ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS

Composition

>99.0% Water
Solids
70% Organic 30% Inorganic
Sewerage characteristics can be divided into three broad
categories:-
1. Physical
2. Chemical
3. Bacteriological
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PHYSICAL

Physical characteristics include:

• Temperature: The normal temperature of sewage is slightly
higher then water temperature. Temperature above normal
indicate inclusion of hot industrial wastewaters in sewage

• Colour: Fresh sewage is light grey in colour. While the

old sewage is dark grey in colour. At a temperature of
above 200c, sewage will change from fresh to old in 2 ~ 6
hours.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

• Odour: Fresh domestic sewage has a slightly soapy or oil

odour. Stale sewage has a pronounced odour of
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S).

• Solids: Solids in sewage may be suspended or in solution

solids are a measure of the strength of sewage.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
CHEMICAL
Sewage contain both organic and inorganic chemicals. All
the test representing these organic and inorganic constituents
come under the heading of chemical characteristics. Test
like BOD, COD, NITORGON, PHOSPHOURS,
ALKALINITY etc give the chemical characteristics of
sewage.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
BACTERIOLOGICAL

Enormous quantities of micro-organisms are present in

domestic sewage. They include bacterial worms, viruses,
protozoa etc. Bacterial counts in raw sewage may range
form 500,000/ml to 50,000,000/ ml. Viruses, protozoa,
Worms etc have not enough characteristics that require
measurement.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DEFINITIONS OF SOME TERMS IN SEWAGE
CHARACTERIZATION

SOLIDS
TOTAL SOLIDS:
Include both suspended and dissolved solids. It is measured
by evaporating a known volume of sample and the
weighting the residue. Results are expressed in mg/l

SUSPENDED SOLIDS:
These are solids which are pertained on a pre-weighed glass
fiber filter of 0.45 µ, 103-1050C
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

DISSOLVED SOLID:
Filtrate which has passed thought 0.45µ filter is
evaporated in chine dish. The residue gives the dissolved
solids.

SETTLEABLE SOLIDS:
It is the fraction of the solids that will settle in an imhoff
cone in 30-60 minutes. These are expressed as mg/l. or
ml/l (as performed in the lab.)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II VOLATILE SUSPENDED SOLIDS

They give a rough measure of the organic content or in some

instances of the concentration of BIOLOGICAL SOLIDS
such as bacteria. The determination is made by ignition of
residues on 0.45µ filter in a Muffle furnace at 5500C. The
residues following the ignition is called non-volatile solids
or ash and is rough measure of the mineral content of the
waste water.

(Note:- Most of the inorganic and mineral content do not

volatilize at 5500C and are quiet resistant)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II BOD

Bacteria placed in contact with organic matter will utilize

it as food source. In the utilization of the organic material
it will eventually be oxidized to stable and products such
as CO2 and H2O.

“The amount of oxygen required by the bacteria to

oxidize the organic matter present in sewage to stable end
products is known as biochemical oxygen demand.”
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Significance of BOD

Significance: -

1. Used in design of waste water treatment plants.

2. Used to measure efficiently of waste water treatment

plant.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DERIVATION OF BOD EQUATION

Biological oxidation of organic matter by bacteria is

considered to be a first order reaction for all practical
purposes. In a first order reaction, the rate of reaction is
proportional to the concentration of the reactant present. So,
we can say that in case of biological oxidation of organic
matter by bacteria, the rate of oxidation is proportional to the
organic matter REMAINING.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Let
L = Concentration of organic matter at any
time ‘t’
Lo = Initial case of organic matter at t=0 i.e.
(Ultimate BOD)

Mathematically:
dL/dt  -L (-ve sign show that L is decreasing)
dL/dt = -KL
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

In second order reaction the rate of reaction is proportional

to square of reactions.

Where ‘K’ is const and is known as “Reaction Rate

Constant”

dL/dt = -KL
dL/L = -K dt
dL/L = -K dt
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

L t
dL

L0
L
= − k  dt
0

L
ln L  = − kt
L0

ln L – ln Lo= -Kt
ln L/Lo = -Kt
ln L/Lo = -Kt
L/Lo = e –Kt
L = Lo e –Kt
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Let ‘y’ be the concentration of organic matter (BOD)

consumed up to time ‘t’
y = Lo – L
y = Lo – Lo e –Kt
y = Lo ( 1 - e –Kt)
i.e
BOD consumed = ultimate BOD (1 – e –Kt) in ‘t’ days

Typical value of K = 0.23 per day for domestic sewage at

20oC. Value of ‘K’ is temperature dependent.
KT = K20 (1.047) T-20
KT = Value of K at temp T
BOD represents amount of organic matter
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

mg/l
BOD
Lo
L

‘t’
time
y
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

The 5 day BOD of waste water is 190mg/l. determine ultimate

BOD assuming K = 0.25 per day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION

y = BOD exerted / consumed

L = Amount of organic matter remaining at time
‘t’
Lo = Ultimate BOD (Total Organic Matter)
L = Lo e-KT
y = Lo (1 - e-KT)
190 = Lo (1 – e –0.25 x 5)
Lo = 266.29 mg/l
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

Calculate the ultimate BOD for a sewage whose 5 day

BOD at 20oC is 250 mg/l. Assume K = 0.23 per day
what will be BOD after 2 days.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOLUTION

y = Lo (1 – e Kt)
250 = Lo (1 – 5 x 0.23)
Lo = 365.83 mg/l

y2 = 365.83 (1 – e –0.23 x 2)
y2 = 134.89 mg/l
= 135 mg/l
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

The BOD remaining in a sewage sample after 4 and 8 days

was 160 and 60 mg/l respectively at 20oC calculate the 5 day
BOD of the sewage at 25oC.

Only if BOD = y
BOD exerted / consumed = y
BOD remaining = L
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION

L = Lo e-Kt
160 = Lo e-K x 4
60 = Lo e-K x 8
Lo = 160 / e –4K
60 = [160 / e –4K ] e–K8
60 = 160 e –8K +4K
0.375 = e –4K
ln (0.375) = -4k
K = 0.245 per day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Lo = 160/e –4 x 0.245 =426.3 mg/l

At 25oC
K25 = K20 (1.047) T-20
K25 = 0.245 (1.047) 25-20
K25 = 0.308 per day
Y5 = Lo (1 - e –Kt)
Y5 = 426.3 (1 – e –0.308 x 5)
Y5 = 335 mg/l
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

It is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter

chemically (biodegradable and non-biodegradable) by using
a strong chemical oxidizing agent. (K2Cr2O7) in an acidic
medium. For a single waste water sample the value of COD
will always be greater then BOD.

