-gabusi carcair 'while
I am in prison,' amtil mml-ijuh 'as he is,' is fulla* nun/-
it is clear that they are.'

214. DEFECTIVE VERB5.

There are severalverbs which, like the verb 'to be,

construct their forms from more than one root : cf. Lat.
fero, tuli, latum ; Gk. c^epw,ofcroj, i/i-ey/ca; Eng. go, went.
In the following list they are arranged in alphabetical order
according to the initial letter of their present stems.
berid 'bears': as a simple verb has no ro- forms, it
employs instead a weak verb ro-uccai, ritccrti, pi. -meat,
pret. ind. sg. 1 ro-uicciiift, 3 ro-uicc, ro-uc, -rue, pi. -nicsat,
pass, ro-ucad, -rucad, pi. ro-uctha, ructha, subj. -rucca.
pret. subj. pass,-mcthae, pi. -nictais ; alsoin the compound
tremi-beir 'bears over,'ro- pret. pass,tremi-rucad.
do-beir brings,' 'gives': prototon. -tabair, fut. tibera;
7'0-forms,(a) in the senseof 'bring,' do-uccai,twai, pass.
"tucthar, pret. ind. du-uic, titicc, tuc, pi. tu/-t«it, pass.
tt(cad, subj. -tucca, imp. tide ; (b) in the senseof give,'
do-rati, pret. ind. sg. 1 do-rcttus, 2 do-ratais, 3 do-rat
prototon. -tarctt, pi. 1 do-ratsam, 2 doTdtxid, 3 do-ratsat
prototon. -tart sat and "tartisset, pass,do-ratad : prototon.
 106

"tardad, pi. do-rata, prototon. -tarta, snbj. do-rata, pass

"tartar : the compoundsas-beir and ar-beir havero- forms
ad- ci ' sees': prototon. -aim', sg. 1 ad-fin, pi. a
pass, ad-cither, prototon. "cin-tiKfin; fut. (nd-cicJu), pass
ad-cichestar, pret. pass, ad-cess, subj. ad-cenr, 3 prototon.
"accadar (-accathar), pass,ad-cether, prototon. -accastar,
pret. subj. ad-ceth (-ced): in the pret. act. for the ro- form
it employs*Jderk,«d-r<m-dairc,narrative pret. con-accae,
pres. pass, with ro- of possibility <id-m-dnrmr : dn-ei-cl
<*de-en-ci 'looks at' has the usual ro-forms, e.g. prc-t.
3rd pi. doT-i'rnt<n; subj. sg. 2 -de-r-caither : fris-accai
<*frith-ad-ci 'hopes' has movable ro, e.g. pret. 3rd pi.
fris-racatar, ni-ru -frescachtar.
"culrethar 'puts' 'throws': snbj. -corathar, imp. sg.
2 cin'rtlic and cnii-e, pi. cnirid ; the absolute forms are
sui)i)lied by fo-ce/rd (v. Table of strong verbs) ; the ro-
forms are supplied by ro-la-, e.g. pret. ind. ro-/a, prototon.
"mint; pi. -m/.sr/f, rolscit, pass, ro-lmi/l, prototon. Talad,
"rolad, snbj. sg. 1 TO/, 3-rala : the compound dvcuin't/rn-
in the sense'takes to himself,''adopts,' has?-o-forms
anda
fut. e.g. do-ro-chuirsemmar, do-ciiirifar, but in the sense
' throws away ' perf. pass,do-ralad, fat. pret. do-foichred
< *do-fo-cichred( fo-ceird).
Jo-gaib ' finds ' : subj. fo-gaba, fut. fo-geba ; but pret.
fo-fuair, prototon. fnair, pass,fo-frith, prototon. -frith.
con- ice ' is able,' in the forms in which the stem loses
the principal accent zeegives place to ^/ o??y- and con- to
cow, e.g. pres. ind. sg. 1 con-idnim, 3 con-ice, pi. con-erat,
prototon.sg. 1 -cumgaim(-cnmcii),3 "cuinnhuj,-rumuimj,
pi. -cumgat, -cumcat ; fut. sg. 1 con-icub, prototon, -ciu)i-
gub, fut. pret. con-icfed, prototon "citmcaibed ; pret. cow-
dnacuir, prototon. -coimnacuir: subj. con-;',prototon,
"ciimai, -cum, pret. pi. 1 co?J-/.s»/?X
prototon. "i-Him^innni^ -.
do-ecmaing<*to-en-com-ong-
'happens' makes ]>1.<7r,«
ecmungat, prototon. teanongat, ])ret. teccomnocnir, subj.
pret. do-eonoifted;
for-comnacuir'hascomeabout,'subj.
pret. for-cuinised.
 107

ithid ' eats' : subj. -estar, hit. pret. pi. 3 -Midx, part
pass.ciHNp,N/cd-; pret. -doid, -dnnid, pi. 3 do-fcotar. »J
ned, redupl. ue-uad.
teit, eon.j.-fe'£: from J steigh pres. sg. 1 -tiayu, -tiny,
pi. 3 tiagait, -tiagat, impf. -tegecl,pres. pass,-tingar, imp.
sg. 1 fi'ogr, f/m7? pi. 1 tinyam, 3 tiagat, pass, tiayar, subj.
frY*, -fe'/',pi. ticiHctt, pret. subj. -texed: N/reg, imp. sg. 2
cm/, pi. 2 (later) ergid; fut. -rega, -riga, t'ut. pret. -rri/nd :
N/ ?»rf(cf. Gk. ^A-vflov),
pret. /»/V/,pi. /o/r/r : s' r/ (cf. Gk.
et'-jcu,Lat. e-o, Skr. e-i)ii), pass, ethac: the ro-forms are
constructedfrom ,s/»ef/ with the jircps.r/r ami com,subj.
and fut. do-coi <*de-comruadst, pvotutnu. -dci'lm, "<//«"/(,
"e?;'<7,
pi. 1 -dfr/iNiiiH, pivt. subj. and fut. pi. d<i-<;,/ntix,
prototon. "dechsaitis, -dirhm'tiN, j>ret. ind. sg. 1 and 2
do-coad, -cood, prototon. -dechud, 3 din-uid, prototon.
"dechuid, pi. 1 -dechommar, 2 -diytith, 3 -dai-ulni; -dcchu-
tar: the compound do-tet 'comes' is conjugated like
the simiile verb, l>ut the prototon. forms become sg. 1
"fa/y, -tcieg, 3 -f«/f, pi -taigat, sub. sg. 1 -to/*, 3 -^//, fut.
"terga, -tirga, pret. ind. pi. -tultdtar : ro- forms prototon.
pret. sg. 1 -tuidrhcd, pi. -tuidchetar, subj, -tuidig, pret.
"tuidchixKcd, pi. 1 -tuichesmais < -tuidchesmais: imp. sg.
2 tozr ( V reth-), Welsh tyred. Further compoundsare
*ind-od-tet 'goesin,' pres.pi. 3 in-otgat, fut. as in subj.
pi. 3 in-otsat, narr. pret. in-olaid, perf. in-rualaid : i»rtet
'goes round,' narr. pret. pi. 3 rel. imme-lotar, i>erf. ]>1.3
im-rnldatar, fut. with COJH-sg. 3 con-imthae : cou-e-tet
* com-en-tet'is indulgent to,' prototon. -cometigpi. 2
con-eitgid, imp. sg. 3 -comeitged, subj. sg. 2 "comeiti*,
3 con-eit; for-tet 'helps' and retni-tet 'goesbefore,'are
conjugated like the simple verb.
do-tuit, later do-fuit, 'falls': prototon -fr(/f, pi. -tin'trf.
pass -tiiiter, subj. sg. 1 do-ro-thiui*a, 3 -/«f/!, pi. 1 -fo>'-
thiNne»i, 3 -todxat, -totsat, fut. do-toeth; pret. formed from
do-cer, with ro, do-ro-chair, ]irototon. -torchar, -torchair.
 TABLE OF STRONG VERBS
The forms are given in the 3rd sg. except when otherwise note
indicative (absoluteand conjunct), present subjunctive, future indic
preterite indicative passive, verbal noun. The order is alphabe
their proverbs in parentheses.
* 3rd pi. t 2nd sing. J perf. § 1st. sg. l=pret. 2 = pas
lelag. 5 with ad = ad-raig, ad-racht. 6 narrative pret.

Pres. Indie. Meaning. Subj. Future Preterit

alid, -ail nourishes "ala "ebla "alt

aingid, -anich protects "ain "ain "anacht
(ba-) dies "baa "bebae "bebae
benaid, -ben strikes "bia "bia "bi
bongid, -boing breaks "b6 "bibsa "bobig
canid, -cain sings "cana "cechna "cechai
celid, -ceil conceals "cela "cela "celt
"ceird (fo) throws "cerr "cicherr "caird
cingid, -ting steps "ctasat* "cicli "cecha
claidid, -claid digs ("eld) "cichlus § "ccrhlni
"cluinethar (ro) hears "rluat har "cechladar "cmdae
"coat (ar) injures "col "rhoi -
crenaid, -cren buys "cria - "ciuir
"chrin (ara) perishes - "rhiitrat * "chiuir
"daim (fo) suffers "dama "tU<lma "damai
"diny (for) oppresses "diassat* - "dedaig
dligid owes "dU - "dlifjcut
"em (do) protects "ema "I'inii "tt
fedid guides "ft - "fidetar
"fet (ad) tells "fe "ft "ciidid I
"fich (do) avenges "fcxsedJ "fi ru-ich \
"fitir (ro) knows "fcxtar "fhtxtar -
yaibid, -yaib takes "gaba "yeba "'J«b
"gainethar is born "genathar "gignethar "g&nrti)
"ynir (//"/«) answers "gara "(ji'rtt "royart
 TABLE OF STRONGVERBS-continued

Pres. Indie. Meaning. Subj. Future Preterit

"gni (do) does "gne "gena "geni

"gnin (asset) recognizes "guoither2 "g6na "geuin
"greinn (ad, in) persecutes "ijre - "roigrai
guidid, -giti/l prays "ge "gig "gdid
ibid, -ib drinks "eba "iba "ib, as-i
"ic (t-) comes tl ticfea tdnaic
"laimethar (TO} dares - "lilnnithar "Idmair
lenaid, -len follows - "lilt "lil
lingid, -ling leaps Ua*3 "leblain
"loing (fo) supports "16 "HI c6ema
lUdidid, -niaiiJ breaks "md "nicnia "inetndid
(marnid) betrays "met'd, "nin-it "inert
JtlC/ii/, -IIK'H grinds "mela "iiti'/n "melt
midithir judges "mcxtar niifiNtar "midair
"moinethar (<h>) tli inks "inenathar "moinfethar "me'na
"unit, (ar) I expect - - "neexta
orcaid, -oirc slays "orr "/orr "ort
ri'iiuid, -rcn sells "rid "riri "i'ii-
(per-) grants "era "ebra "ir
rethid, -reitli runs "re "re "rdith
"rig (f/o-e-) deserts "i'r "(''>" "eraclit
"rig (con) binds "ri<inS "ririn'f "('irr(ii<
saidid sits seiss seiss NUtNNd

xdi(/i(I, -Hd/'f/ aims at "HO. "sia "siacht

fiim (do-es)ijsem sheds "eismea "essema "r-eiss
neinn (do) drives ".sy'.s
^ "sib "*i'j>]i<
"slig (fo) besmears "slei - "selain
teichid, -teich flees "te "te "tdich
tongid, -toing swears "td "tithix'f "tcthaig
 112

VIII.-THE PREPOSITIONS.

215. The forms of some prepositions vary according to

position (i.e.accentedor unaccented). Thnrneysen(HI).
§ 812) distinguishes four principal positions :
A accented,compoundedwith nouns or verbs.
B unaccented,
proclitic beforea deuteroton.verb. form.
C unaccented, proclitic before their case.
D accented, with suffixed personal pronouns.
Similarity of function or accentuation has causedmany
analogicalchanges,
D being influencedby C, A (in verbal
compounds)by B, and B by C.
216. ad 'to,' Lat. ad.
A. ad (= «S): before vowels and original 11(which
becomesB), e.g.fid-amrae 'wonderful,' do-ad-bat'shew*';
the d becomes assimilated to b, c, d, g, m, .s, t, e.g. <ipni</
<*ad-baig (bongid 'reaps') 'ripe,' -acci <'*ad-ci 'sees,'
ataim (t = d) <*ad-daim 'concedes,' acre <*ad-gaire
'suing,' animus <*ad-mess ' attempt,' du-n/^e/bi < *'ad-
selbi 'assigns,' atrab <*ad-treb 'dwelling': before /, n, >"
it becomesd, e.g. fo-dlgim <*-ad-logim 'least down,'
dinseni <*ad-ness- 'accusation,' dram <<*ad-rim- 'num-
ber': ad + od >aud in audbirt (A. sg.) 'sacrifice' (from
ad-opuir <*ad-od-ber-) later edbart, idbart.
B. ad : even before consonants,e.g. ad-rimi 'reckons,
ad-cobra' wishes,'ad-midcthai-' attempts,'the assimilation
of ad + s >ass has caused it to become confused with the
prep,as (ess),henceforms like as-roiUi besidead-roiUi ;
before the infixed pron. 3rd. sg. in relative construction
os frequently replaces ad, e.g. (iK-iii-dum (ad-cin).
C. D. ad is only used in nominal and verbal compounds,
before nouns and suffixed pronouns it is replaced by co
(v § 222).

217. air, (er, ir, &c.) Lat, por-, Gk. irapa,Trap.

A. air with palatal r or er, ir with unpalatal r, e.g.
airdirc or erdnirc 'conspicuous,famous'; before r(o)
usually ar, e.g. t-ar-r-chct but also t-air-r-chet ' has been
prophesied' ; before od and/o it becomes anr-, e.g. aimi>'<iN
<*air-od- or air-fo-+ ress- 'running, haste.'
B. or, e.g.ar-ic ' finds,' ar-yair ' forbids,' ar-beir ' ex-
presses'; in relative sentences usually ara, e.g. ara-thd
' which is left.'
C. or', \vith the dative and accusative.
D. only with the accusative ; for forms see § 90.
217a meaning's of ar.
(a) before, e.g. <n-mn'l ' before the eye,' or iiicniniiin
before the mind.'
(6) for, e.g. or h'xj 'for reward,' or cluiiri 'for a
reproach.'
(c) on account of, e.g. ar fonnut ' on account of envy,'
or
' chroich crist ou account of the cross of Christ,' airi
on that account.'
(d) from, e.g. soirad at- guasacht ' deliverancefrom
danger,'arcelith <ir clxn-h'ye takeawayfrom everyone.'
(e) in the place of, representing, e.g. deich mill bria-
thar ar labrad ilbelre, "ten thousand words" for
" speakingmanytongues".'
218. alth 'again, re-' Lat. at, Welsh at.
A. aith' and aid' : e.g. aithgne or aidgne ' recognition';
sometimes ath, ad before a non-i)alatal anlaut, e.g. ath-
chumtach ' reconstruction,'t-ath-riir ' blame'; with assimi-
lation before a following dental atairbert <*aiih-to-air-
bert : an older form occurs in aithe-ftc answer,' cf. Gaulish
Ate-gnatus.
B. ad, e.g. ad-gainemmar 'we are born again'; with
assimilation atairbir <*aith-to-air-bir.
C. D. do not occur.