The oxidant (K2Cr2O7) remaining is found out to find

K2Cr2O7 considered COD and BOD can be interrelated.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DOMESTIC SEWAGE
CHARACTERISTICS

Parameter Range (mg/l)

Total Solids 350 – 1200
Dissolved Solids 250 – 850
Suspended Solids 100 – 350
Setteleable Solids 5 – 20 (ml / l)
BOD 100 – 300
COD 250 – 1000
Total Nitrogen 20 – 85
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 50 – 200
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II POPULATION EQUIVALENT

1 person excrete 80gm BOD/day. Population equivalent of

an industry is the number of persons which may produce the
same amount of BOD per day.
Let BOD of tannery is =500 mg/l
Q =10,000 m3 / day
Total BOD load by tannery =BOD x Q
=500 x 10000 / 1000
=5000 kg BOD/day
Population equivalent =(5000 / 80) x 1000
=62,500 persons
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

SEWAGE
TREATMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SEWAGE TREATMENT
Purpose:
1. Health Aspect: More than 50% diseases spread through
untreated sewage pathogens , helminths, worms etc.
2. Disposal Aspect: if sewage is disposed untreated in water
bodies, it can result in following problems: -
- Depletion of O2 resources of streams
- Cause turbidity, colour in water bodies
- Can be toxic to aquatic life
3. Reuse aspect: Sewage is treated to be reused for
- Irrigation purposes
- Ground water recharge
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
METHODS OF TREATMENT
1. Primary Treatment:

Purpose:
Remove suspended, settleable and floating matters.

Method Used:
Screens, Grit Chambers, Primary Sedimentation tanks
(primary Clarifier)
BOD removal = 30 – 45 %
S. S removal = 40 – 70 %
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PRIMARY TREATMENT

1. Screens:
Purpose & Types:
The purpose of screens is to remove large particles of
floating or suspended matter so that the pump is not clogged
or damaged.

Screens consist of parallel bars, rods, wire mesh or

perforated plates. The opening may be of any shape.
(generally rectangular)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
BAR SCREENS

Mostly, BAR SCREENS of RACKS are used which are

either hand cleaned or mechanically cleaned.
Opening between bars ½” – 1 ½”
bars

Sewage

30 – 60o

To Gret
SECTION
Chamber / P.S
Tank
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK

3. PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK

(Primary Clarifier)
Function
1. They remove most of the settleable solids OR about
40 – 70% of the suspended solids from sewage.
2. Reduce BOD on secondary treatment unit since 80%
of the total BOD of municipal sewage is
contributed by suspended and colloidal solids,
between 30 and 45% of the total BOD will be
removal during this process.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Primary Clarifier Design Basis
1. Designed on AVERAGE FLOW BASIS
2. Surface loading rate : 20 – 60 m3/m2 . Day
3. Depth : 2 – 4 m
4. Detention Time : 2 – 4 hour
5. Sludge Accumulation:  2.5 kg of wet solids/m3 of flow
6. Weir Loading: ≤ 120 m3/m2.day (to prevent high approach
velocity at outlets)
7. Shapes
a. Rectangular : Max L:W – 4:1
Max length = 30m,
Max width = 6 – 8 m
b. Circular : Dia = 10 – 30 m
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SECONDARY TREATMENT

Aerobic Process

Cell Mass
CHON
(Organic Matter)
CO2, H2O, SO4-2, NO3
So more sludge is formed in aerobic process. Bacteria that
work in the presence of oxygen are AEROBIC BACTERIA.
The bulk of available energy finds its way into CELL MASS
yielding a stable effluent which will not undergo further
decomposition
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Anaerobic Process
These take place in the absence of oxygen

Cell Mass
CHON
(Organic Matter)
CO2, H2O, H2S, CH4, N2
Less sludge is formed in anaerobic process. The end
products of an anaerobic process are odorous. Bacteria that
work in the absence of oxygen are called ANAEROBIC
BACTERIA.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Suspended Growth Process

A treatment process in which bacteria are kept in suspension

by constantly aerating the wastewater e.g. activated sludge
process, Aerated Lagoons etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Floc body of micro organisms gathered in a crowd out line.

A quantity of micro organism and nutrient material
supporting the growth.

PST Aeration Tank SST

Sludge
Waste

Sludge To Sludge
Digestion drying beds
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Where
Vs = Settleable solids (measured by imhoff cone)
MLSS = Mixed liqueur suspended solids (mg/l)

(A measurement of micro organisms in sewage) SVI from

50 to 150 indicate good settling characteristics.

SVI = Sludge Volume Index

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Sludge Bulking

Excessive carry over of flocs in the effluent resulting in

inefficient operation to find clarifier in referred as SLUDGE
BULKING. It is usually due to FILAMENTOUS MICRO
ORGANISMS.
Reasons for sludge bulking may be
- insufficient aeration (D.O < 1.5 mg/l)
- Lack of nutrients (i.e N,P)
- Presence of toxic substances
- OVER LOADING i.e. high F/M ratios
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
F : M Ratio

F : M ratio means FOODS to MICRO ORGANISMS ratio.

F : M ratio is expressed in terms of kg BOD applied per day
kg of MLSS.
If Q is the sewage flow in m3/d and it has a BOD
expressed in mg/l.
Then FOOD = (Q x BOD)/ 1000 kg BOD / day
Also Qr/Q = Vs / (1000 – Vs) (Recirculation ratio)
Where
Vs = Volume of settled sludge
Qr = Flow of retained sludge
Q = Flow of sewage
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

If “V” is the volume of aeration tank in cubic meter and

has a MLSS concentration expressed in mg/l then:

Microorganisms = (V x MLSS)/1000 kg. MLSS

Where: MLSS =measure of microorganisms = mg/l

F:M = (Q x BOD)/(V x MLSS)

= BOD/(t x MLSS)
Where “t”is AERATION TIME in days. An F:M ratio
between 0.25 to 0.5 per day is usually employed and
promises good settling characteristics of sludge.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Design of the Facility (Design Criteria)

F:M ratio 0.25 to 0.5 per day

MLSS 1500 – 3000 mg/l

Air Supply 3 - 15 m3 of air/m3 of sewage

Return sludge 25 – 100 % of sewage flow

Aeration time 4 – 8 hours

Dissolve Oxygen (DO) At least 2 mg/l

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

No of tanks: Generally more then one tank be provided.