219 cen 'without.'

C. with accusative(leniting), e.g.cenchaille 'without a

veil.'
D. with suffixed pronouns, see§ 89.
h
 114

219a. further meanings of cen.

(«) apart from, e.g.atd brithemand cenut-su'there
is a judge there apart from thee.'
(6) not, with a verbal noun, e.g.cen dtlgud 'not to
forgive,' cen chomalnad 'not to fulfil.'
'
220. cenmitha except, besides.'
This is a compoundof cen in the form cenmi (cf.
t-eiiii, tremi) + -td ' is.'
C. with accusative : ceiiinitlid <'ti'<td except lust,'
"cenmithd in n-<thn»nid 'except the nom.,' also cenmaihd,
r/'tni/i'i, e.g. cennnithd in tegdais ii-ucut 'besides yonder
house,' cennui in ii-fihininid.

221. cet- 'with,' Gk. Kara, Welsh can(t).

Only in compoundswith the substantive verb.
A. ret-, e.g. c6tbuid<*c6t-buiih ' sense,'(AVelshcanfod).
B. ceta, cita, e.g. ceta-bl 'perceives,experiences,'
perf.
sg. 1 cita-ro-ba.
222. co, Welsh py.
C. co" (CM)with accusative,e.g. co-llae 'until the day.'
cossin ' to the.'

1^D. see§ 89. A. B. replaced by ad.

222a. meanings of co.
(a) until, e.g.coCrist ' until Christ,' cossalaa-sa' until
this day.'
(6) to, e.g. ni teit cofer n-aile ' goes not to another
man,' donicfad cucunn ' that he would come to us.'
(c) duration, e.g. cid co h-vir ' even for an hour.'
(d) extent, e.g.is co burpi asberamna aill ' it is unto
stupidity that we shall say somethingelse.'
223. com 'with,' Lat. com-, co-, cum.
A. com (m = /x): beforevowelsand /, «, r ; sometimes
cum when the following vowel is i, e, or u, e.g. com-airle
 115

* advice,'comalnaithir 'fulfils,' cnim-rcch'bond,' cumang

power,' fumtach <*co)>i-nd-d<«'h 'building';
becomescoimm, e.g. coimihecht 'accompanying,1
*-com-ema'protect,' com-imm-aircide'competensis a
new formation.

Beforethe other consonantsCOM

(com bef. 6): e.g.combacli
bach 'breaking,' (v.n. of con-boiug),condclg 'comparison,'
congnam ' helps.'
Before cand t : co'1,e.g.cocad (soundedcog-)<*com-cath
'warfare,' cntrniiiiiiti* (sounded end-) <:*com-trummus,
I'tifd/'t <~'*coiii- cert ' correct!'; before s : <"<>'"',
e.g. co*/;///
<*com-xunul 'like'; before / (original "»): co, c», with
loss of m, e.g. (id-cuttid <*-com-uld- ' has told,' do-coid
<*com-wid- 'has gone,' but also b ((3) <-m-n- e.g. ctd)itfi
<*com-fius ' conscience,'
cubaid <*com-fid 'harmonious.'
In later compounds the form com' is found before all con-
sonants except in and b, e.g. com-thin6l 'gathering,'
foiii-chetbiiid ' consensus,'com-xnidignd composition,' the
lenition is analogical.
B. con: con-airleci permits,' con-boing lireaks,' con
"ct'i-tat ' they correct,' con-dieig 'seeks.'
C. co" (cu) with dative,e.g.con-ara,-/>i'with bitterness,'
co fdilti (/=/?) ' with joy.'
D. it is not joined to suffixed pronouns ; its place is
supplied by la.
224. di, de, Lat, de.
A. di' before consonants (de before non-palatal ch and
beforer(o)), e.g. di-gal 'vengeance,'di-thrnb 'wilderness,'
but de-chor'difference,1dcrmat <*de-ro-met 'forgetting,'
also dennin, -deni <^de-<jnnin -de-yni.
di before vowels, e.g. di-all 'declension,' de in later
coinings as equivalents for Lat. e.g. dd-ainmneichtech
'denominativum,' de-chomsuidigthi decomposita': d before
e, e.g.decce(di-en-), -deriy (di-ess-),but di'tiii <*di-ctiu:
with fo it becomesdu <*de-uo, but also remainsas in
dittnag (di-fo-nig-) possiblyafter the analogyof di-ud- as
in dinpart <*di-ud-bert.
 116

B. f/n, (hi: e.g.do-yui 'does,' do-ella ' declines,'do-fo-

nuch ' I wash off' ; but also as in A, e.g. di-rogbad or do
"rogbad, de-n/crri///. drn/rrc/ther beside do-mmeiccither.
C. di, de,e.g.di chorp'de corpore,'dc Iinl<'ih'of the
Jews ; also as in B, e.g. been-do xld little of peace.'
D. see § 88.
224a meanings of di.
(a) ' as ablative, e.g. di each leith ' from every side,' di
jjONit from the positive.'
(b) origin or material, e.g. /x di /ex do-gnither in
chorcorbni.de'it is from a plant that the yellow purple is
made.'
(c) concerning, e.g. di chdrachtraib 'about letter-;.'
(//' Idithiu brdtho 'concerningthe day of judgment.'
(rf) partitive genitive, e.g.inti no-chreitfeddiib 'he of
them who should believe.' -is becc pridchi»i>ni'-ni di r/'/inii>>
DCKC'it is little we preach of the mysteries of God' di
geiiit/li ilo Tint 'Titus was of the Gentiles,'do-i'at m<'>r
di maid duiin ' He hasgivenus muchof good.'
(e) causal, e.g.di bar n-icc 'becauseof your salvation.
nr napat toifni<-hdi-m-chuimregaib-se'lest they be sad
becauseof my lionds.'
(/) instrumental, e.g. co-tob-sechfiderdi <:h»Ni-
will be corrected by a correction,' di thorud <tr fdam
the fruit of our hands,'for dc with the comparative of ai
v. § 77.
225. echtar 'outside,' Lat. extra.
' A. only in nominal compounds, e.g.
alienigena, uit-lander.'
C. with accusative, e.g. Tur. 108, extra quod fn
gl. echtar coinairbirt mbiuth pecthae h/robainuiar 'out-
side the practice of the sins wherein we had been,' echtar
rccht ' outside the law.'
Also with accusatives-echtar (motion outwards),e.^.
sechtarin deydais(tegdais)'out of the house.'
D. not found.
 117

226. ess <:*eks 'out,' Lat. ex, Gk. «='£.

A. en- (em-) before vowels and c, *, t, e.g. e^-cir/jc
resurrection,'exx-tuni/i'fearless,'e.t-cai'(te'enemy,'t-cn-Niin
pour out !' t-et<-ta'is wanting'; also a.i from the influence
of B, e.g. a;'.s//(//x,-itixiidef after the analogy of as-indet.
Before the other consonants *eks is reduced to *ek and
the usual phonetic changes follow : e.g. with assimilation
to following voiced stops, i-ml (r - yg) <'"~i'k<//i/ 'fear,
fjx'rt (p = bb) <:*ek-bert 'saying.' Before /, //;, ,/, r it
becomes
e, e.g.('-Iml 'escape,'for-d-mid ' li*1cannot,'6-nirt
weak,' 4-ricc ' payment.' In Inter formal inns es-, e.g.
es-bae like / i^lmitli ' exlex.'
from /c.s7<r,r.s rci-liluiil

B. «.s- (^.s.s-),' e.g. «*-/><'ir 'says,' <iNN-('irNct'they will rise

again,' (iK-rni pays out: : rel. sometime.-, iixwt- which
spi'cads to non-rcl. forms as asa-gninim ' I recognize. It
is frequently confused witli <td-, e.g. -apir " ad-bir in-
steadiif -i'})ir <:vek-bir 'thou sayest':beforeintixed prons.
with d- ~"~eks
becomes at (add) by assimilation ekn-d->e(j-d-
>(></</- proi-litie add-, thus coinciding with the forms
from ad, henceconfusion of forms ;;s </W</(rel.) for adid.
C. aj before a noun in the datiw, e.g. a ocutii (pron.
a hociitn) ' ex unitate,' a llul ni 'from (the) Latin,' annnedi'm
'out of the midst': r/s.sbeforeproclitics as the art. and
}>rons.,e.g. us mo chuimrigib 'out of my bonds,' I/NN<t
thuib 'out of his side,' an ind fetarlaici ' out of the Old
Testament,' as cechset 'from every road.'
D. see § 88. The form a.sw" used with comparatives
(v. S 77) is probably ax» + « poss. pron., thus liit tuc^a
asH«-i>niii'Nf«i(Wb. 30 c 25) would mean lit. 'they will
become worse out of their worse ' (Bergin).

227. eter, etar, Lat. inter.

A. cttn- before consonants, e.g. <f<t,--,yne'knowledge,'
etut --rf/Y'twice eter-) 'interpretation' : in later glosses also
leniting, e.g. etar-thothaim ' dowufair ; fiefoie a voAvel
etr- in i'ti--iiiitiifh 'intermittent.'
 118

B. usually eter, biter etir, rarely itir, e.g. ctcr-r

'interprets,' etir-gen ' I recognised': beforeinfixed prons.
etar-.

C. with accusative,ctcr, iter, etir, later etar, itm: '

D. see§ 89 : with umn, imma n-etar, immenetar in
turn.'

227a. meanings of etar.

(a) between, e.g. eter Did OCHN d/n'iie 'between <iod
and man,' der/ntr tier cur//// nonili ^ corpu tulntunili
'difference between heavenlybodies and earthly budies.'
(6) among, e.g. I'/enfn dcr IKIII//H ' unity among mem-
bers,' etcr tiiitith 'among lay-folk/
(c) both (..and), e.g. eter Wr 7 dm'r, eterniti'/ -, <;,nidid
'both free and unfree, both servant and l«ml.
(rf) at all, innnl ni ln'inniiK Jin ui etir 'as if we were
not worth anything at all.

228. fiad ' in presenceof,' ( <Juid-} cf. Eng. wit-ness.

C. //or/', with dati^'e, e.g. fiad <-h('t<-h
'in the presence
of all,' ficid <!i>inil> before men' : later with accusative e.g
find riijit 'before kings.'
D. with suffixed prons. pi. 2 ffach'b. 3 fi<nl<iil>.

229. fo " :*iio <*npo, Gk. ?Vd, Skr.

A. fo, //{', before consonants, e.g. fo-chraicc 'reward,
fu-dumain 'deep': in inlaut after ad, ad-b-him (6 = /:>')
<*ad-fv-l((»> 'ready.'
Before vowels fo + o > fo, fua ; fo + a > fa : fo + i
e> fol, foe; e.g. -fuairc <*fo-oir<; "fi'irnil, <*fo-ad-gaib,
fnimli'l <*fo-ind-, -fnim <*fo-em- : in later formations
remains before a vowel, e.g. fo-ammamugud <*fo-a</
iin't in- ' subjugation.'
Owing to the disappearanceof lenited/in prototon. forms
like -tifciirc, "iinuwlnyi (deuteroton.da-fiidire, ini-folnyi)
f sometimesappears analogically in deuteron. forms, e.g
do-d-fongadinsteadof nod-tongad' who usedto swearit,
du-fuit insteadof do-tuit ' falls.'
 119

B. fa, fit: e.g. fo-daiin 'sutlers,' fo-fera 'prepares/

fo-acanim succino'; before ;i vowel sometimes as in A,
e.g. fdcab for fo-dcab.
C. fo', fu with dative and accusative, e.g. (with dat.}
fo-chdtoir 'at once,' fo pheccad 'under sin,' (with
ace.) fo KitHichtu 'under commands.' With the art. fonr
fun, A. n. fun, A. ]il. foinin.
D. see § 90.

229a. meanings of fo.

(a) witli ace.motion towards, or into, e.g. re techt fo-
hit thin 'before coming under baptism,' intf tete fo recht n-
iiinUbe ' he who goesunder the law of circumcision.'
(6) with dat. 'under,' e.g.fo a cho^aih 'under his feet/
fo deud 'at last': for use with numeralsv. § 82.

230. for <*upei-, Gk. iVep, Lat. super.

A. for (fur) before both vowels and consonants,in later
glosseswith lenition as in for-chenn ' end.'
B. for, far, fur, e.g. for-t^t, far-cnhnsitis, fur-aith-
m inter.

C. for (for) with dative and accusative: D. v. § 90.

The regular development*uper>*uer is found in Gaulish
Uer-cingetorix, but in Welsh and Breton gor- and Irish
for the vowel has changed to o under the influence of go-,fo~

meaning's of for
230a. With accusative.

(a) beyond, e.g.nach-a-telcidfnin'b 'do not let them

(go) past yon.'
(b) upon (with senseof descendingupon),usuallywith
do-biur, e.g.do-beir dlgail fort 'inflicts punishmentupon
thee,' similarly do-beir maldachtin, dimiccim, breith, &c.f
for necli.
 120

(c) With verbs of motion or implying motion to indicate

terminus, e.g. techt hmar corp fur ucm 'to go in our
body to heaven,'ni far cixiirt j>nr>-/n'do-coid' not on a
diocesanvisitation hashe gone'; similarly point of attack,
e.g. gebft/if in wol for rurli 'one school will attack
another.'

230b. With dative.

(a) on (rentingmil e.g.cenchaillefor a ciunn 'without

a veil on her head,' for altnir ii/</ itlil 'on the altar of the
idol.'

(6) according to, e.g. Jn'lnr neutair for cdtnu <////// ' a
neuter plural according to the first declension,' fur n-6en-
(/<"//!>' according to the same paradigm.'

231. frith <'*iirt, Lat. vrrtrrc, versus, Kng. -i

A. frith (fi'iil) before\o\\els, e.g.J'ritli orcon 'offence,'
frid-oirced 3rd sg. imp. : with a pivpusii ion Ix-.m'nningwith
a vowel it coalescesin the form of f'ren-, e.g. fri-m-m'/i "J'ritJi-
ad-cesiu. Before consonants, the final dental assimilates
to the consonantof the anlaut, e.g.frecre (c = (/(/) < '''frith-
yaire 'answer,' frcci'nliiirc <*frith-con-derc 'present':
at a later singe frith remains unchanged before consonants
and causeslenition, e.g.frith-chathugud
'
' op-pugnatio.'
B. frifts, fris, e.g. frin-arcat they hope,' fris-gair
answers.'

C. frf, (sometimesri=fri) with accusative,e.g../'/"/-

nned i.
D. see § 89.

231a. meanings of frith

(«) to(wards), e.g. do-cotarfri tola in lietho 'they are
gone to the desires of the world,' fri dcicxiu uidith ' to-
wards seeing good.
(6) for (purpose),e.g. fri rumtarh n-ecoho 'for the
edification of the Church,' fri biathdd na forcitlaidc ' for
the support of the teachers.'
 121

(c) attitude towards, e.g.badfuairrech <-i'n-ltfriulnil<'

' let every one be gentle towards the other,'zs«5re </»/'/>
frib-si ' it is peaceto them towardsyou.'
'
(d) against, e.g. nl </.s.srIniilcrlil ./'/"/foil De it is not
easy to go against the will of Cod,' inl iiiiiiiorniHN do-
gnither friu. NUHI the sin that is committed against them.'
(e) toexpresssimilarity,dissimilarity,01 contrariety,
e.g. cnxniil fri rctli/r 'like unto a beast,' cotarsne fri Din
' opposedto God,' Ndimtltir fri l/iitlic 'is comparedto a
day,' o dt'fhiii' fri mirnrt/t frlnrlii-i-e his difference fruni
the priests of the old law.'
(/) along with, e.g. rn i-irrin/ninit <>m'/ir J'ri (Y/s/
'that we may share his heritage with Christ,' nn/i/tii fri
'works together with, helps.'
'
(;/) with = 'from', x<-<ir«nlfri parts with,' <ir iim-h-it-
rindarpither frisin ftrim 'lest thou l>e cast a\vay from
the righteousness.'
(h) to, Avith verlis of addressing, adding, <j/r/>/</,lixlcii-
imj, e.g. ?'Nfriu <txhi'r«r 'it is !o tliem is said,' CHI <!<>"
berthar flumen/c/s.s ' that Jlinnen is added to it,' (tninl rf.s
y'/v'x.si't>-air/.>lli(t 'as it is to him that they have been en-
trusted,' eiim-l fr/N/n ni'fi'i'pt 'let them listen to the
preaching.'
(/) with reference to, e.g. ul fri* ,-n-f]n't 'it was not
with reference to it that it was sung,' sain J'ri rnth *«i>i fri
scor ' different for battle, different for unyoking.'
(/) at, in, e.g.fri del 'in the day time.' iii bcthefri
a acre, 'ye should not be complaining of it (lit. 'at its
complaining),'/*1/ debuid 'at strife.'

232. far, farm-.

A. iar- and farm- e.g. tar-ihuaiscerddach 'north-west,'
tarm-uidigthe= iarm-suidigthe postposita,'iarm-ita 'ab-
nepos.'
B. iarmi rel. iarma, e.g. ianni-foig 'asks,' farma-foich.
 122

The ending in iar-mi is probablyafter the analogyof

renii.
C. iar" with dative e.g. far n-dliyud, iar n-etanjnu.
D. see § 88.

232a meanings of iar,

(a) after (of time), e.g.iar n-esseirgii'after resurrec-
tion,' iar m-baithius 'after baptism.'
(b) along, e.g. iut tu'xqiie uu-*in (janini the water
along the sand.'
(c) according to, e.g. i<tr*nt <//i'jitd 'accordingto the
law,' iar colinn 'according to the flesh.'
233. 1mm, imb<*))>bhi, Gk. dn<f>i,Lat. a»ib-.
A. the older form imb is frequently retained before
vowels,/, r, e.g. iinb-echtrach exterior,' imb-rddud 'medi-
tation,' imbide<*imb-fethe 'hedgedin:' i»/b + s becomes
imp, e.g.impiid<*imb-soud 'turning': before consonants
im(m)', e.g.im-chdinti 'mutual complaints,'nn-thrthinijinl
'confirming.'
B. im(m), rel. imme, imma, e.g. im-rddi 'meditates,
im-soi 'turns,' imme-rddi or imma-rddi 'who meditates.'
C. im(m)' with accusative e.g. nn cheuu na *acm-il<J
around the head of the priests.'
D. see § 89.

233a. meanings of /mm.

(a) round about, e.g. crissfirinne immib 'a girdle of
truth around you,' i»i cJieint 'around the head.
(b) concerning, e.g.im ihili/ili/m 'concerninganxieties
(tn-<ix-/>iiii-im cliaNnm/inx iiul Jim/nix^/ '\vhat I say con-
cerning the likeness of the testimony.'
(c) for (with verbs of desiring),e.g.(ingemiscimus)
h»-
min- bidbethid '(we groan) for the life eternal,' (in-no-ti-
geisfieach imm-a-chomalnad when thou l>eseechest every-
one for its fulfilment.
 234. in, ind <~'en, cut, cud, Gk, er erl, Lat. /;;, imhi-.
A Before vowels usually ind., e.g. iud-arbe ' expulsion,""
ind-ocbdl 'glory,' but alsoin, e.g.do-iu-u-la'collects.'
Before consonantsen and in dud'), e.g. engne 'cog-
nition'; before c and t en becomes e, e.g. con-e-tet <:~r<»i-
en-t^t 'connivesat'; do-eci<*do-en-ci 'looks at'; the n is
assimilated to /, r, s, e.g. ellach <*enlach 'union.' cirred
(G. of eirr '\varrior who fights from a chariot') <[*en-red,
densid <*d-en-sid 'has sat down': before c the e is short
in some cases, e.g. tecosc :*to-en-cosc teaching,1 d<>-
ci-nuiiiii/ :*en-com-ong-, probabl\ after the analogy of
compounds with the form /n which have short i' like
tinchoNC<* to-in diouc (Thurn.): the forms in " ~"ini,
ind'<*inde can only be distinguished before .<?, iud + *
becoming iitt, e-g. intaiiidi/ or intsamail <'*ind-samail
'imitation, \mtinsuidigthe < *ini-suidigthe: lieforer the
usual form is ind-, e.g. ind-ivd invasion,' before the other
consonants both forms appear as in-, e.g. iiiyeii (g = y)
<ini-ycnn (Ogham) 'daughter,' but iii-clmm- 'meaning'
may stand for either '"'iin-rJioxcor *inde-chosc.
B. in, e.g. in-greinn 'persecutes' in-dlung 'I divide';
its place is frequently taken by ad or o.s-,e.g. ad-yrcinu,
(is-dli>/>/rj : this is partly due to the fact that before infixed
pronouns the form of ad, in and c.s.sare alike, and partly
because compounds with the different propositions had a
very similar meaning(Thurn.).
C. i" with dat. and ace. e g. / )i-(iirititi in the reception,'
;' inbelre 'into a language,' with gemination ille^tnr in a
vessel,' iinn'in 'in heaven,' hence perhaps later inn- also-
before A'owels,e.g. i)inainiNir 'in the time.'
D. see § 90.

234a. meanings of in.

"With dat. in (of place), e.g. indium 'in me,' iccucJiluce
'in every place";(of time) /Vm/ (tintxir sin 'at that time,'
hi each lew 'everyday'; with accusative into, e.g. i cride
'into the heart.'
is ' under ' v. § 88.
 124

235. la <*/«?*» <*lets.

The oldest form is IP, which becomesproclitic In ; Thurn.
derives it from leth 'side.'
C. In'-'with accusativee.g. l<imnitii-rn 'with sons.'
D. see § si).

235a. meaning's of la.

(a) possession,e.g.// lib itili 'they are all yours,'// /<>x
///</ rn/f//V ' His are the angels.'
(6) in the opinion of, e.g. ni inebnl li-nnn 'I do not
consider it a shame,' in i/fitiniii Unit 'we deem it more
certain'; also to, e.g. is gl6 linrni 'it is clear to up1.'
(c) among (Lat. aptid), e.g. In Clnr/i 'among the
Greeks,' In niK-lorii 'apud auctores.'
(d) agent, e.g.do'-yn/fnr Id." 'will be wrought by him,'
Ciuirntncht In D/utid "which was luiilt by David.'
(e] along with, e.g. ]>r»ind If." hi tniy 'eating with
him in a house,' //in/n/urh/i 'along with the dead.'
(/) ethical dative, e.g. decfp lot Cni-i,ifi>t 'look th<m
at the Corinthians.'

236. 6, ua, Lat. cm-.

Two distinct prepositions have become confused: (a)
*od, *ud correspondingto Skr. ud, Eng. uttl, and (6) *o
correspondingto Lat. nil- in au-fero : the form n<ul<*o +
od, found before the 3rd pers. of the pronouns and in later
newly formed compounds, is an admixture of both forms
(Thurn. who now suggests*uks or ";;~»r/xas ground form).
A. Before consonantso3, M", e.g.upad = obbad<*od-bad
'refusal' uccu<*ud-gu 'choice' d'n-lx'il has 6 from the
influenceof tdcbdl),ad-opuir<*ad-od-beir 'sacrifices,'co?i-
utaing <*-ud-daing 'builds': fo, ro, to, +o>f6, n'>,t<'>
(tint), e.g. f6cre<*fo-od-gaire 'proclamation,'"rutacht<
*-ro-od-dncht: in titaHidcud, titaN/nciid there is a confusion
of two prepositions,viz. *to-od-Uic- and to-ess-Uic (cf.
pret. as-oz7c<*ess-ocZ-Z^'c-t,
tdcbdl<*to-od-gabdl 'raising';
I Thurn. now takes oilc as root; as being for proclitic »*.s(uk* or
uds), and tu
 125

in two old compounds,topur<*to-od-ber-1 'well' and dm

sach<*to-od-siag-'beginning'the to is reducedto t-and
no lengthening takes place : before /, r it appears as 6,
t'ut, e.g. do-iu-u-ld, tuctrgab<*to-od-ro-gdb- 'has raised.'
(hving to a confusion with lenited fo, in deuteroton. forms
/ appear analogically restored from prototon. forms, e.g.
prototon. 'tuisim<*to-ud-sem-, deuteroton.do-ft'tnim in-
stead of ''do-niniui.
In new compoundsit appearsas uad, e.g. tiad-flalichthe
(/=/?) 're-uelatus,'huatuasailcthae<*iiad-t- 'absolutus';
in one word no.'- vix. lina-bela open-mouthed.'
B. examples uncertain.
C. o, uri with dative, e.g. o tli»nKnc!i 'from the bc^in-
ing,' Jiiut unbind 'from the abundance.'
D. see S <s>s-

236a meafting-s of 6.
(«) separation from, e.g. <>*/>/'/*/ rlm-oii I>/: 'away
from the light of the knowledge of God,' niwj luide li/xi
Ab)-<irli<iiii 'a slave who went from Abraham.'
(6) origin or material, e.g. is liadib Crixt 'Christ is
(sprung) from them,' 6 illxtl/nih 'of many members.'
(c) agent, e.g. tio-oin-the6 popid 'used to be killed
by the people,' forcantar h6 xacardd 'are taught by a
priest.'
(d) instrument, e.g.hiui xi'tlib 'by meansof the eyes/
6 belib ' with the lips,' JUK/Uhas 'by the death.'
(e) cause, e.g. on desercc brathardi 'from brotherly
love,' ho amiriN 'from unbelief.'
(/) in, e.g. ludide 6 eco.sc'a Jew in appearance,'6
bessaib in customs.'

(g) for, from (of time), e.g.h<'>

ai)»nir 'for a time,' 6
Adam 'from the time of Adam.'

(h) partitive (only with suffixedpronouns),e.g. necli

'iictib-ni 'one of yon,' each nan-tti eachone of us.'
 126

237. oc<* aggu- 'at.'

A longerform ocuis foundprocliticbeforeverbal forms.
A. <t B. only in the verb ocicben ' touches ' in which forms
"of the subst. verb are confused with forms of benaid, e.g. fut.
3rd pi. oat-bint, pass.sg. ocu-bether,peri, occu-ro-bae,
pres.
pass. .3rd pi. ocii-bendar, prototon. -ocmnnatar, verbal
noun *ocmaid, Gr.ocmaide; in the prototon. forms the 6
of the root is changed to m (= //) probably under the in-
fluenceof the prep, comin formslike -ecmaing(Thurn.).
C. oc. occ (iic, ucc, <t<\ic) with dative, e.g. oc tui^te at
the creation,' uc wi I'dtric 'at Patrick's white-thorn,
soir oc tintinith 'skilled at translating,' trcu or tecmallad
' mighty at gathering' ; with a verbal noun and the subst.
verb to form a continuous tense, present or past, e.g. bt'iili-
sa oc irbdig I am wont to be glorying,' is oc precept
-sosce'liattd it is preaching the Gospel that I am,' ce-rtul-
bol occ a thindnacul-som though lie was delivering Him
up.'
D. see § 88.

238. os<*dks 'above.'

C. 6s, iias with dative, later leniting e.g. uafium ' above
me,' hiuiN (jrcin ' abovethe sun,'lina* litrib 'overletters ';
metaphorically 6ft cech anmimm 'above every name.'
D. see § 88.

rem=, re <*prisami, cf. Lat. _?j?'//m'*

<*prTsmo* (Thurn.) 'before.'
' A. rem, e.g. rem-fuddigud 'preposition,' rem-thechtas
precession.'

B. remi; rel. reme- e.g. remi-ftiiidiyddifi ' they used to

place it before,' remi-taat 'praesunt,' rel. reme-n-uicsed
.gl. on prae-optare.
C. re11(ri), later rid'1, with dative; e.g. re n-airite
yraid 'beforereceivingorders,'ri techt (i.e. decht) 'before
,' re ;»6«s ' before death.'
D. see § 88.
 127

240. ro <*pro.
(For ro as verbal particle v. §§ 103-105).
A. ro', ni. Before acljs. it means ' too,' cf. Gk.
xaKos, e-g. ru-inttr (/»=/*) 'too great,' ro-olach 'too fond
of drinking,' bef. verbs-ro-'ig (for -ro-sig) 'reaches.' Before
vowels the o is dropped, e.g. -r-ic ' reaches,' but is re-
tained in the ro-subj. of dl-em-, e.g. -derotma. In the
pret. of do-gni and do-shiindi it becomes ri under the
influence of the vocalization of the prototon. narr. forms, e.g.
do-rigeni after "digeiri, do-riltixet after diltim't ; before the
verb leirid it becomes re, e.g. -reilced (deuteroton.
ro-leiced).
Between retained consonants in the syllable immediately
after the accent it becomes -or from r, e.g. t-ind-ar-Ncan
< *t-ind-r-scan < *to-ind-ro-scan.
B. ro, ru, e.g. ro-Kdiy 'reaches to.' Prototon. forms are
sometimes found instead of deuteroton, e.g. ric<-n, mead
besides ro-iccu, ro-wml.
C. D. not found.

241. sec/i, Lat. S

The proclitic forms nechmo-, sechmi- are after the
analogy of iarmu-, iarmi-, ivc.
A. and B., only with verbs of motion ; e.g. sechmo-ella
'passesby' (with 6 'is wanting'), prototon. "secliniulln.
C. with accusative,e.g. seekeach ' beyond every one.'
D. see § 89.

241 a, meanings of sech.

(a) beyond, e.g. sech mo c/20?»«<?.s-.S'a'beyond my
coevals,'sechin n-aimsir 'beyondthe time.'
(6) rather than, e.g. ceit leu precept domtsa seccu
'they arejealousthat I preachrather than they.'
(c) contrary to, e.g.sechcomuiiii JJ«''contrary to the
counsel of God.'
 12S

242. tar, dar<*tare><, Skr. tirah.