Aeration Tank Dimensions: Depth 3-5 m ,
L:W not be less than 5:1

Aeration Tank
Diffuses

Diffuses

Plan

0.6 – 1m
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Aeration Devices

(i) DIFFUSED AERATION

Air is passed through porous diffuses under pressure.
Generally rows of diffuses are 0.6 to 1 m apart. There are
placed at the bottom of aeration tank.
(ii) MECHANICAL AERATION
In this type mechanical surface aeration are employed they
agitate the sewage machinery so as to promote solution of
air from the atmosphere.
Impellers are generally used to agitate the sewage.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

An activated sludge process is to treat a domestic sewage

flow of 6000m3/day with a BOD of 240 mg/l. The F:M
ration is to be maintained at 0.4kg BOD/kg MLSS. The
sludge recirculation 0.25 and it is desired to achieve an SVI
of 100 ml/gm calculate the MLSS concentration in aeration
tank and the size of the aeration tank.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOLUTION
Qr/Q = Vs / (1000-Vs)
0.25 = Vs / (1000 –Vs)
Vs = 200 ml

SVI= (Vs x 1000)/MLSS

MLSS = (Vs x 1000)/ SVI
= (200x1000)/100
= 2000mg/l

F:M = (Q . BOD)/ (V . MLSS)

or V = Q x BOD / MLSS x F:M
V = 6000 x 240 / 2000 x 0.4 = 1800 m3
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOLUTION
Use two tanks having volume 900 m3 each.
Let depth = 4m
Area = 900 / 4
= 225 m2
Use two aeration tanks.
.: Area of each tank = 225 m2
Let L : W = 5 : 1
225 = 5W x W
W = 6.7 m
L = 33.5 m
Tank size 6.7m x 33.5m x 4m
Lets (7m x 34m x 4m)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

An activated sludge process is to be designed to treat sewage

flow of 8640 m3/day with a BOD of 200mg/l from the
primary clarifier. Using F : M ratio of 0.4 per day and MLSS
concentration of 3000 mg/l, calculate the volume of the
aeration tank of SVI is 100, how much sludge should be
returned
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOLUTION
Q = 8640 m3/day
F:M = Q x BOD / V x MLSS
0.4 = 8640 x 200 / V x 300
V = 1440m3

SVI = Vs x 1000 / MLSS

Vs = 100 x 3000 / 1000
= 300
Qr / Q = Vs / 1000 – Vs
= 300 / 1000 – 300
= 0.42
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOLUTION

Qr = 0.42 x 8640
= 3702 m3/day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

An activated sludge process with aeration tank volume of

900 m3 is treating a sewage flow 4000 m3/day with a BOD
of 250 mg/l. It is desired to achieve an SVI of 80 by
adopting a recirculation ratio of 0.25. Calculate the F : M
ration at which the aeration tank should be operated.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution

Qr / Q = Vs / 1000 – Vs
:. 0.25 = Vs / 1000 - Vs
Vs = 200 mg/l

SVI = Vs x 1000 / MLSS

MLSS = 200 x 1000 / 80
= 2500 mg/l

F:M = Q x BOD / v x MLSS

= 4000 x 250 / 900 x 2500
= 0.44 per day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

Domestic sewage flow of 8000 m3/d with a BOD of 260

mg/l is to be treated by an activated sludge process. If a
recirculation ration of 0.25 and SVI of 100 is desired,
calculate the size of the aeration tank take F : M ratio as
0.3.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION

Q = 8000m3/d
Qr/Q = 0.25
SVI = 100
Qr/Q = Vs / 1000 – Vs

.: 0.25 = Vs / 1000 – Vs
Vs = 200 mg/l

SVI = Vs x 1000 / MLSS

MLSS = 200x1000/100
= 2000mg/l
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION

Let
F : M ration 0.3 per day
F : M= Q x BOD / V x MLSS
V= 3466.6 mg/l

Let depth = 4m
Area = 3466/4
= 866.6 m2
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION

Take 2 units of aeration tank:

Each = 433.3 m2
L:W = 5:1

A = LxW
A = 5W2
W = 9.3 m

L= 46.5 m
So
size 9.3m x 46.5m x 4 m
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TRICKLING FILTER

Trickling filter utilize a relatively porous bacteria growth

medium like ROCK or FORMED PLASTIC SHAPES.
Bacterial growth occur upon the surface while oxygen is
provided by air diffusion through void spaces.
Wastewater is applied to the surface and percolates
through the filter, flowing over the biological growth in a
thin film. Fixed water
layer

BOD O2
Support
Medium
Oxidized
Organics
CO2

Anaerobic Zone Aerobic Zone

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TRICKLING FILTER

Nutrients, oxygen and organic matter are transferred to the

fixed water layer and from there to bacteria and waste
products are transferred to the moving water layer, primarily
by diffusion.
As the bacteria on filter medium metabolize the waste they
will reproduce, gradually producing an increase in the depth
of SLIME LAYER with thickening of biological layer, the
inner side become anaerobic and bacteria starts dieing
breaking the contact between slime layer and contact
medium and slime layer will slough off and be carried from
the filter with waste flow. These solids are then removed in a
secondary clarifier.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TRICKLING FILTER
Primary
Sedimentation Dosing
Tank Tank

Rotating
Distribution
drain

Under
drain
system

Stone To secondary
(60-90 mm dia) sedimentation tank
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TYPES OF TRICKLING FILTER

i. Low rate
ii. High rate (mostly used these days)
Factor Low Rate High Rate
1. Medium Stone Plastic balls
2. Hydraulic loading 1.9 – 3.8 m3/m2.d 9 – 27 m3/m2.d
3. Depth 2–3m 1 – 2.5 m
4. Recirculation Nil 1:1 to 4: 1
5. operation Simple Skilled
6. Odour / Fly problem More Less
7. Organic loading 0.3 – 1.5 kg/m3 1.5 – 18.5
filter vol.day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
ROLE OF RECIRCULATION

Recirculation of effluent either from trickling filter or final

clarifier is done in modern Trickling filter to following
advantages:

i. return of viable organism thus improving efficiency

ii. Reduce odour and fly problem
iii. Dilute influent and help in handling shock loads
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Disadvantages
i. High construction cost
ii. Large area required
iii. Odour and fly (Psychoda fly) problem

Performance
National research council (NRC) empirical formula is used.
It is based upon data collected in USA during World War –II
E = (Ci-Ce )/ C i
= 1/ (1 + 0.532 (QCi/VF)0.5)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