A. tuirni'- (farm-), e.g. tairm-tlieclit 'transgression,'
-i-lioNftl ' prevaricatio' ; longer form in tairme-scc
'hindrance.'

B. tarnii, e.g. tarmi-berar 'is transferred,'but it is

usuallyreplacedby trcnii (v. S i'44), e.g.tremi-berar.
C. tar, dtn; with accusative,
e.g.tar crick 'over the
territory.'
D. see § 89. With the suffixed prons. of the 3rd per-.
tn true, tairsiu the original final H reappears.

242a. meanings of tar.

(a) across, over, e.g. tar crich, tar ro.s-c over the
eye.'
(6) by (in swearing), e.g. tar loib 'by Jupiter,'
dn-cin'tiy taraix fadeixxiii 'He swareby Himself.'

243 to, do 'to.'

(From the demonstrative stem to- (Thurn.)).
A. to', tn', e.g. to-thai») fall,' ta-chniarc ' woning
when the following syllable contains a, also ta-, e.g.
"tarat, < (h-beir, do-rat : in -tcnja, -tirya the vowel
change is due to the influence of the deuteroton. forms
do-rcij/i, du-fii/a ; in teilciitd, telr/'d, \-c., from do-li:ici the
changeis probably due to confusion with an old compound
to-en-leic-(Thurn.). ti in -ti-bera 'will give' is explained
as due to the analogy of the redupl. fut. (Thurn.) or of
"diyen(Bergin). Before vowelst-, e.g. t-ic ' comes,' and
before other preps, with vocalic anlaut, e.g. -t-ad-, -t-c,^-,
t-imin- ; but with od it usually appearsas to (tita) : tn-fn ,
to-far- > to-, tor, e.g. t6-be(to-fo-ben-),tin-much (to-fm--
mag-) do only appearsin later artificial compounds, e.g.
do-briathar 'ad-verb,'do-acahhuach'appellativus.'
 129

B. (For archaic tn, to, v. Introd.)

From AVI), onwards do, dn, e.g. do-tuit 'falls, du-t^t
'comes':beforevowelssometimes
A aswell as B, e.g.tad-
bat beside do-adbat 'shows.'
C. do', du', with dative, e.g. rZ« chath 'to battle,' d<>
thaidbsiu 'to show.'

D. see § 88.

243a Meaningsof to, do.

(a) aim: O.K.<7odcnuni uutif/i 'to doing good,' r/n
thabirt di'ylae with a view to inflicting ])iuiishinciit.'
(6) agent: o fidmnj <!nm-Nd'their suffering to me = I
had to suffer them,' airitin colno do Chn'xt 'the taking of
fleshby Christ,' ui denti diitb-m' 'it should not be done
by you.'
(c) state: e.g. de Indeib do Barnaip 'Barnabas was of
Jewish origin,' in' *« niluitl nun dihi-ui 'it is not so with us.'

243. b. tri, tre<*treiont

(The form trenu', triiui, after analogy of re»ii.)
A. trem'-, e.g.trem-feidligud(/=/) 'permanence,'
trcm-
amairesach 'perfidus.'
B. tremi-, trimi, rel. treiue, examples rare, e.g. t>-i>»i
"berai1,treme-thait 'which penetrates': in trif<-yataim 'I
bore through' it follows the analogy of/;1/, /;"/*.
C. tri\ tre', with accusative,e.g. tri chretim 'through
faith, tri thabairt 'through gi^ng'; with the article trinin,
trif<>iri, &c. ; Avith the rel. particle ire*(t".
D. see § 89.

243e. Meanings of tri.

(a) through: e.g. tri scdath 'per speculum,' tri thcuxl
through darkness.'
(6) instrument: e.g. tri hathi* 'by meansof baptism,'
is beo iud ciuini tri Hodiu the soul is thereby alive,' tri
tliorad moprecepte'by the fruit of my teaching.'
i
 130

(c) cause: tre thairmthect recto 'by reasonof trans-

gression of the Law,' is marb in corp trifma senpecthu
'the body is dead becauseof the old sins.'
244. (s)ama/ 'like, as,'cf. Lat. similis.
The form amal (procliticwith lossof initial s, v. § 24) is
in originan adverbialdativeof samail 'similitude'(Thurn.).
It is included among the prepositions becauseit takes the
accusative and suffixed pronouns.
C. amal', e.g. amal chlanda 'as children,' amal cho-
chull 'like a covering.'
D. accented with s-, see § 89.
245. Examples of compounds with several
prepositions.
atairbir < *aith=to=air~ beir brings again.'
irdcre < *air=fo-od=gaire command.'
comacomol< *com-ad*-com=l- conjunction.'
comthururus<*com*to*air-fo=reth- incursion.'
dordcacha < *di"ro-en*c- has seen.'
etartetarcur < *etar= to=etar-cur intercession.'
fristinfet < * frith-to-ind-fet blowsagainst.'
hntimrclfmn <*Imb=to*imb=c- we shall surround.'
intinscanna < ind=to-ind=scann- begins.'
tiarmdracht < ^o=/armo-/o- r- following.'
246. Nominal Prepositions (with genitive of noun
'
and possessivepronoun).
/ n=arrad with.' / n=degaid(digaid) 'after.'
ar belaib 'before.' deg (d'fech) ' on account
fo bith (fu bithin) ' because of.'
of.' dochum" 'to.'
ar chenn' 'to meet.' do eis '(remaining)behind.'
tar cenn
insteadof.' tar esi 'after, in placeof.'
ar chiunn
' before, await- / n~ellug (ellucli) 'united
ing.' with.' '
di chiunn ' away.' a persin in the person of,
ar chuit as regards, as to.' as to.'
for ctilu ' back, backward.' a rainn ' as regards.'
/ n-dead (dmd) ' after.' di raith ' in place of.'
 131

IX.-THE CONJUNCTIONS.
247. Copulative.
(a) acus ocus (ocuis),later is : ' and '; in origin connec-
ted with the adj. «<"«.<?,
ocu.s'near': etir-oc».s='both-
and.'

(6) emith-emith, or emid-emid : (W. henyt,hejyd

O.H.G. samet), used to translate the Lat. tain-ijiiani ;
e.g. emit/ i/n-.-n-cida, cninl <!>"«"
ii-eyea: it is derived from
Jsem and cognatewith Gk. <'/«/.and Lat. Kernel,si'mnl;
cf. Lat. use of simid-sinnd, e.g. xinnd spernebant, nniud
metuebant.
(c) sceo ("\V. lieibio from N/ seg 'to follow') 'and,'a
poetic word common in "rhetorics."

248. Disjunctive.
((/) no,no', mi: 'or,' e.g, dd preceptdir no thrii: no
<*no-ue<*ne-iie (cf. Lat. urrc) originally meant'or not.'
(6> ro6o, rodbo 'either, or' ; in origin a potential ro-
Sulij. (Thurn.), the d in rodbo 1icing probably an infixed
pronoun.
(c) fa, ba 'or' v. § 101.

249. Temporal.
(o) in tain, in tan, (lit.'at the time'): 'when'e.g. in
fain ntbtK ' when it is,' in tun du-rairngert Din when
God promised.'
(6) nach tan : 'whenever,' e.g. nctch tan ro-n-ecat a les
' \vhenever they need it.'
(c) dian: 'when' (with the narr. pret.) e.g. diaditid
Danidfor longed* 'when David went into exile.'
(d) an\ neg. anna, with roxtrru-, anru-; e.g. an-no-n-
derbid 'when you prove,'am-bas cete'when it is sung,'
ana-taibrem 'when we give not,' arru-cestaigser 'when
thou disputedst.'
(e) la=se (lit. 'with this'): 'when,' e.g.lassead-n-elliub
'when I shall visit'; also 'whereas,'e.g. lase foruillecta
 132

bedil in chalich di mil cosse email ' whereas hitherto the

lips of the chalicehavebeensmearedwith honey.'
(/) cein, ceine(ace.and gen. of cicm):' so long as,
whilst,' e.g.cein has beoinfer 'so long as the man (hus-
band)lives,' ce~ineno-soife-siu'so longasthou turnest.'
(g) 6' and uan ( = 6+ an): 'since,'with perf. 'after,' e.g.
ho luid Adam tar reir 'since Adam transgressed the will
(of God)',hua-n-erbirmisbinth gl. on 'ex illo temporequo
degebamus,'6 ad-cuaid 'after he hasdeclared,'(ad-cuaid
= perf. of ad-fet} : possibly6 with the copulais contained
in os me",&c., 'I. as for me, Oec.,'3rd pi. ot e~,from 6-is me,
6-it 6 (Thurn.).
(7i) iarsindi: 'after,' e.g.iarsindi batir inricci du btiux
'after they were worthy of death,' iarsindi ba mane modi
riain ' after it was mane "early" before.'
(z) resw, ris/u (lit. ' beforethis'): ' before'with ro-subj..
e.g. resiu rix-sa 'before I come,' ristu ro-cloammar
' before we hear.'
(j) co1'( = co+ an): neg. connd, conndch, 'until'; e.g.
con-tdnicclex 'until the law came,'co-ti in fir-brithem
(ti=di) 'until the true judge come':after negativesen-
tences, with ro-subj., e.g. co-rruc-sa do chen-su (co-rruc =
con-ro-uc) ' until I bring thy head.'

250. Final.

(«) aran ( = ar + an): neg. arnd, arnacon. 'in order

that': e.g. ara-n-dernaid an-do-gniam iti ~] arna-dernr/iiJ
an-nad denam-ni' that ye may do what we do, and that
ye may not do what we do not'; also as explicative, e.g.
asbered jriu ara-n<jnetix dcyuimn 'he used to tell them
to do good deeds.'
'
(6) co': 'in order that,' e.g. co etercerta that he may
interpret'; neg.coni etarscartliar 'that it be not separated.'
(c) co": ' in order that,' e.g. co-n-dena degnim ' that he
do good deeds':neg.conndcli-moideaneck 'lest any one
shouldboast': also explicative,e.g.asberatcoin-bad'they
say that it would be.'
 133

(cZ)abamin (afameinn), with pret. subj. without ro :

would that,'e.g. abaminfor-n-aidminte 'would that thou
wouldest call to mind':
The origin of the forms is obscure: I suggestthat abamin
(afameinn) is an exclamatoryphrase= d bad amin, i.e.
the exclamationd 'O!' found only with the vocativecaseof
nouns(exceptin the Latinism a thussu),bad or fad the
3rd sg. either of the imperative or of the pret. subj.
of the copula, and amin, ameiu, innrin-se 'thus, so';
the phrase meaning lit. ' 0 that it were so ! ' the form
cifamenad (affamenad) used with a past tense has in
addition another form of the copula -nd = id (cf. mad) and
means lit. O that it were so it had been !' For the reduc-
tion fad amin>famin cf. /onV.s/y/>/rm : the forms with
ff show that the / was unlenitecl, and the form afomensa
(Meyer Contribb.)= a fad amen-se. For a very similar
phrase with the same meaning cf. Welsh 0 na bai \ 0 na
byddail Onabuasail (past); cf. alsoolifiamein§§ 252,257.
dano, dono, archaicdctniu, dcmeu: 'then,' corresponding
in use to Lat. ergo, igitur; e.g.cla dono 'who then,' ni
cech fdr dona it is not every grass then.'
didiu <*di suidiu : ' then, accordingly,e.g.is lour dim
didiu creitem incholnictho ' belief in the incarnation, then,
is sufficient for us.'

tra : 'then, therefore,' e.g. anisiu trd is ecen'this, then,

is necessary,'is follus a sin trd 'it is evident from this
then.'

251. Conditional.

ma, ma, usuallyleniting, neg.mani : 'if, if not': with

the ind. when the condition is present or past e.g. ma
chomalnit a ngrdd ' if they fulfil their orders,' ma ru-d-
choiscseta mmuintir 'if they have corrected their house-
hold': with the subj. if future, e.g.manipridag 'unless I
(shall) preach,'mani airgara rect ' unless the law (shall)
forbid'; with the pret. subj. if the condition be imaginary
or doubtful, e.g.matis tuicsi ' if they had beenelect (but
they were not).'
 134

dia" : 'if,'with sub]., e.g. diet comti/iKinnnrira pred-

chimme ' if we fulfil what we preach,'nilour in bendachad
dia-mmaldachae' blessingis not enoughif thou curse.'
acht (act): 'provided that,'with TO-subj., e.g. """///
as-robarthar in mi ' providedthe month be mentioned,'
acht I'opui tuil Dee 'provided it be in God's will': neg.
with subj. without ro-, e.g. act ni bed uall and ' provided
there were no pride therein,' art ni arbarat binth iiina
tnari 'provided they do not partake of the food.'
252. Causal.

ore, hui-c, luuirr ('.. sg. of (h)uar = hora, originally

temporallike Eng. 'since' : 'because,'e.g.Im-n-r rom'/t^et
' because they have believed,' hure no-n-dob-molor-sa
'becauseI praise you.'
fo bith : 'because,' e.g. fit bith do-n-yniat cercol
'becausethey makea circle,'fo bith i'.s-nephchorpdae*<Jn
'that is because
it is incorporeal.'
deg : because,' e.g. deg ro-m-bu ecndaircc 'because he
was absent,' deg ro-bui in xjiitti't nuib less because the
Holy Spirit was with him.'
'
ol: because,'onlyin the phraseol is amein 'because
it is so.'
'
ar, air: for, because,' Lat. nam, e.g. ar is ' di In*
do-ynither ' for it is from an herb it is made,'car? on that
account.'
'
sech -. yet, although'(originally' besidesthat'), e.g.sech
is 6en-sj)init fot-ddli 'yet it is one spirit distributes it,'
sechbafoirbthe a m-,s*/i// 'although his faith wasperfect,'
sech ba Iiuainliit intifor-chongair 'although he who orders
were superior': in Ml. sech is, sech it are also used in the
explanatorysenseof 'that is, i.e.' with or without a follow-
ing s6n or 6n, e.g. sech is ilaigfe s6n 'i.e. Thou wilt
multiply,' sechis mescaigfider 6n 'i.e. Thou wilt intoxicate,'
sech it gnlmai s6n ' i.e. the deeds,'sech is mo chois 'i.e.
my foot': for sech ni \. § 101.
 135

253. Adversative.

cammalb, cammaiph, cammm'f (camai \Yh. 3 d 8),

<camm-oiph lit. 'false appearance'(Thurn.): 'still, not-
M'ithstanding': e.g. in Kamiid cammaib ataidsi 'it is thus,
however, that ye are,' d-a-cjcna cammaib ' he will do it,
however,' camniph thechtait ainmuidi 'nevertheless, they
have nominatives,' Sg. 209 b 3a, here camniph causes
lenition.

immurgu < ~*im-ro-<j(iu' a great falsehood' '? (suggested

by Thurn.), cf. Mid. I. immair-hn'i; and Lai. Inm d which
is cognate, originally then a strong contradictory : used
like Lat. antcin ; e.g. in l>c<>nnl aniiti, IN nn/rii in corp
immnrgu the soul is alive, but the body is dead, ni
iliucd no menme iinmiiryu 'but my mind does not under-
stand it'; along with cainaiplt, e.g. roci*uthaigsemmat
camaipli immitryu deu chdractar 'we have formed never-
theless one character'; with noch, e.g. noch immioyu nt
' still notwithstandingthey did not castaway.'
noch: but, yet,' used like Lat. tamen, ntt/nnen; e.g.
amal no-bed, noch ni fail 'as if it were, yet it is not';
with em, dm, e.g.noch <i»i am Ixrahelde 'although indeed
I am an Israelite', nodi dm fo-ddli cencl 'hut still it distin-
guishesgender'; noch is alsoin Ml. = 'that is,' cf. well is.
em, am. 'indeed however,' e.g. riccub-sa em 'I will
come however,' do-<jniam am '\ve indeed make.'
acht (act}: 'but, except that'; e.g. ni delb adrorsat,
act is commuUu£delbc 'it is not an image that they have
adored, but it is the likeness of an image,' ro-ltyftat <-a»din
fetarlaici OCHHnufiadnissi amal ru-n-da-le'gsam-ni, acht
ro-n-da-sdibset-som they have read the Canon of the Old
Testament and of the New Testament as we have read
it, except that they have perverted it': with an ex-
tension of the latter meaning e.g. nl rddat-som acht
breic 'they speak only lies': with nammd, e.g. acJit
comparit nci'ttn'r nammd 'but the neuter comparative
only/ acht nammd (gl. on nisi forte) 'save only.'
 136

inge, 'except';e.g.in tan hasrann int sillab 'except

when the syllableis a part (of speech),'inge mad etar-
scartha ' unless it be separated '
calleic,calleice(<*cen+leiciud= 'withoutleavingoff1):
'still, even'; e.g.no-n-anichDia calleic 'God protectsus
still,' ammi Jdilti calUic in tribulationibus'we are joyful
even in tribulationibii*.'

254. Concessive.
cia, ce : (usually leniting) before vowels c;', neg. ceni,
ritii, 'although'; when used with the indicative it infixes d
except where there is already an infixed pronoun, e.g. <"/',/
rud-chualatar ilbelre 'although they have heard many
languages,'but ce nun-/(tbr(itar 'although they speakthem'
where the s of the 3rd pers. pi. is infixed : like ind it takes
the subjunctive in hypothetical or doubtful cases, e.g. ci
as-bera nech 'though any one say,' cia du-gneid na retu
sa 'though ye do thesethings': with the copulacid, pi. cit,
*thoughit be,even,'e.g.cid do huair 'even for an hour,'
cith etarsuidigtlie 'even though it be interposed,' cit geinti
'even Gentiles.' cia followed by the subjunctivewith or
without ro is used as an explicative, e.g. nl lied no-t-beir i
nem cia ba loingthech 'it is not this that brings thee to
heaven, that thou shouldest be a glutton,' is 7mis.sece ru-
samaltar fri Crist ' it is right that he should be compared
to Christ.'

adas, adaas, adds: (< *an + daas = taas 1) in sg.usedto

render an isolated Lat. quamquam or quamvis; with
ma and cia 'although.' e.g. adas cia citabe 'etiam si
persentiat,' adas cia d-a-gneo 'though if I do it.'
255. Comparative.
4 amal, amail: as'; e.g. amal nguidess athir a macr
as a father beseecheshis son,' amail ass-ind-beralaile 'as
some one says it.'
feib, fib : as,' e.g.feib fond-uair som la auctoru 'as
he has found it in authors,'fib as cleg ro-pridched 'as it
has been preached best.'
 137

cruth: how, as' (shortened from in chruth 'in the form,

manner'),e.g.cruth ro-pridchissem'how wehavepreached,'
cruth nandat chomsuidigthi 'as they are not compounds.'
'
inne, inni: 'as, such as,'e.g. inne ro-pridclied diiib
as has been preached to you,' inni ro-m-bdtar riam hi
tempul ' suchasthey werebeforein the temple.'
meit: (from m£it 'size, extent'), 'as regards,'e.g.meit
as ndo scribund 'as regardswriting': m£it-m6it = tantum
-quantum, e.g. meit dmiiml nmjar fornni fochith, issi
m&it inftin donindnagar hi dithnad 'in proportion as
suffering is bestowed upon us, so is the consolation that is
bestowed': ni lied a meit-arht = non solum-fted etiam,
e.g. ni lied a »iri/ no-n-chretid-si act fodaimid fochidi
airi ' not only do ye believe it, but ye endure sufferings
therefor.'

X.-THE ADVERBS

(For adverbs formed from adjectives v. § 78, for adverbs

of place v. § 96.)
256. of time.

indiu (<in (the art. (?) or prep. (?)) + diu dat. of dia
' day'), ' to-day.'
inde (<in (the art.) + cZ^which corresponds
to W. doe,
Gk. \0e<s, Skr. hyah), 'yesterday': adj. from de=
detlienaclide ' hesternus.'
innocht, Lat. hac node, ' to-night.'
intremdid, AV.trennydd, 'three daysafter.'
matin (dat.) ' in the morning.'
indorsa, indossa (<ind 6r sa this hour'), 'now.'
infechtsa, indechtso,'this time.'
'
ind inaim so at this time.'

iartain 'afterwards';iarum 'afterwards';riam 'before.

talmaidiu (dat. of a noun) 'suddenly.'
aithirriuch (dat. of aithirrech 'repetition') 'again.'
 13S

tossuch (dat. of tossach ' beginning') at first.

ciunn (dat. of cenn'head, end') 'at the end/
moch ' early.'
do gres ' continually.'
on nurld ' from last year.'
257. of manner.
amin, aniein,amne: (amin<* sam-sin'like that']), e.g.
d-a-riyni amin ' (he) made it thus,' in amne dognither
' it is thus it is done,' ol is aniein ' because it is so.'
immalle, immallei (immellei): - :*imm-a"-le, Ic <leth
side,' together.'
immanetar: 'inter se,invicem, in turn,' e.g.dechur eter
corpu, talmandi imnxinet/if 'a difference between earthly
bodies among themselves,' d-a-gnltis fnn-xiu immenetor
'they usedto do this in turn.'
 139

APPENDIX A.

Loanwords.

(v. PedersenV.G. & 21, 120wy., Thurn. Hb. § 904 et seq.}

258. from Britannic sources
rain 'beautiful,' W. cein; tnuirmoru 'sirens, mermaids,'
W. morforwyn ; foilenn 'sea-gull,' W. i/ir///ui/ : ami
'fleece,' W. aidif; f rantli<l ' three days after.' W. tn'imi///
*tren-dyd; foich 'wasps,' 0. Bret, guohi, O. ('urn.
ii ; lidthritde 'balls,' W. HUhni 'to glide.'

259. from Latin

(a) Older borrowingsintroducedby British missionaries,
and consequently showing traces of Britannic influence,
such as Irish 6 for Lat. a, e.g. altnn- 'altare,' Trinduit
Trinitat-,' litunultloit 'humilitat-,' poc 'pads' (osculum),
also the ending -uir for -urix*, due to W.
' dfl<»; Tr/nt/m/,
ufelldud ; loss of syllables as in stair historia,' (itujniih
' antigraphum,'i>nniit 'paenitentia,' Mid. Bret, ster, \Y.
angraiff, penyd ; on this model later loanwords are also
formed, e.g. oruit, oratio' eclats, ecclesia,' sacarbaicc
sacrificium'; the writing of c, t, p for g, d, b after vowels,
and g, d, b for y, 5, (3, v § 4.
(b) Later borrowings direct from Latin writings. These
are characterized :-

(l) by false quantities,e.g.c('int ' quaestio,'pred<-lii</or

pridchid 'praedicat,' cdrachtar 'character,' Pdtraicc
'Patricias,' legaid 'legit' (probablyunder the influenceof
ncrlbaid, Thurn.);
(2) by retention of somefinal syllables,e.g.unyae uncia,'
caiinmse'camisia,'as comparedwith stoir, eclaisof (a);
(3) by changesdue to the analogy of native words, e.g.
grdd 'gradus,' mexar 'mensura,'mebnir ' memoria,'saigul
(g = y) ' saeculum,'lebor 'liber,' after the analogyof grdd
'love,' mes 'judgment,' mebid 'shame,' baigul 'danger,'
lebur ' long.'
 HO

260. c, s, f for p, f, v.
In old loanwords the Irish substituted c f or p, s for/,
and / for u, probably after the analogyof the already
existing correspondencein cognate words like mace, W.
itinp
' ; crann, W. prenn ; .srtrn, W. ffroen : e.g. corcur
purpura,' cMm 'pluma,' caille ' pallium,' clund planta,'
W. plant, Cothraige' Patricius'; so?'?? 't'unms,' senester
'fenestra,'siian 'frenum,' srogell 'flagellum';Jiurt uirtus,'
fial 'uelum': in later borrowings p and /remain unchanged,
e.g. popul 'populus,' precept 'prteceptum,' P/'itniicr
'Patricius'; figor ' figura,'fekub ' philosophus.'
261. Borrowed Verbs.

Borrowed verbs follow the conjugation of Class A I.:

ndi'diiii ('adorare') is treated sometimesas though it were
a native compoundverb, e.g. ad-r-orsat 'they have adored';
also consecraimm('consecrare'),e.g. cut-war 'he con-
secrated it,'
 141

APPENDIX B.
Old Irish Grammatical Terms
(from the S.G. Glosses on Priscian).
Phonology.
fogur 'sound' acuit ' acute'
mifogur ' cacophony' conson' consonant'
comfogur ' consonance' lethgute'semi-vowel'
nephcomfogur'inconson.' lechdnch'liquid'
deogur(de-fog.)'diphthong' mut ' mute'
liter ' letter' diuit ' simple'
cdrachtar character' diabnl ' double'
abbgitir ' alphabet' cim/tid ' doubling1
gutte ' vowel' tinfed 'aspiration'
gutass ' vocalism' nrim ' smooth, lenis'
gairit ' short' sillab ' syllable'
timmorte ' contracted' ult 'ultima'
airdixe ' long' peneult " penultima'
aiccent (-nd) accent' coimmchloud ' mutation'
grave
Declension.
dram ' number' (limn n-diles propernoun'
uathad 'singular' (limn n-adiecht'adjective'
ilar 'plural' ahnn m-briatharda ' v. noun'
cenel ' gender' digabthach 'diminutive'
mascul masculine' doacaldmach' appellative'
masculinda'masc.' coiiKiiiumiechdechsynonym.'
femin ' feminine' aitherrechtaigthe patronym.'
neutar ' neuter' huatuasailcthe absolute'
tinsel case' cmidclijg 'comparison'
camthuisel oblique case' posit ' positive'
ainmnid 'nominative' comparit ' comparative'
genitin 'genitive' sicperlait 'superlative'
tobarthid ' dative' di-ticol ' article'
dinsid accusative' pron<ymen(pronoib)iprono\\n'
togarthid ' vocative' atdrcadach 'anaphoric'
.foxlaid ' ablative' aitrebthech' possessive'
diall ' declension' aithforlsigthech 'demonst.'
dilledach 'declinable' immchomairsnech 'interrog.'
nephdilledach' indeclin.' errethach ' redditive'
ainm trdn ' substantive' adchoimchladach 'reciprocal'
 142

Conjugation.
coibeden 'conjugation' forngarthid 'imperative'
fdliud ' flexion' injinit ' infinitive'
mod ' mood' <11'rind ' gerund'
aimfter tense' In-tdthar ' verl>'
persan ' person' 6. gnimo 'active verb'
frecndairc ' present' 6. cesta ' passiveverb'
sechmadachte ' preterite' (/iiiHCiiftrtch' deponent'
N.iinfofrbthe pret.impf.' deainmnichthech'denomin.'
s. foirbthe ' pivt. perf.' ci'l nidf ' ]irimitive'
olfoirbthe ' pluperf.' tairmthechtid ' transitive'
todor/iii/i' 'future' ,>;'/>!i/','/i')tit//' intransitive'
t'vrt'i-Iiddr 'aorist' ' participle'
iitdidit ' indicative' tarmorcenn ' termination'
comaccomol ' subjunctive' delb ' paradigm'
optait ' optative'
Particles.

dobriittlittr 'adverb' intcrict-lit 'interjection'

remsuidigud ' preposition' comaccomol ' conjunction
Syntax.
ini/iiiii/ixiiu
;"
\c
i construction
. , tdbae concision
immjognam < (nmlacli " analogy'
comsuidigud composition' i ml Inch ' diaeresis'
sretli order ;1
.comsreitli ' construction' r' signification'
remthechtas ' anteposition' '
' definition'
tiarmoracht ' postposition'' fiilnd substance'
accomol' combination'
' ciall 'sense,meaning'
rann insce part of speech' inne ' quality'
inijjt'dh ' anastrophe' yittli 'voce
'
comaisndis ' apposition' epcrt vocable'
'
eiscsin ' porrection' f'it-id word'
erclira ellipsis' fnath 'figure'
comdli'tthad ' synaeresis' ntt'nugud ' hiatus'
disruthigud ' derivation'
Prosody.
fers 'verse' ylanad 'elision'
irazgf'foot' metar 'metre'
cethargarait'proceleusmatic'
 143

APPENDIX C.

Miscellaneous Paradigms.

as-beir ' says'

INDICATIVE.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-biur -epur
2 as-bir -ejjir
3 as-beir 'epir
Pass, as-berar, as-berr -eperr
Plural

I as-beram -eprem
2 as-berid -eprid
3 as-berat -eprel
Pass, as-bertar -epertar

Imperfect.

Singulai\
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-berinn -eprinn
2 as-bertlia -epertha
3 as-bered -epred
Pass. as-bertJie -eperthe

Plural.

1 as-bermis -epermis
2 as-berthe -eperthe
3 as-bertis -epertis
Pass, as-bertis -epertis
 144

Future

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-ber "epeV
2 as-berae
3 as-bera
Pass, as-b&rthar "eperthar
Plural.
] as-berii») "epernm
"ep4raid
3 as-bcntt "epernl
Pass, as-b&rtur "epertar
Future Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-b^rinn "epdrinn
2 as-berthn "epertha
3 as-berad "eperuil
Pass, as-berthe "eperthe
Plural.
"epermis
2 as-berthe "epgrthe
3 as-btfrtis "epdrtis
Pass, as-bertis "epdrtis
Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-biurt ("ej»rrf )
2 as-bift "epirt
3 as-bert "epert
Pass. as-bretJi "epred
Plural.
1 as-bertmar
2 as-bertid
3 as-bertatar ("epertcitar)
 145

Perfect.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-ruburt -grburt
2 as-rubairt -6rbairt
3 as-rnbnrt -erbart
Pass, as-robrad -fa-brad

Plural.

1 as-rubartmar -erbartmur
2 as-rubartaid -erbartaid
3 as-rubartatar -^rbartatar

IMPERATIVE.

Sing. Plur.
1 eprem
2 epir eprid
3 epred epret

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present,

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-ber -eper
2 as-berae -epre
3 as-bera -eprea
Pass, as-berthar -epertliar

Plural.