A settled sewage flow of 11355 m3/day containing 150 mg/l

of BOD is to be treated by a Tricking filter with a depth of 2
m . It is desired that effluent BOD should be 20 mg/l.
Calculate the required diameter of the filter and hydraulic
loading on the filter. Recirculation ration is 4.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution

Q = 11355 m3/d
= 7.88 m3/min
Qr = 4 x 11355
= 45420 m3/d

r = 4

.: F = 1 + 4 / (1 +0.4)2
= 2.53
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

(Ci-Ce )/ C i = (150 – 20) / 150

= 0.8667

E = 1/ (1 + 0.532 (QCi/VF)0.5)
0.8667 = 1 / (1 + 0.532 (7.88 x 150 / V x 2.55)0.5)
Solving this equation we can get the value of V:

V = 5540 m3
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Let
depth = 2m
.: Area of filter = 2770 m2
A =  / 4 D2
D = 59.4 m
Total flow of filter = Q + Qr
= 56775 m3/d
Hydraulic Loading = 56775 / 2770
= 20.4 m3/m2.d
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PROBLEM

22700 m3/d of settled wastewater containing 300 mg/l

of BOD is to be treated in a Trickling filter. It is 2m in
depth and hydraulic loading is 15 m3/m2.d with a
recirculation ratio of 2. calculate filter size, %age BOD
removal and effluent BOD.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOLUTION

Try to solve by yourself.

Answer:
Area = 4540 m2
E = 78.97 % ,
Ce = 63 mg/l
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II WASTE WATER STABILIZATION PONDS
(WSP)
Wastewater stabilization ponds provide a useful method of
Wastewater treatment and disposal for growing communities
where both FUNDS and TRAINED PERSONNEL are in
short supply.
In these ponds, “beneficial organisms” stabilize the
Wastewater into a liquid that can be released to the
environment adversely and that does not place an under cost
burden on a downstream user.
WSP are best solution where:
- Financial resources are limited
- Technical expedite are lacking
- Sufficient land area is available at cheap cost.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

DEFINITION:
A stabilization pond is a relatively shallow body of water
contained in a earthen / lined basin of controlled shape
which is designed for the purpose of treating wastewater.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

DRAWBACKS
1. Require large area
2. Anaerobic ponds have odour problem.
TYPES
1. Anaerobic ponds
2. Facultative ponds
3. Maturation ponds
Mostly, these are used in combination / series. A typical arrangement
is shown below: -
F M

An F M

An F M M
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
ANAEROBIC PONDS

Scum Baffle

Influent CH4 H2S CO2 NH Effluent

3
3-5 m

Sludge
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PROBLEM

Design an anaerobic pond to treat a sewage flow of 5000

m3/d with a BOD of 400 mg/l. the ponds are to be loaded at
200 g BOD / m3.d
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOLUTION

Total BOD load = 5000 x 400

= 2000000 gm BOD / l
Volume of pond = 2000000 / 200 = 10000m3
Take two ponds .: volume of one pond = 5000 m3
Let depth = 4m
.: Area (Mean Depth) = 5000 / 4 = 1250 m2
Let L : W = 2.5 : 1
W = 22.3 m ~ 22
L = 55.9 m ~ 56
Surface = 28 x 54
Bottom = 16 x 50
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
FACULTATIVE PONDS
O2 Sunlight

Aerobic

Influent Effluent
1.5 - 2 m Algal
Facultative
Growth

Anaerobic

Application mostly used for domestic sewage of ordinary

strength
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Three zones exist in a facultative pond:

I- The surface zone where aerobic bacteria and algae

exist
II- Anaerobic zone near bottom in which accumulated
solids are decomposed by anaerobic bacteria.
III. An intermediate zone that is partially aerobic and
partially anaerobic in which decomposition is bought
about by FACULTATIVE bacteria.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
DESIGN CRITERIA

There are design on SURFACE LOADING RATES. i.e kg BOD

/ ha / day. The area thus calculated is MID DEPTH SURFACE
AREA (M.D.S.A)
Surface loading : 100 – 400 kg BOD/ha/day
No of ponds : At least two
Detention time : 7 – 20 days
Side Slopes : 1V : 3H
Depth : 1.5 – 2m
L:W : 3 – 2.5 : 1
De-sludging : 10 – 15 years
The effluent have no small, greenish in colour and has a BOD of
around 50 – 75 mg/l
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Formula for effluent Quality

Following formula is used to find out effluent quality: -

Le / L i = 1/(1 + Kt)
Where
Le = effluent BOD, mg/l
Li = Influent BOD, mg/l
K = Reaction rate constant, per day
(normally 0.3d-1 for domestic sewage at 200C)
t = Detention time, days
Note : 90% of ponds in world are FACULTATIVE PONDS.
Temperature effect on K
K2 = K1 (Ө) T2-T1
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Mara formula far BOD loading

Mara (1988) gave the following formula to find the surface

loading for a specific region. According to this formula
surface loading depend upon average temperature of the
coldest month
S.L = I5T – 50
Where
S.L = Surface loading in kg BOD / ha.day
T = Average temperature of coldest month
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Bacteria Algae Symbiosis
(mutually beneficial)

In aerobic zone of ponds, bacteria and algae exist in a

MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL or SYMBIOTIC relationship
algae produce O2 during photosynthesis which is needed by
bacteria to metabolize matter. Whereas bacteria release CO2
and other inorganic matter like N and P, which are needed
by algae to grow and meet its food requirement. Hence
under normal light conditions, the metabolic action of these
two microbial groups complement each other.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Problem (Facultative Pond)

Design two facultative ponds to treat a flow of 5444 m3/d

with a BOD of 150mg/l. take BOD loading as 200 kg BOD
/ha.d and assume the depth of the pond as 2m. Find the
detection time in the pond and efficiency of the pond.
Assume K = 0.23 per day.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution

Q for each pond = 5444/2

= 2722 m3/d
Mid depth area = Total BOD load / S . L
= {(2722 x 150 )/ 1000}/200
= 2.04 ha
= 20415 m2
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Let
L:W = 3:1
A = 3W2
W = 82m
.: L = 249 m
Surface Dimension = 85 x 252
Bottom Dimension = 79 x 246

Volume = 20415 x 2
= 40830 m3
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

.: Detention Time = V/Q

= 40830 / 2722
= 15 days

Le = Li {1/(1+Kt )}
= 150 {1/(1+ 0.23x15)}
= 33.7 mg/l
.: E = (Li – Le) / Li
= 150 – 337 / 150 = 77.5%
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II MATURATION PONDS

Application:
Primarily used for reduction of PATHOGENS
- Removal of organic matter (BOD)