1 as-berum -eprem
2 as-berid -cprid
3 as-ber at -epret
Pass, as-bertar -epertar
k
 146

Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 as-berainn "eprinn
2 as-bertha "epertha
3 as-berad "epred
Pass. as-berthae "eperthae
Plural.

1 as-bermais "epermis
L' as-berthae "eperthe
3 as-bertais "epertin
Pass, as-bertais "epertais

Verbal noun epert

Passive participle eperthae
Participle of necessity eperthi

do-beir 'gives'

INDICATIVE.

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-biur "tabur
2 do-bir "tabair
3 do-beir "tab<iir
Pass, do-berar, do-berr "tabarr
Plural.
1 do-beram "taibrem
2 do-berid "taibrid
3 do-berat "taibret
Pass, do-bertar "tabartar
 147

Imperfect.
Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-berhui "taibrinn
2 do-bertha "tabartha
3 do-bered "taibred
Pass, do-berthe "tabarthe

Plural.
1 do-ber in in "tabarmis
"_' du-licrthe "tabarthe
3 do-bei'ti* "tabartis
Pass, do-bertis "tabartis

Future.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-ber
"_' do-b&rae "till!' I'll <'
3 do-ber a "tibdra
Pass, do-bertliar "tibcrthar

Plural.
1 do-beram "tiberam
2 do-bernid "tiberaid
3 do-berat "1/1>crat
Pass, do-bertnr "tib&rtar

Passive.

Singular.
do-berthar "tiberthar

Future Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-be ri in t "tiht'rinn
"2 do-berthn "tibe'rtha
3 do-ber ad "tiberad
Pass, do-berthe "tibertlie
 148

Plural.

1 do-bdrmis "tibermift
2 do-berthe "tiberthe
3 do-bertis "tibertift
Pass, do-bertis " tibertis

Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 (do-biurt) ("taburt)
2 do-birf "tabirt
3 do-beii "taburl
Pass, do-brcth "tabrad

Plural.

1 do-bertmar "tabartmar
2 do-bertid "tabartid
3 do-bertatar "tabartatar
Pass, do-bretha ("tabartlia)

Perfect (in senseof 'give').

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
"tartus
2 do-ratis "tartais
3 do-rat "tarat
Pass, do-ratad "tarat

Plural.

1 do-rat nai>i "tartsam

2 do-rat*i<} "tartsaid
3 do-rat*(it "inrtisset, -tartsat
Pass, do-ratta "tart a
 149

Perfect (in sense of ' bring').

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-uccus "tuccus
2 do-uccis "tuccis
3 do-uic, do-uc "l/iic, -tucc
Pass, do-uccad "tuccad

Plural.
I do-uicsem
2 "tucsid
"tucsat
Pass, do-uctha "t Ill-till!

IMPERATIVE.

Sing. Plur.
taibrem
tab air, tuic taibrid
taibred taibret

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-ber "tabar
2 do-berae "taibre
3 do-bera "taibrea
Pass, do-berthar "tabarthar

Plural.

1 do-beram "taibrem
2 do-berid "taibrid
3 do-berat "tnibret
Pass, do-bertar "tabartar
 150

Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotouic. prototonic.
1 do-berainn -taibrinn
2 do-bertha -tabartha
3 do-berad -taibred
Pass, do-berthae -tabarthae

Plural.
1 do-herniai* "tiiliaruii*
2 do-berthae -tabarthae
3 do-bertais "tabartai^
Pass, do-bertai.^ -tabartais

Subjunctive corresponding to perfect do-rat.

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-rat -tart
2 do-ratin1 -tartae
3 do-rata -tarta
Pass, do-rattar -tartar

Plural.
1 do-ratiini -tartam
2 do-rataid "tartnid
3 do-ratat -tartat
Pass, do-rattar -tartar

Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-ratainn -tartainn
2 do-ratta "tarta
3 do-ratad -tartad
Pass, do-rattae -tartae
 151

Plural

deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-ratmais -tartmais
2 do-rattae -tartae
3 do-rattais -tartais
Pass. do-rattiii* -tartais

Subjunctive corresponding to do-uc

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-uc -tuc
'2 do-ucciii' -tnccae
3 do-ucca -turca
Pass, do-ucthar -ttn-thar
etc. etc.

Preterite.

Singular.
1 do-uccainn -tuccainn.

Verbal noun tabart, taboirt.

Participle of necessity tabarthi.

do-qni 'does.'

INDICATIVE.

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic
1 do-gniu (-gnin)) -ddnim
2 do-yni -ddni
3 do-gni -deni
Pass, do-gnither -dentar
 152

Plural.

deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-gntam "ddiiam
2 do-gniith "ddnid
3 do-gnlat "ddnat
Pass, do-gntter "denatar

Imperfect.
Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic
1 do-yniinn
'2 (do-gniiha) ("ddnta)
3 do-ynith "ddnad
Pass, do-gnithe "d&ite

Plural.

1 do-ynimmis "denial*
2 do-gnithe "dente
3 do-gnitis "dentis
Pass, do-gnitis "dentis

Future.

Singular.
"deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-gen "digen
2 do-genae, "digne
3 do-gena "diynea
Pass, do-gdntar "digentar

Plural.

1 do-genam "dignem, -digenum

2 do-genid "dignid
3 do-genat "diynct
Pass,(do-g&natar) ("digniter)
 153

Future Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-geninn "digninn
2 dtriji'ntil "digenta
3 do-g emu I "digned
Pass, do-gente "digente

Plural.

1 do-gen "digeuini*
'2 do-gente "ilii/ente
3 do-ge'ntis
Pa.-s. do-yen fix "digentis

Preterite.

S-. ;; do-geni, prototon. -digni, pi. 3 do-geinset.

Pass, do-gnith, prototon. -d4nad.

Perfect.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
, (do-rignius I -drit-genus
(do-rigeniis ("dernus
*-dergenis
'2 do-rignis *-dernis
n(do-rigni j -deirgeni, -derni
' \do-rige"ni {"deirgini, -deirgni
Pass, do-roil ltd "dernad

Plural.

1 do-rig6nsam *-dergensam
"1do-rig&nsid *-dergensid
3 do-rigensat "dergensat
Pass. do-r6nta "denitn
 154

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

Singular.
dentero tonic. prototonic.
1 do-gneo "den
2 do-gne "di'nae
3 do-gne
Pass, do-gnether "dentar
Plural.

\ do-gni'>n "denam
2 do-gncid "deni<l
3 du-yin't "deimt
Pass, do-gneter "ddnatar

Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic prototonic.
1 do-gneinn "deninn
'1 do-ynetha "dentn
3 do-gni'tli "denad
Pass, do-gnethe "dente
Plural

1 do-gnemmis "d6nmis
2 do-gnetlic "dente
3 do-giietiN "dent in
Pass, do-guetin "dentis

IMPERATIVE.

Sing. Plur.
1 denatn
2 dene den id
3 den ad denat

Verbal noun deitom, di'tunn

Passive participle (dente)
Participle of necessity <h:nti\ ddinti
 155

teit 'goes'

INDICATIVE.

Present.

Singular
absolute. conjunct.
1 ti'(tg>t "tlCKJ
2 ttgi
3 teit "ttt
rel. tete
Pass, tiagair

Plural.

1 tfayniai "tiagam
rel. tiagmae
2 teit "t&it
3 t lag a it "tiagat
rel. tlagtae

Imperfect.
Sg. 3 PI. 3 -teiyti*
etc.

Future.

Singular.
absolute conjunct
1 rega "rig
2 regae "regae
3 r egaid "rega
rel. ?-2'sras
Pass, rigth it- ^"regthar
 156

Plural.

absolute. conjunct.
1 rigmi -regain

2*regthe -regaid
3 regait -regat
re\.*regte
Future Preterite.

Sing. Plur.
1(-riginn) (-rigmis)
2 -rigtha (-rigthe)
3 -rig ad -r egtats

Preterite.

Sg. 3 luid, rcl. luide, pass,ethae; pi. 3 -Intar

Perfect.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-cood -dedind
2 do-cood -dechud
3 do-coid, do-aid id -dechuid
Pass, do-coas (-diches)
Plural.
1 do-commar "decliummar
2 do-coidid -digtith
3 do-cotar, do-cuatar -dechuttn-

IMPERATIVE.

sing. plur.
1 tiag, tiach tiagani
^\eirg \ergid
L((nd)teig \(na) *Uit
^Itdit fttagai
{eirged (eirget
Pass, tiagur
 157

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
tfaxu, Arc.; v. § 129.

Present corresponding to Perfect.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-cous -dechos
2 do-cois T//V//.S-
3 do-c6i "dei-hii, -<!ich

Pluval.
1 (do-coisem) "decham
2 do-coisid "digsid
3 do-coiset "dichset

Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-coisinn "dichsainn
2 do-coista ("dicliasta)
3 do-coised "dichsed
Plural.

1 do-coittmifi ("dichesmis)
2 do-coiste ("dicheste)
3 do-coistis "declisaitis

do-tdt 'comes.'

INDICATIVE.

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-1iag "tdeg, -taiy
2 do-teig
3 do-tet "tdet, -tent
Pass, do-tiagar
 158

Plural.
1 do-ttagam ("tafgam)
2 do-Ut "tail
3 do-tiagat "talgat
Imperfect.
Singular.
1 do-teiginn ("tdiyinn)
etc. etc.

Future.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-reg
ido-rega \ -tcrga
\do-riga I -tirga
Plural.
1 do-fpyant "tergam
2 do-reg aid "tergaid
3 do-regat "tergal
Future Preterite.

{"twgad
do-rigad ("tirgad
etc.

Preterite.
Sg. 3 do-luid
Pass, do-eth etc.
PI. 3 do-lotar "tultatar

Perfect.

Singular.
deuterotonie prototonic.
1 do-dechud "tuidched
3 do-dechuid Pass. -

Plural.
1 do-dechommar
3 do-dechidar "tuidchetar
 159

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-tias "tdes
3 do-tei "ted
etc. etc.

Preterite.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
1 do-tcisinn "taisinn
etc. etc.

Subjunctive corresponding to Perfect.

Present.

Singular.
deuterotonic. prototonic.
3 do-det.ha "tudii-h,
etc. etc.

Preterite.

Singular.
3 do-dichxt'd "tuidchissed
etc. etc.

IMPERATIVE.

Sg. 2 fair PI. talt

3 tait, tdet taiijat
There is a subj. formed from this fair of the 2nd sing.
iraper. viz. 3rd sg. tari. fair 'let him come,' pi. tairset.
 160

APPENDIX D.

OF OLD IRISH PROSE AND POETRY.

First Stage.
1. Ddlagni maqi Dull (Ogham) 'of Dala^nos,the son of
Dalos.' 2. Lie Luguaedon macd Menueh 'The stoneof
Lugu-aed, the son of MenK'

Second Stage.

1.-FROM THE CAMBRAI HOMILY.

(a) Insce inso as-ber <n-f,'<l<i INH fri each n-oein din
chene'lu doine, arc-u-hidarbe diialehi ood ocus a pectin*
ocus ara-tinola soalchiocus are-n-airema futhu oat* airde
cruche ar C'lirixt, rein hex i conius coirji oni* innni', nire-
sechethar slictu <n-jY-ilol i n-dagnimrathib.
(b) Air INNe a beenn>d lieth mi <;<////>"her far corp
dithii, i»<t ijurith lore riili in c chni* nn in c Idim nn in e
me")-aib, fo-geir a n-ggalar in nile corp: /.s-Nmnlith IN
comadas duun chanisin, fo-n-gera each n-ernail (?)-6ire
nundem membur uili f/» Dea-nach ce"fisath ocits nn
i-dlar bessfair e chomnessam.
(c) Filus tre chcneht: niartre daneu ad-rtmiter ar
chrnirh du duinin ma dos-gn^: baatDnmirc ocus yldN-
martre ocus dergmartre. Is KI IN Ix'ininartrc di> dniniu
in tain srv/mx ar Dea fri each reet caras, ce ru-ce'xd dini
nu lanbir n-oco ; is siind glasynartre d6, in tr/in wo rax
frid thola leoZ cdssassdithori ppennit ocusaithrigi; INHI
in dcrrnnirtre d6, foil Hit clirnche ocus diorcne «r (VnYxf,
diiidil tond-echomnuchuir dundaib abstolaib, oc iiujrim-
rniin inna cloen ocuis ocforcetid recto Dee. Con-gaibetur
inna tre chenM martre so issnib colnidib ttcthegot dag-
athrigi, scarde fria tola, ce^stesaithu, tu-esmot a fnil i
n-dhii UCIU'Ki laubair ar Christ. Filu* <J/men tre chenele
martre atta Idgmara le Dea, ara-n-etatham-ni faehriri.
ma nos-como.lnnamar.
 161

Note the archaic forms ood (und), are (ara), fedot

(fiadat), Dea (Dia), e (a) poss.pron. 3rd sg.,-nundem
(nondan),ocuis (oc/'*l HIn*^ til «*ith suffixed pron. 3rd
pi., a mail (amal), dmidaih ((1anuil>\ and the verbs with
proclitic to, ti< (do, di<), tictheyot v. Introd.

TRANSLATION.

(a) This is the savins which our Lord Jesus saith to

every one of the race of men, that he banish from him (his)
vices and his sins, and that he gather virtues and receive
stigmata and signs of the Cross for Christ's sake, so long as
he is in power of body and soul, that he follow the tracks
of our Lord in good deeds.
(6) For this is its usage,if there be any little ailment on
a man's body, if it burns a place, whether in his foot or in
his hand, or in his fingers, the disease inflames the whole
body. Thus it is fitting for us ourselves, that every
suffering and every ailment that is on his neighbour should
inflame every part (0-for we are all membersunto God.
(c) Now there are three kinds of martyrdom which are
counted as a cross to man, if he perform them (viz.) white
martyrdom, and green martyrdom, and red martyrdom.
This is the white martyrdom to man, when he separates
for the sake of God from everything he loves, although he
suffer fasting or labour thereat; this is the green martyrdom
to him, when by meansof them (i.e. fasting and labour) he
separates from his desires, or suffers toil in penance and
repentance; this is red martyrdom to him, enduranceof a
cross or destruction for Christ's sake, as has happened to
the Apostles in the persecution of the wicked and in
teaching the law of God. These three kinds of martyrdom
are comprised in the carnal ones who resort to good
repentance, who separate from their desires, who suffer
troubles, who pour forth their blood in fasting and in labour
for Christ's sake. There are, then, three kinds of martyr-
dom which are precious in God's eyes, for which we obtain
rewards if we fulfil them.
I
 162

2.-FROM THE STOWE MISSAL.

(a) Na tri chnnmcn ciuges in fer graitli for a clu'du

1 to-cing afrithisi is ed a trede in-imruinidethar curh
duine, .i. hi mbrdthir hi cocell hi ngnim.
(b) Iss-ed tra as brig la Dia menmae do buith hi
figraib in offrind 1 corop he to menmme ind rann ara-
foemi din obli tnntiil liith In/11di ('In/*/ <(**a flimich ~\
<ixrmb& croch sdithir for each a rithfein, 6re n-6emgether
frixin corp crochthe.
Note afrithiNi (<ir/tlu'*i\ toeing (do-cing),and even to
for later do poss. pron. 2nd sg.
TRANSLATION.