These are fully aerobic and used after FACULTATIVE

PONDS with the purpose of
i. Polishing of Effluent
ii. Removal of Pathogens
Pathogens die due to sunlight and long detention time.
HELMINTHS also settle at the bottom where they
eventually die.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II MATURATION PONDS

Sunlight

Influent
1 – 1.5 m

Fully
Aerobic
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DESIGN CRITERIA

Depth = 1 – 1.5 m
Detention Time = 4 – 14 days
No. of Ponds = At least two
L:W = 2.5 : 1
De-sludging = 20 years
Design of maturation ponds is based on CLOIFORM
REMOVAL and no BOD reduction consideration is
made.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II FORMULA
To design the maturation ponds on the basis of coliform
removal, following relationship is used: -
Ne / Ni = 1/(1 + Kt)
Where:
Ni = No of coliform in influent / 100ml
Ne = No of coliform in eff / 100 ml
K = Bacterial die away constant
(Usually taken as 2.6 per day at 200C)
t = Detention time in pond, days
Effluent from maturation pond (Generally)
BOD = 30 mg/l
F.C < 1000/100ml
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Problem (Maturation Pond)

Design a maturation pond to treat a flow of 2722 m3/d of

200C with coliform in the influent as 4 x 105 / 100 ml.
Assume a detention time of 10 days. Find out the coliform in
the effluent of the pond and the pond efficiency. Assume K
= 2.6 d-1 at 200C.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution

Ne / N i = 1/(1 + Kt)

Ne = 4 x 105 {1/(1+ 2.5x10)}

= 14814 / 100 ml
Volume of Pond = 2722 x 10
= 27220 m3
Let depth = 1.5 m
.:Mid depth area = 27220/1.5
= 18146 m2
= 18200 m2
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

.: Mid depth dimension = 213.3 x 85.3

Side slope IV : 3H

.: Surface Dimension= 217.5 x 89.5

Bottom Dimension= 2085.5 x 80.5
Pond Efficiency  = {(4 x 105 – 14814) / 4 x 105 }x 100
= 96.2%
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Waste Stabilization Ponds in Pakistan

10 YEARS RESEARCH AT I.E.E.R (UET LAHORE

EVALUATION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS

APPLICATION
Karachi Hyderabad
Lahore Okara
Faisalabad Peshawar
Effluent is mostly used for irrigation.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II AERATED LAGOONS

Aerated lagoons occupy a position in between WSP and

activated sludge process.

An Aerated Lagoon is a basin in which wastewater is

treated on a FLOW THROUGH BASIS. Oxygen is supplied
by means of surface or diffused aerations. Aerated Lagoon
operate at low MLSS concentration. i.e. 200 – 400 mg/l but
with long retention time as compared to activated sludge
process. In Aerated Lagoon NO SLUDGE RECYCLING is
EMPLOYED. The effluent from an Aerated Lagoon is
settled in a sedimentation tank before discharge.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II AERATED LAGOONS

Screens PST Aerated SST

Lagoon

No Sludge recirculation

Sludge Drying Beds

As a matter of fact Aerated Lagoon were originally

developed from ANAEROBIC and FACULTATIVE ponds.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

DESIGN CRITERIA / CONSIDERATIONS:

Empirical approach is used
Detention time 4 – 9 days
Depth 3–5m
Power input 20 watt / m3 of lagoon volume

Effluent quality can be estimated by using following formula

Le / Li =1/ (1+ Kt)
BOD removals 70 – 90 %
F.Col 90% (Poor)
.: Provide MATUARTION POND to further upgrade the
effluent for further REUSE.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

ADVANTAGES:
1. Required less area as compared to WSP
2. Low capital cost as compared to ASP
3. Easy to operate / maintain
4. Highly skilled plant operators not required as
compared to ASP
5. A good treatment option for a wide range of induction
e.g. textile, tannery, dairy, fruits etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

LIMITATIONS:
1. Poor coliform removal
2. Sludge handling problems
3. Cannot be used where space is very limited.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

TYPES:
1. Partially Mixed (Facultative):
Limited aeration done to satisfy oxygen demand only.
Settled sludge at bottom undergo ANAEROBIC
DECOMPOSITION.
1. Fully Mixed:
More aeration done to keep all suspended solids in
suspension. More power is required in this case.
Aerator

Sludge
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SLUDGE DIGESTION

INTRODUCTION
All conventional wastewater treatment processes produce
large quantities of waste material in the form of DILUTE
SOLID MIXTURES know as SLUDGE. The composition
and solid content are a function of raw wastewater.
Primarily and secondary sludges are mainly composed of
water with a solid content of only 0.5 to 5%.

Huge volumes of sludge are generated daily in a treatment

plant which need to be treated and disposed.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PURPOSE OF SLUDGE DIGESTION

1. To reduce the sludge volume for disposal

2. To reduce the water content of sludge for easy
handling
3. To recover valuable GAS
4. To use it as FERTILIZER.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PURPOSE OF SLUDGE DIGESTION

Sludge digestion and subsequent disposal falls among

important functions carried out at a treatment plant.
Following statistics reveal this fact:

Sludge handling
30 – 40% Capital cost
50% Operational cost
90% Operational problems in a
treatment plant
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II AMOUNT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
SLUDGE:

Sewage sludge consist of the organic and inorganic solids

present in raw sewage and removal in primary clarifier plus
organic solids generated in secondary treatment and removal
in secondary clarifier.

Specific gravity of organic content of sludge is lightly

greater than water and normally lie in a range of 1.01 to
1.06. The Specific gravity of inorganic fraction is sludge can
be assumed as 2.5.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II PROBLEM (Sludge Digestion)

Estimate the solids production from Trickling Filter plant

treating 1000 m3/d with a BOD of 210 mg/l and S.S of 260
mg/l. Assume that primary clarification remove 30% of
BOD and 60% of influent solids.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION

Removal in primary clarifier = 0.6 x 260

= 156 mg/l
Production in secondary = 0.7(210)(0.5)
= 74 mg/l
Total solids production = 156 + 74
= 230 mg/l
= 230 gm / m3
= 230/1000 x 1000
Solid production = 230 kg / day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

a. Solids generated in primary clarifier = 60% of S.S

b. Solids generated in secondary clarifier

- T.F → 0.4 to 0.5 kg/kg of BOD applied

- A.S.P → 0.2 to 1.0 kg/kg of BOD applied
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Effect of moisture content upon sludge volume

The effect of moisture content upon sludge volume is

tremendous. Sludge handling techniques are directed
towards reducing. The moisture content and thereby the
volume of sludge.

Through digestion , the water content of sludge reduce

significantly as compared to raw sludge as shown below:
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Effect of moisture constant upon sludge volume

Moisture Content
Type Raw Sludge Digested Sludge
-Primary Sedimentation 94 – 96 % 88 – 94 %
Tank Sludge
- Activated Sludge 98.5 – 99.5 % 94 – 96 %
- Trickling Filter Sludge 96 – 97 % 90 – 94 %
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II PROBLEM (Sludge Digestion)

A wastewater plant produces 1000 kg of dry solids per day

at a moisture content if 96% . the solids are 70% volatile
with a specific gravity of 1.05 and 30% non-volatile with a
specific gravity of 2.5. Determine the sludge volume.

a. As produced
b. Digestion reduce the volatile solids content by 50%
and decreases the moisture content to 90%
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution

a. Mass of Sludge = 1000/0.05

= 20000 KG
95 % = 19000 litre
1000 kg is solid:
70 % volatile = 700 kg
specific gravity = 1.05
Volume = 700/1.05= 667 litre
30% non-volatile = 300 kg
specific gravity = 2.5
Volume = 300/2.5 = 120 litre
Volume of Solids = weight / specific gravity
Total volume of sludge= 19000 + 667 + 120
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

b. After digestion Volatile Solids are reduced to 350 kg.

The total solid content is therefore 350 + 300 = 650 kg
Mass of sludge = 650/0.1
= 6500 kg

650 kg is solid:
Water = 5850 litre
Volume of V.S = 350 / 1.05 = 333 litre
Volume of Non. V.S = 300/2.5 = 120 litre
Total volume of sludge = 6303 litre
% reduction in volume = (19787 – 6303 )/ 19787
= 68%
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Formulas

Volume of Solids for organic/inorganic:

Volume of solids = Weight of solids / Specific Gravity

Weight of sludge:

Mass (weight) of sludge = (Weight of solids in Kg)/

Kg (Fraction of solids)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II TYPES OF DIGESTION:

Sludge digestion may be ANAEROBIC of AEROBIC. Both

have their merits and de-merits. Traditionally anaerobic
digesters are used.
Comparison
Parameter Aerobic Anaerobic
1. Volatile Solid reduction Similar Similar
2. BOD if supernatant LOW High
3. Capital Cost LOW HIGH
4. Operating Cost HIGH LOW
5. Useful by Product Nil Yes
6. Dewatering of digested sludge Difficult Easy
7. System upsets Less More susceptible

8. Design approach Empirical Empirical

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II THEORY OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

Under anaerobic conditions, sludge digestion occur through

the action of two groups of bacteria.
1. Acid Forming Bacteria:
These bacteria convert complex organic substances
like fats, carbohydrates, proteins etc. present in the
sludge into simple organic compounds and fatty acids.
Carbohydrates → Fatty acids (low pH)
Proteins → Amino Acids → NH3 + Fatty Acids
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

2. Methane Forming Bacteria

These bacteria form CH4 and CO2 by using acid and NH3
and other products of the first group. They get best in the
pH range of 6.5 to 8 and more précising within pH rage
of 7.2–7.4.
NH3 + Fatty acids → CH4 + CO2

Methane forming bacteria require an in organic source of

nitrogen for their nutrition. They are inhibited by
lowering pH. Whereas acid forming bacteria are a bit
resistant to low pH. Since acid forming bacteria may be
adversely affected. As a result the process may fail.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Maintenance of proper pH can be obtained with lime.

However, the lime should be thoroughly mixed up to
avoid local concentration build up. Usually 2 to 5 kg of
lime per 1000 persons is added daily to the digester .
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II MODERN DIGESTERS

Sludge digestion is accomplished in air tight steel tanks.

Modern digesters are both heated and mixed.

The first digester is heated and mixed. The second digester

is quiescent and serves primarily as a thicken for the
digested sludge.

Digester tanks are usually 6m to 15m deep. Hopper bottom

slope is kept as 1 Vertical : 3 Horizontal. Diameter of the
digester may vary from 6m to 40m depending upon the
capacity.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Cover of the digester may be FLOATING of FIXED. Fixed

cover are low cost but nor preferable. Floating covers are
costly but they minimize the danger of mixing oxygen with
the gas to form explosive mixture. Also with floating covers,
the removal and addition of sludge remains independent of
each other.

The methane produced in anaerobic digestion is nearly

universally used to heat the digester and in some instances to
provide mechanical power for other plant processes.

The digested solids from anaerobic processes may be

dewatered without further treatment upon open drying beds.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
DESIGN CRITERIA

- Detention time 10 – 20 days

- Volume of m3/person 0.1 m3/person biological
(of first digester) process, 0.05 m3/person for
P.S.T Sludge
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SLUDGE DRYING BEDS

PURPOSE:

The purpose of sludge drying beds is to dewatered digested

sludge and to further reduce its volume. After drying, the
volume of sludge gets reduced to around 60%.Dry sludge
cakes can be used as fertilizer.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PROBLEM

Estimate the quantity of solids produced in an Activated

Sludge Process with flow of 5500 m3/day with BOD and S.S
of 250 mg/l each assuming that PST remove 30% of BOD
and 50% of SS and sludge production in the secondary unit
is 70% of BOD applied.

Calculate volume of sludge if its solid content is 5%. 70%

Volatile Solids with specific Gravity 1.05 and 30% non-
volatile with specific gravity 2.5.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION:

Solids removed in P.S.T = 0.5 x 250

= 125 mg/l

BOD applied to secondary unit = 0.7 x 250

= 175 mg/l

Solid production in secondary unit = 0.7 x 175

= 122.5 mg/l
Total Solids produced = Primary + Secondary
= 125 + 122.5
= 247.5 mg/l
= 247.5 x 5500/1000
= 1361 kg/day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SOLUTION

Weight of sludge = Solids / Solid fraction

= 1361 / 0.05
= 27220 kg
Water = 27220 – 1361
= 25859 kg
= 25859 litre
Volatile Substances (V.S) = 0.7 x 1361 = 952 . 7 kg
Volume of V.S = 952.7 / 1.05 = 907
Volume of Non V.S = 0.3 x 1361 / 2.5 = 163.3 litre
.: Volume of sludge = 25859 + 907 + 163.3
= 26929.3 litre
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
DETAILS

The most common method of preparing digested sludge for

final disposal is air drying on sand beds. A sand drying bed
is shown below: -
300 mm
Sludge Layer
200 – 300 mm

Coarse Sand
150 – 300 mm
RCC
Graded Gravel
300 mm

5m
Under drain
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

It consist of 150 – 200 mm depth of coarse sand underlain

by layer of graded gravel ranging from 3 to 6mm dia at top
to 20-40mm dia at the bottom. The total gravel thickness is
300mm.