(n) The three steps which the ordained man steppeth

backwards and which he again steps forward, this is the
triad in which everyone sins, i.e, in word, in thought, in
deed.
(b) This is what God deemsworthy, the mind to be in
the symbols of the Mass, and that tin's be thy mind : the
portion of the Host which thou receivest (to-be) as it were
a member of Christ from His Cross, and that there may be
a cross of labour on each (in) his own course,becauseit
unites to the crucified Body.

Third Stage.
FROM THE MILAN GLOSSES ON THE PSALMS.
Is ed seel for-aithminedar /.s7m//W« : dia-luid Dunid
for longais re Said, laid side faritm din thofini xoni co
shiag, ~] gabthe di'mad les frits ar hioiUitts. Do-lnid
Dauid iarum, aidchi ro-boi rm-n hin-a n-dihmd 1 litid co
port i m-boi in ri ind Nuinriiid -] con-oscaig eredig ind
ri -\ con-oscaig in gae i sdidsi li a la lecuinn Sdtd hi
t/dnuiin : -\ luid iarum inti Daidd hi telaig ba nesnani
dind sl6g 7 ar-gart doib di suidi nant maith con-roitatar
a-rrig. ' Dfaaid a eredig 7 a arina, cia indas rnnd-
gabsat!' In aimsir in tindnacidl sin didiu du-n-ecom-
nacht Dia inni Said inn-a lama som, ro-gab som in
salm so.
 163

TRANSLATION.

This is the story to which he refers here : when David

went into exile before Saul, the latter went afterwards to
pursue him with a host, and a camp was pitched by him
(Saul) againsthim (David) for protection. David then
came one evening to them into their camp, and he went
to the place in which the King was in particular, and
removed the King's cup, and removed the spear, and fixed
it by one of Saul's cheeks in the ground : and afterwards
the said David went to a hill that was nearest to the host
and taunted them thence that they had not guarded their
King well. " Beholdye his cup and his arms, how they
are ! " It was at the time of that giving whereby God
delivered the afore-mentioned Saul into his hands that he
sang this psalm.

Poetry.
FROM THE ST. GALL PRISCIAN.

1. Is arlicr in, gaitli in-nocht

fu-fuasna f airggee find-folt :
ni-i'tgor r£imm Mora Minn
dond Idcrlt ru/'</ It/inn tin Lothlind.
Note the poetic license in the order of the words
fairggce find-folt for prose find-folt inna fairggee.

TRANSLATION.

Bitter is the wind to-night,

It tosses the ocean's white hair :
I fear not the coursing of the Irish Channel
By the fierce heroes from Lothlend.

I.

2. Dom-farcai fidbciida: fdl

fom-chain loid luin-lucid nad-cel-,
hi'ias mo lebrdn ind linech
fom-chain trirech inna n-en.
 164

II.

Fomm-chain coi inenn-medair mass-

hi ih-brot gla^x de dindgnaib doss.
dd-brdth ! nom-choimmdiu-coima !
cain-scribaimmJo roida r[o.ss].
Note the poetic license in the order of words fidbaidce
fdl, roida ross for prosefdl innafidbaidee, ross ind roida;
also the infixing not only of the pronoun but also of the
subject in no-m-choimmdiu-coima.

TRANSLATION.

I.

A hedge of trees surrounds me,

A blackbird's lay sings to me-praise which I
will not hide-
Above my booklet the lined one
The trilling of the birds sings to me.

II.

The clear cuckoo sings to me-a beautiful chant-

In a gray mantle from the tops of the bushes.
By the God of Doom ! May the Lord protect me !
I write well under the greenwood.

FROM THE CODEX S. PAULI.

1. A poem ascribed to Suibne Geilt, a chieftain who

becameinsane at the battle of Magh Rath in the year 637.
Sarauw suggeststhat his airiucldn was his grave.
Barr Edin.

I.

M'airiucldn hi Tuaim Inbir,

ni Idn-techdaift bes sestu :
cona retglannaib a rei>;
cona grein, cona escu.-^
 165

II.

Gobbdn <hcri<jui
"dcestar dt'ih « stoir-
»ni chridecdn, Din di>
is he tuijnli'iif i-n

III.

Tech in-na-fera Jlr<-hod

'na-aigder /"///<//
>nl I>i lugburt,
os d ceu utlii/if/t/ ii imbi.

TRANSLATION.

The Crown of Ivy.

I.

My little oratory in Tuaim Inliir,

There is not a full housewhich is more pleasing(?):
With its stars agreeablyto (one's) wish,
With its sun, with its moon.

II.

Gobban has made that-

That its story may be told to you-
My lit-iirtlet, God from heaven,
He is the thatcher who has thatched it.

III.

A house wherein rain pours not,

A place wherein thou fearest not spear-points,
Bright as though in a garden,
And it without a fence (?) around it.
 166

"2. THE MONK AND His CAT.

I.

Messe ocus Paugur Ix'in,

ccc/iff/r ndt/nrr fria sain-ddn :
bith a uieiuim *a»i fri wilgg,
uiii n/i'iinid rein mi sain-cheirdd.

II.

Caraim-se fos, fci'r each cli'i,

oc inn li'Iiniii Ii''lr hujnn :
ni fninii/rcli fi'iiDni I'dinjur ban,
d iinicc-ilf'in.

III.
0 ni-bidin -scdl I'i'ii scis
htn-ar tegdai* <ir n-uci)-<It.\
tdith iunn - dichrh'h irlc <-Uux -
ni jris'-tarddam ar n-dtlu'i>.*.

IV.

Gncith ht'iumib <it- ijrc^<iib gal

glciniiil hn-Ji inn-a It'n x
os me, di'-f/tit ii» lit/
u-doraid cu n-dron-cheill.

V.

Fuacliaid NCHIfri frega f/U

n ro.sr, a ii-'j/r se c/nnliin :
fuachimm rhciit fri fi'yi /fx
mu rose reil, ci'*n inulix.

VI.

Fdelid nent cu n-dcnc du.l.

hi-n-glen Iwli iiin-n gt.n--i.-li
rub ;
hi-turn cJu'i^t n-doraid it-dil,
os vie chcnc din fiiclid.
 167

VII.

Cia beimmi umin iirirh re,

ni-derban cadi a chele.
iniiitli la ceclittn- tnir a dfin,
subaigthius a oennrdn.
'

VIII.

He fesin aft choim^id d<ni

in nnt/'t! <ln-n-gni cadi <'»'n-l<ni;
<ln fliu/xiirt (Jon/iiJ du gU
far nni intid <-/:ii/ <nn (('nil ''

TRANSLATION.

I and \vhite Pangur,

Each of us at his special art :
His mind is at hunting (mice),
My own mind is in my special craft.

II.

I love to rest, better than ,iny fame,

At my booklet with diligent science ;
White Pangur is not envious of me,
He himself loves his childish art.

III.

When we are - tale without tedium-

In our house, we two alone,
We have - unlimited sport-
Something to which to apply our acuteness.

IV.

It is customary at times by feats of valour,

That a mouse sticks in his net,
As for me, there falls into my own net
A difficult dictum with hard meaning.
 168

V.

He points against the wall's fence

His eye, this glancing full one ;
I myself point against the clearnessof science
My clear eye, though it is feeble.
VI.

He is joyous with speedy going,

Where a mouse sticks in his sharp claw ;
Where I uiidrr.-taii'l a difficult dear question
As for me, I too am joyous.

VII.

Though we are thus always,

Neither hinders the other,
Ha eh. of us two likes his art.
It (i.e. his art) delights them (or 'him') by itself
[or 'It delightshim alone'].
VIII.

He himself is master
Of the work which he does every day;
To bring difficulty to clearness
At my own work (master) am I.

Note the rhyme of final accented long vowels with final

unaccented short as in clu-inynti, gle-messe; for the order
in freya fill, dene did, cf. fidbaidce ful; frix-tnrddcim is
for rel. frisa-tarddam : in subaigthius the suffixed pronoun
us is probably not plur. or fem. sing., but masc. sing, as
frequently in Mid. Irish, and refers to dan (Thurn.).
 169

INDEX OF IRISH WORDS.

[The references
are to pages: mostcompoundverbs are
uivcii thus--accai (fris)].
page

page afamenad 133

u (poss.pron.) 50 afomensa 133
a', ;i' (with voc.) 41 agid 21
a" (<-<mj.) 131 "agor 19
abamin 133 ai 50
abl i 35 "aicci 106
abbgitir 31 aidche 30
"acanim(fo) - 1l!i aidgne 113
"armi (fris) 106 aig 40
"accastar(fris) 106 aiirred 40
"accat(fris) 120 aildiu 14
"accatar 106 aile is. , :.y
accus 46 aill 43
a eli ad 13 "ain 82
ached 13 ain 88
"acht 21 ainbthine 39
acht 134, 135 aiiigliu 12
acre 112 Ainmire 34
act 1 34 ain mm 38
acus 13 1 aintnne 36
ad 112 ainsem 112
adaas 136 air 112
adaig 30 air (conj.) 134
adas 41 airdirc 112
adas (conj.) - 136 aire 32
adblam 118 airechdae 42
ade 57 airegde 42
adib 101 airmdis 104
adraim 140 airme 20
adrorsat 140 airndip 104
aes 17 ai's 17
afameinn 133 aisndet 117
 170

page

aisndis - 117 anis 60

"aisselbi(do) - 112 anmaimm 37
aithesc 113 anmann - 37
aithgne 88, 113 ansam 45
aithirriuch 138 anti'iaid 60
"aithminter (fur) 119 Ann - 37
aithrea 12 ainias 60
ala 20 ap - 35
alaili - 59 "apir 117
alaill 43 apstal 19
alech 34 ar (nnij.) 134
"algim (fo) 112 ar 14
all 15 ara" 132
alo 34 arach 34
alt 84 araile 23
altoir 139 aram 14
am 20, 101 ara-tha 104
am 135 arathar 14
amail 13, 136 arbae - 38
amal 130, 136 arbaimm - 38
amein 138 arbor 38
amin 138 ardis 104
ammi 101 ardu 4.'.
ammiii 101 are :U
ammus 11 arggit 3
amne 138 arimp - 104
amrae 43 armbii 103
anaenl 8S arndip 104
anad 88 arrad (i n-) 130
anair 60 "arrchet (do) 20
a nail 60 art 21
anamchairtes 39 aru 37
anamcharae - 39 as (verb) 101
andess 60 as (jircji.) 117
anechtair 60 ascae 35
angraib 139 ascnam 14
ani 26, 59 assa 10, 46
aniar - 60 assu - 45
 171

page page

at 101 "bered 18
ata 20, 101 berid 15
ataim 112 bertit 54
atairbert 113 beste 11
atairbir 113 lirso, besu 104
athchumtach 113 bethu 35, 39
athir 14, 38 "betis 19
atrab 112 beo, beu 17, 22
atracht 84 bi 43
atta 98 "bi 85
au 17, 39 Kiad 28
audbirt 1 li' biail 31
aue 39 bibdu 35
aururas 113 bice 42
bicce 42
"bidci (do) 23
biid(£.) 28
l>a 103 bind 39
lia (conj.) 57, 131 bindius 39
bad 103, 104 liiru "_>"_>
bai 39 Inth (fo) 130, 134
"baill (at) 105 bithe 87
bar 50 bithin (fu) 130
barr 15 "bir 71
baste 11 In'il 84
baull 28 "biu 18
becc 42 biu 18
becca 43 biud 28
bela 31 "biur 15
belaib (ar) - 130 bliadain 30
belre 14 bo 39
"beir (ar) 113 bobig 84
beirthi 54 bocht 43
ben - 30 "bocht 86
bendacht 30 boi 100
bennach 42 boicht 43
beotar - 85 boie 100
berat 13 boill 16
 COCO-^incOCOOlOGOlOr-lOCOlOCOCOC-IGOGOr-l-fr-(Oi-iCO-rf
i~~< i-I r-' ^ t-I i-t ^ i-I i-I i-<
co co ^*r f?i

--
~ -to
rt ea o o o oT3.S
XI ,d J3 rfi
"- g S tc<B ^s^s^B -4i <D ^^) O O 1
O OOOOCJOOOOO

bo GO GO O I- tO GO tO ~*f ^l O tO i-i O^O^^C^C

S tO l^ CO CO CO-CO GO CO CO CO CO i-i i O7 TO i^ o oo

I I I I I

- '-
~ " 4-.-- -- -73
O -O O 8-. In i--
§- ^~ & ,o o o
 173

page page

cete 87 cinta 35
"ceth (ad) - 106 cisi 56
cethardae - 49 cit 104
cetheoir - 48 cita-roba 114
cetheora - 48 "cither (ad) 106
"cether (ad) - 106 citue - 56
cethir 47, 48 citu- 48
cetorcha - 47 ciuir - 85
cethramad - 48 ciunn 27, 138
cethramthu - - 49 "claid (ad) 81
cethrar - 49 claide - ,SS
ce'tmad . 48 claideb 40
cetnae - 48 claidbene 40
cetu 7, 101 clainde 16
cetu- - 48 claisse 42, 87
ce'u - 34 eland 140
chenn (ar) - 130 class - 86
chiunn (ar, di) - 130 dr 43
chnit (ar) _ 130 "cleth 86
cia (pron.) _ 56 cli 43
cia, ce (conj.) . 136 cliu 43
ciabo _ 103 cloth 16
ciach - 34 cluined 67
ciaptar - 103 clu 39
ciasu - 101 clum 140
cib - 104 cnai 139
cich - 85 cnaim 31
"cichestar(ad) _ 106 cnamai 13
"cichlus (ad) - - 81 co (prep.} 114
cichnaigistir- - 83 co" (conj.) - 132
"cichurr (fo) - . 81 co (conj.) - 132
cid (interrog.) - 56 cobodlus .).!
cid, cith _ 104 "cobra 112
cin - 35 cocad 13, 115
cing - 35 cocart 115
cinged . 35 "coemnachtar
(do) - 84
cingid - 21 "coi(do) 77
cinn 15, 27 coic 47
 174

page page

coica 36 , 47 condad - 101

coicde - 49 condae 42
coiced - 48 condan 101
coicedmad - 48 condat 101
coicer - 49 "condairc (ad) 106
coich - 56 condelc 23
"coid (do) - 115 condeilgg 3
"coiraa - 115 condib 104
"coiralachtar(fo) - 84 cotidid 101
coimmdiu - 35 con-dieig 115
"coimnacuir - 106 conecat 106
coimthecht - 115 coneit 107
comairle - 114 coneitged 107
com-alnither - - 115 coni 106
conil >a - 104 conicc 106
combach - 115 conicub 106
com bad - 104 coir to
com))in - 104 congnam 23, 115
comchetbuid - 115 conid 101
"comeitged - 107 conijitis 104
"comeitis - 107 conismis 106
-cometig - 107 conna 132
comman - 104 connach 132
comimmaircide - 115 consecraimm 140
commimmis - - 104 con-uraing 124
commiii - 104 "corathar 106
"comnicc (ad) - 104 corbu 104
comparit - 31 coreur 103
comsuidigud - - 115 cor-thun 42
comtar - 103 corn 45
comthinol - 115 coscc 3
comtis - 104 cose 57
con - IS cosmil 19, 115
con-accae - 106 cosmilius 39
con-airleci - 115 cosmuil 13
con-boing - 115 cossin 57
con-certat - 115 cote - 56
conda - 101 coteet - 56
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page page