The bottom of the bed slope towards under drains. The

under drain consist of drain tiles places upon trenches with
open bed sections are concrete. A free board of 300 mm is
given
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Beds are 6 to 10 m wide and up to 40m long. At least two

beds must be provided in even the smallest plants.

Dewatering occur as a result of drainage and evaporation

and is heavily dependent upon CLIMATE. Covering drying
beds with glass of plastic sheets is helpful in wet climates.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Operation of sludge drying bed

The beds are operated by filling with digested sludge to a

depth of 200 to 300 mm. a small amount of sand may be lost
with each drying cycle. The time required for dewatering
may range from several months to a few weeks depending
upon the climate conditions.

DESIGN
- Area requirement → 0.2 m2 / person
- Common dimensions → 10m x 40m
- Minimum no. of units → 2
- Reduction in sludge vol. → 60%
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Problem (Sludge Drying Beds)

Estimate the size of sludge drying beds for a sewage flow of

19000 m3/d with a BOD of 200 mg/l.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution
BOD contributed/capita/day = 80 g BOD/Person/day
.: Population equipment = 19000 x 200 / 80
= 47500 person

Per person area required = 0.2 m2

.: Total area required = 47500 x 0.2
= 95000 m2

Let area of one bed = 10 x 40 = 400m2

.: No of beds required = 9500 / 400
= 23.75
= 24 beds
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Design Parameters for Septic Tank

Detention Time : 24 – 48 hr
L:W : 3:1
Depth : 1 – 1.5 m
Sludge Capacity : 0.04 m3/person/year
Desludging Period : 1 – 2 years
Effluent disposal : Through soakage pit
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Diagram:

Compartment Vent Pipes

Manhole (Gases)
Baffle

Sludge Sludge

1st Comp (2/3 Length) 2nd Comp (1/3 length)

L
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOAKAGE PIT
In the absence of any sewage collection system, the effluent
from septic tank can be disposed in a SOAKAGE PIT. It is a
circular pit in which water is absorbed in the surrounding
soils.
Design Parameters:
1.Bottom above water table = at least 10’
2.Away from wells = at least 50’
3.Diameter = 6 ‘ – 12’
4.Depth = 10’ – 20’
5.Distance between two pits = 3 times diameter of larger
pit
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DESIGN OF SOAKAGE PIT

Soil Application retention m3/m3 – day

Coarse to medium sand 0.049

Fine sand, loamy sand 0.032
Sandy loam and loam 0.024
Silt loam 0.018
Silty clay 0.001
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
DESIGN OF SEPTIC TANK
CAPACITY:
Detention time = 48 hrs
Sludge = 0.04 m3/person/year
1. Sludge Capacity.
A = Pnfs (litre)
Where
P = No. of person
n = No. of years between desludging (Normally 3 years)
f = Factor related to ambient temp.
(for Pakistan f = 1.0 for 3 years desludging period)
s = Rate of sludge and scum accumulation
take 0.04 m3/person/years (40 liter)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

2. Capacity for liquid retention

B = Prq (liters)
Where
P = Persons
q = Average flow litre/day of sewage
r = Minimum retention time (in days) for sewage in
tank just before desludging is carried out (At
least 1-day)

3. Total Capacity = A+B

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

SHAPE & DIMENSION

L:W = 3:1
Depth = 1.22 – 1.83 m
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

INLET & OUTLET

Diameter Should not less than 4”
Slope should not be less than 1.5%

GAS DEFLECTION DEVICE

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

VENTILATION ARRANGEMENT
Height above ground = 10’

ACESS & INSPECTION

Manholes at both inlet and outlet

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
R.C.C be used inlet and outlet should be properly sealed
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

INSTALLATION
Most important is maintenance of proper grades. Check for
water tightness.

PERIODIC MAINTENANCE
Desludging be done after some period. Never clean
completely. Leave some sludge inside after cleaning.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DISPOSAL OF WASTEWATER ON LAND
AND WATER BODIES

Liquid wastes may be disposed of in a number of ways

(before giving at least secondary level treatment)

- Surface Waters (Rivers, Lakes etc)

- On land
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DISPOSAL IN SURFACE WATERS

In natural streams, there is a balance between plant and

animal life, with considerable interaction among the various
life forms. Waters of good quality are characterize by
multiplicity of species with no dominance.

Organic matter which enters the stream is broken down by

bacteria to ammonia, nitrates, sulphates, carbon dioxide etc,
which are used by plants and algae to produce carbohydrates
and oxygen.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Introduction of excessive quantities of waste material can

upset the cycle by causing rapid bacterial growth and
resulting depletion of dissolved oxygen in the stream.
Polluted waters are characterized by very large number of
relatively few species.

Disposal of wastewater in a stream should be thus regulated

with respect to both quantity and concentration in order to
safeguard the aquatic life and desirable water use. Thus
there is a limit on the amount of liquid waste. That can be
disposed of in a water body, which is called the assimilative
capacity of that water body.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY can thus be defined as the

amount of wastewater that can be disposed of in the water
body and it can be safely stabilized while maintaining the
desired water quality.

Since a certain amount of wastewater can be discharged into

a receiving water body, it may be highly un-economical to
outlaw the waste discharges. However, excessive discharges
will impair the stream water quality.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II ON-LAND DISPOSAL WASTEWATER

A treatment, at least to secondary level must be given

prior to LAND DISPOSAL. This is necessary due to the
following reasons.

1. To reduce stress upon SOIL SYSTEM

2. To reduce production of NUISANCE CONDITION
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II ON-LAND DISPOSAL WASTEWATER

Following methods may be employed for on-land

disposal of Wastewater.

1. SPRAY IRRIGATION
2. RAPID INFILTERATION
3. OVERLAND RUNOFF

For GROUND WATER RECHARGE, wastewater is

discharged into large basins UNDERLAIN BY SAND
and SOIL of high permeability. The bottom of basin is
covered by BERMUDA GRASS to absorb
NUTRIENTS.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Overland Runoff / Flow

It is not a true disposal system since the wastewater must be

collected after passage over soil. This is infect a method of
TERTIARY TREATMENT of wastewaters to further reduce
its BOD and nutrient levels. The grasses are planted on the
ground over which sewage flow.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Wastewater Irrigation

Beginning, little consideration went into health hazards

related with raw sewage irrigation containing pathogenic
and parasite organisms.