deicbenbor - 49 digaim - 31
deithbir - 42 digal 40, 115
del - 21 dige - 33
de-meccim - 116 digiae 17
demnae - 28 diglaid 40
demun - 28 digle 17
denait _ 21 diill - 28
dene , 39 diis 49
driit; (imp.} - _ 74 dile - 37
driiithir - 45 dilgend - 88
deniu - 45 diliu - 37
denom - 19 di-meccither - 116
denum - 115 dinu 36
der - 14 di-rogbad - 116
"dercaither - 106 di-t;i 104
"derig - 115 di-taam 104
dermat - 115 di-that 104
"deroima - 127 dithrub 11.-)
de-sillabach - - 47 ditiu 88, 115
desi'u - 60 diunag 115
dessid - 123 diull - 28
det 13,35 dixnigur - 105
det (verb) - 86 dligtbech 19
deug - 33 dlongid - 81
di - 47 dluig 16
"di (du) - fi >^
i do (prep.) 13, 128, 129
di (prc;x) - 115 do (IMSS.
pron.) - 50
Dia - 28 do - 47
dia - 39 doaib 20
dian (conj.) - 131, 134 do-acaldmach - 128
diad - 35 do-briathar 128
diall 28, 115 do-eci 123
dian - 39 do-coid 115
dib - 47 docoissin 105
dibirciud - 23 dochu 45
dicoissin - 105 dochnm 130
didiu - 133 dod-fongad 118
"didma - 80 do-fuisim - 125
 17'

page page

doich 45 echtar 116

"doid 107 echtar-geindi 116
doinacht 30 ecilse 20
doini 29 eclais 139
do-inola 123 eclastai 87
do-leici 128 "ecmaing 126
do-mmeiccither 116 "ecmaing(do) 106
domun 20 ecolso 20
do-nesbe °2 ed, (h)ed 49
dono 133 edbart 112
dorchae 43 "eici (do) 106
do -rat- 128 eirr 123
do -rega 128 eirred 123
do-riga 128 "rirset (ass) " 117
do-rigeni 127 eis (do) 130
do-riltiset 127 eisc 28
do-rogl>ad 116 eisse 107
drebrang - 85 "ella(do) 116
drui 17, 35 ellach 123
"duaid 107 ellug (i n-) 130
dub 16, 44 elned 40
dub-glass 42 elnithid 40
duil 40 elud 117
duilem 40 em 135
duinan 40 emith, emid - 131
duinen 40 enge 123
duini 29 enirt 117
duiniu 29 eoch 28
dundaib 25 eochu 28
diis 57 Eochu 34
duthracht 16 epert 117
"epret 19
E. epscop 19
er 112
e, (h)e 49 "era 85
ecal 117 erdairc 112
ech 15 ericc 117
echrad 40 Eriu 37
 178

page page

esbae 117 feib 33, 136

escarae 117 feich - 28
escung 37 f4in 58
esi (tar) 130 fele 98
esrechtait 117 fen 15
essamin 41, 117 "feotar(do) 107
"essarr(do) 81 fer 15
esseirgiu 17 feran 40
"estar K)7 ferr 46
estir 77 fessin - 58
"t;t 84 "festar 81
etarcert 117 fiach 28
efcargne 117 fiad - 118
etarthothaim 117 fiada 36
eter-certa 117 fiadu 37
"etet (con) 123 fial 140
etir-gen us "fiastar 81
etrantach 117 fib 136
eu 34 riche 35, 46
eun 18 fichetmad 48
figor 19, 140
fil 98
pI . file 98
ia 57, 131 filedacht 39
faeab 119 fili 34
"facaib 118 finn 15
fadein : 58 finnad 67
fadesin 58 fir 15
fa-dess 59 fir 18
failid 39 firian 45
faillsem 45 firianamam - 45
failti 39 firianu 45
failtiu 45 firu 18
faith 39 fiss 88
faithsine 39 flu 33
far, bar 50 fiur 15, 23
far-cuimsitis 119 fiurt 140
fedan - 88 flechod 19
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page page

"geba - 80 iar 121

"geba(fo) 106 iarm- 121
gebtit 54 iarma-foich 122
"gega(do) - 80 iarmi-foig 122
"gegrann(ro) - - 84 iarmua 121
"gena - 80 iarmuidigthe 121
genitiu - 37 iarn 20
"gess 76 iarsindi 132
gessa 76 fartain 137
gessi 87 mr-thuaiscerddach 121
"glas - 86 iarum 137
glenamon 88 ibid 15, -2-2
gleun 38 "ic (ar) 113
"glemi - 86 "icht 86
glinne 38 idbart 112
gnas - 39 idib 101
gnath 14, 21 il 45
gnethe - 87 illei 59
"gniu(do) 18 imb (noun) - 22
gobae - 37 imb (verb) 104
"goet - 86 imb (prep.) - 122
goi 17 imbechtrach - 122
"goit 86 imbide 122
gotho 32 imbliu 22
grad 139 imbradub 122
graig 31 imchainti 122
gran 14 immalle 138
grega 31 immallei 138
"greinn (ad) " 123 immanetar 138
"greinn (in) 123 immenetor 138
gres (do) 138 imme-radi 122
guide 30 immolang 5
guirid 21 "immolngi 118
guth 32 immurgu 135
imned 19
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iach - 34 impiid 20, 122
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page paje

masu 7, 101 miJam 46

mat 104 moch 138
mathir 14, 38 moir 45
matin 137 moiti 54
matis 104 "molastar 83
me 49 mor 45
mebuir 139 mor-chenn 42
mebul 139 mor-feser 40
medg 22 morthae 42
meit 30, 137 mos- 47
melid "24 mrath 88
"mema - 82 mrecht 10
inenmae 37 mrechtrad 40
menmuin 13 mruig 16
mesar 139 mucc - 33
mess 32 mug 16
messa 46 mui - 50
messe 49 muicc 33
messi 87 muicce 33
mestar 77 muir 31
"met 86 muisse 50
mi 13, 39 muirmoru 139
mid 21 Mumu 37
midar 85
"midethar (ad) 112 N
mil 15
mil 35 na 62
Milcon 37 nab 104
mile 47 nacc 63
railed - 35 naeca - 63
Miliucc - 37 nacce 63
mind 32 nach(pron.)- 58
mis 39 nach 62
"mitter 10 nacha(pron.} 59
mna 23 nach tan 131
mnai 30 nad (neg) 57, 62
mo (poss. pron.) 50 nad (cop.) 102
mo 46 nade - 62
 184

page. page.

nadip 104 nimtha 53

naicc 62 "ninus 81
naidm 20 nio 35
naip 104 moth 35
namae 36 nip 104
nan 102 niptha 104
nand 102 nisfil 98
nandat 102 nista 98
nani 59 nita 101
nant 102 nitad 101
nar 50 nitam 101
nat 102 nitan 101
natat 102 nitat 101
nate 62 niuil 28
nathar 50 no- (preverb) 60
natliir 33 no 131
natho 63 noch 135
nech 58 nocha 47
nechtar 59 noi 47
neirt 28 noidiu 37
nel 28 nomad 48
nem 39 n6nbar 49
nemdae 42 nonda 102
"nena 82 nondad 102
neph-icthe 87 nondan 102
nessa 46 notire 40
nessam 46 nu 131
net 22 nuae 23
ni (pron) 58 nuie 23
ni (neg.) 62
niad 35
O.
niae 35
nib 104 6 124
nibo 104 6' 132
nicon 62 6a 46
"nig (do) 84 dac 46
nime 39 oblu 37
nimfil 53 oc 126
 185

page. page.

ocbal -IT124 opad 124

occivrobae 126 opair 12
ochsal "> "opuir (ad) 124
ocht 16, 47 orl 10 16
ochtar 49 orcum - 88
ochtmad 47 ore, (h)6re 41, 134
uchtmogo 48 oroit 139
ocmaide 126 "ort 14, 14, SO
"ocmanatar 126 ortae 87
ocu-ben 126 6s 126
ocu-bether 126
ocu-bendar 126
ocu-biat 126
ocuis 131 Patraicc 39, 139, 140
ocus 20, 131 pennit 139
(,,11, ">"> persan 30
6es 17 persine 30
oen-fecht 49 pherid 0-1
"oi (con) 17 phiur - 38
oi 39 ]](IC 139
oiged 35 popul 140
oigi 35 posit 31
"oilc (as) 124 precept 140
oin 17, 47 ]irecept6ir 40
oinar 49 predchid 139
ointu Q" pridchid 139
oircne - 88 prim- 49
oirdnide 42
ois 17
Q
oitiu 35
ol 61, 134 quart- 49
olc 43
olcc 3 R
oldaas 98
oldai 98 "racatar (fris) 106
oldatae 98 . rainn (a) 130
oldau 98 r;iith (di) 130
onnurid 138 "ral 106
 186

page. page.

"rala 106 "rodarcar(ad) 106

"ralae 106 rodbo 131
"ralad 106 "roethach(ad) 85
"ralsat 106 rogid 23
"rarpatar 85 rogu 39
re 126 roiblang 85
"recatar(do) - 106 ro-iccu 127
reicc 88 "roichan (for) 13
"reilced 127 roichan 84
rem- 126 "roichechnatar 85
reme-nuicsed 126 "ro-ig 127
remi-taat 126 "roigrann (in) 14
remsuidigud - 126 "roigrann 84
remthechtas- 126 "roigu (do) 80
"ren (as) 117 "roisc (con) 77
renaid 68 "roilli (as) 112
rendo 32 rola 106
resiu 132 rolaad 106
retglu 37 "rolad 106
rethit 19 rolsat 106
ri 15, 33 rom 103
riagol 15 ro-mar 127
riam 137 rombia 100
"ric 127 romdis 102
rice - 88 romsa 103
riccu 127 romtar 103
rim 15 rondgab 105
"rimi (ad) : 112 ro-6lach 127
rind - 32 rop 104
"rir - 85 ropo 104
"riri - 80 ro-saig 127
risiu 432 "rorthatar 85
rithe 87 "rotacht 124
ro 63, 64, 65, 127 roth 21
rob 104 "rothuusa(do) 107
robo 131 . ro-ucad 127
"rochain (for) - 85 riiad 15
"rochair (do) - 19 "rualdatar (in) 85
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 188

page. page.

siar 59 soirbithir 45
sib 49 soirfed 18
side 57 som 49
sieir 38 sommaimem - 45
"sil 82 somme 45
sin 26 Snll 49
siniu 45 sonairt 45
sinni 49 sonartaidir 45
sir 46 so-nirt 42
si's 59 sorn 140
sisi 49 soscelae 12
sisni 49 srethi 87
sissi 49 srian 140
siu 57 sr6n 15
sium 49 srogell 140
siur 13, 18, :;s sruth 16
siurnat 40 stoir 31, 139
slaidid 81 suan 15
slantu 39 siianem 37
"slecht 86 suas 59
sleibe 39 sude 16
slemon 23 SUl - ?>r>
sli'ab 22, 38 suide 21
"slig (ad) 88 suide(pron.) - 57
slige 88 suil 31
snechte 23 sun 28
sni 49 sund 59
snini 49 superlait 31
snisni 49 suthain 45
snithe 87 suthainidir 45
so, sa 26
so-cheneiiil 42
TA.
sochumacht - 19
sochmacht 19 "ta - 98
sodain 59 tabart 151
soilse 30 tacco 63
soirb 45 taccu 63
soirbem 45 tai 50
 189

page. page.

tai.u- 38 "tegot 15
taige 38 "tri 77
tair 59 teilciud 128
tairmchosal - 128 teist 16
tairmthecht - 128 teit 44
tairse 128 "tella 2°
tairsiu 128 Temuir 32
talam 37 Temrach 32
tall 26, 59 Temro 32
"talla 22 tene 35
talmaidiu 137 tengae 34
tanaic - 85 teoir 48
tanaise 48 teora 48
tane 15 "terga 128
tanu 45 tert- 49
tar 128 tess 59
tarais 12* tessim 117
"tarat 128 testa 117
tarb - -22 testimin 31
tarmi'berar- - 128 tiach 74
tarrchet 113 tfag 71
tart 15 "tiagat 15
tathunn 54 tiar 59
tathus 54 tiasu 76
tathut 54 tiastair 76
"tau 17 tibera 128
"te 13 tic 128
te 44 tig 38
tee 22, 44 tinchosc 123
teccomnocuir - 107 tindarscan 127
tech - 38 "tinib 77
techtaire - 40 "tirga 128
techtaite 71 tirthat 40
tecmongat - 107 ti's - 59
tecnate 10 tlenamon " 88
tecosc 123 to 128, 129
teg - 21 tobe 128
teglach 18 tocad 13
 190

page. page

tocbal 124 tricha 36, 47

toceth 13 trichatmad 48
tochmarc - 128 triphne 22
"todsat 107 Trmd6it 139
"toeth (do) KIT tris 49
tofunn - 88 triuss 41
togu 39 troch 32
toimseo 16, 19 tromm ±^
toimtiu 3(1, 88 tru 32
toisech 17 tuaid 59
"tomnibther " 19 trummu 45
tongid 68 tu 49
topur 125 "tiiairc 118
"torchar in: tualang 41
"torchair 19, 107 tiiargab 125
tormach 128 tuas 59
torthissem 107 tuasulcud 124
tosge 28 t uatae 42
tossach 2S, 125 tuath 15, 30
tossach (adv.) 138 tuatha 18
"toth 107 tuirem 19
tothaim 128 "tuisim 125
"totsat 107 "tuit (do) - 107
tra 133 "tuiter - 107
traig 34 "tultatar - 85
tre (prep.) 129 tussu 49
trede 49
tremdid 139
tremi- 129
tremi-berar - 128 iian - 132
tren 46 (h)ua-bela 125
tres 48 uad-fialichthe 125
tressa 46 uaisli 43
tressam 46 liaislimen 45
tri 21. 47 uaithed 13
tri (prep) 129 uar 15
triar 49 (h)uare (conj.) 134
trian - 49 lias - 126
 191

page. page.

uasal 43 uilc 43
uasal-athir 34 uile 43
liasum 126 ungae 13, 30, 139
uathad 13, 49 ulcu 43
uccu 39
ucut 26
Yi
ugae 39
ui 17 ymmon "_>
uig 39

Belfast: ALEX. MAVNE & BOYD, Printers to the Queen's University of Belfast.
PB 1223 .036 1912 SMC
O'Connell, Frederick William
A grammar of Old Irish