After 1945, standards were set for the first time for Waste
Water to be used for irrigation. The interact in Wastewater
reuse guided momentum and in may countries concrete
efforts were made in this direction e.g
- Khartoum: 2800 ha greenbelt was irrigated
with treated Wastewater.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Wastewater Irrigation

- Mexico City: 100,000 ha grain and fodder

irrigated with treated Wastewater.
- Melbourne: Agriculture farms with 10,000 ha
land irrigated with treated wastewater, where
50,000 sheep and 20,000 cattle graze.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

In Pakistan raw Wastewater is used to irrigate 800 ha, 2000ha

and 2500 ha land in Lahore, Hyderababd and Faisalabad
respectively.
Although Wastewater reuse has been practiced more widely in
developing countries over the past 30 years, much of it is
UNPLANNED and UNCONTROLLED and poses a threat to
public health. These risks must be fully understood and
appropriated measures taken to provide TECHNICALLY
FEASIBLE and ECONOMICALLY ATTRACTIVE solution so
that public can reap the full benefit of Wastewater reused without
suffering harmful effects.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II PUBLIC HEALTH RISK ASSOCIATED WITH
RAW SEWAGE WASTEWATER
The wastewater stream of a community carries full spectrum
of pathogenic micro organisms exerted in the feces and urine
of infected individuals. Their concentration is:

- Many millions / litre for bacteria

- Thousands / litre for viruses
- Few hundred / litre for helminths eggs

Most exerted pathogens can survive in the environmental

long enough to be transported by the wastewater to the
fields. Their die away rate in descending order is
HELMINTHS, BACTERIA and VIRUSES.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Health risk is high for people using salads and vegetables

EATEN UNCOOKED and irrigated with RAW SEWAGE.
Such people are exposed to following diseases arranged in
descending order of their chance of occurrence.
- Helminth (Worm) disease
- Cholera
- Typhoid
Similarly SEWAGE FARM WORKERS are also exposed to
above diseases. However, evidence of bacterial and viral
diseases among them is limited.
There is no demonstrated risk to people close to sewage
irrigated sites.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II W.H.O Guidelines*

Parameters Value
Helminth Eggs ≤ 1 / litre
Fecal Coliform ≤ 1000 / 100 ml

* for irrigation of corps likely to be eaten uncooked, sports

fields, public parks.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II USE OF TREATED SEWAGE
EFFLUENTS FOR IRRIGATION
All the human and animal manure which the world loses by
discharge of sewage to review in returned to the land,
instead of being thrown into the sea, should suffer to nourish
the world” (Victor Hugo, 1868)

The use of wastewater for irrigation arose with the desire to

prevent
- Pollution in rivers thus protecting surface water
quality
- Configure water and nutrients to
AGRICULTURE
- In arid and semi arid areas.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
HISTORY
Use of Wastewater for irrigation purpose can be traced back to
1880s. UK, France, Germany, Australia, Mexico practiced it.
However, in the beginning little consideration went into the
health hazards related with the use of raw domestic sewage
usually containing pathogenic & parasite organisms.

After 1945, Wastewater treatment and disposal through land

application gained increasing alteration. The use was
formalized by setting standards for the effluent for irrigation
use. Efforts were made at Govt level on it is UNPLANNED
and UNCONTROLLED and poses a threat to public health.
These risks must be understood and appropriate measures
taken to provide technically feasible and economically
alternate solutions so that public can reap the full benefits of
waste water without suffering harmful effects.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (EA)

EA has become established worldwide as an environmental

management tool used by government agencies, companies
and other organisations to identify predict and evaluate the
potential physical, biological and social effects / impacts of
the projects and other development actions.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II TERMINOLOGY

EA or EIA – Environmental assessment or environmental

impact assessment are the terms used to describe the overall
process.

1. Many countries like Pakistan use the term EIA

2. World Bank has the procedures for EA
3. UK use the term EA, particularly, to avoid the
impression the process is restrict to the analysis of
negative impacts.

ES or EIS – Environmental statement or Environmental

Impact Statement describe the written report arising from the
studies.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DEFINITION

“Whenever there is a planned activity, it will cause some

impacts / effects on the environment, the assessment of these
impacts is called EIA”.

IMPACT: Effect of one thing on another

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT: The change in

environment parameter, over a specified period and within a
defined area, resulting from a particular activity compound
with the situation which would have occurred had the
activity not been initiated.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

PLANNED ACTIVITY
-DAM
-High way
-Air Port
-Building
-Etc
Assessment
Procedures
IMPACT
Methods

ENVIRONMENT
-Physical
-Land
-Water
-Air
-Biological
-Flora
-Fauna
-Social
-Human
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Project Disposal

Is EIA required? Screening

What are key issues? Scoping

Baseline data collection

Potential Env Impacts

Identifications & Analysis of
Information

Analysis Env Alternates

Mitigation Measures

Prepare EIS Present Findings

Env Monitoring Post Project analysis

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SCREENING
Screening procedure include both project and environment
criteria / thresholds.

- the criteria is based on the scale and size of the project

proposal, the nature of the activities and sensitivity of the
environmental setting
- Procedure for screening are currently in practice in
Malaysia, Thailand, other countries i..e UK etc.

For example:
- Thermal power plant of more then 300 MW –
MANDATORY Required EIA.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

UK regulations; states that new road schemes may required

EIA if their length exceeds 1KM and their route passes
through a National Park of through or within 100 m of a
conservation area.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Two-Stage Screening Procedure

All Projects

No requirement of Req of EIA is Mandatory req of

EIA uncertain EIA

Initial Screening

IEE “Preliminary
Assessment”

Secondary Screening

IEE is sufficient EIA should be

carried out
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
BASELINE CONDITIONS

Baseline conditions define the characteristics of the existing

and shape projected future conditions, assuming no project
is undertaken.

BASELINE DATA COLLECTION

Data about the physical, biological and cultural environment
is collected.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Includes all such major areas as topography, soil & geology,
hydrology, air quality & Noise levels
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Refers to flora and fauna of the area, including a specified of
trees, gasses, fish, birds. Specific reference should be made
to endangered plants and animals.

CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
Includes human population, trends and population
distribution, historic site, public facilities, i.e. schools,
hospitals, mosques, per capita income, commercial activities
etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II ANALYSIS OF POTENTIAL
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Environmental impact analysis consists of comparing the

expected changes in the physical, biological and cultural
environment with and without the project.

IMPACT CHARACTERISTICS
1. Magnitude of Impacts
2. Direction of Impacts