UNIT-1

Introduction to Computer Communications and Networking

Technologies
Computer communications and networking technologies form the
backbone of modern information exchange, enabling devices to share
data, access resources, and interact with each other. This field
encompasses a wide range of concepts, protocols, and systems
designed to enable seamless communication across networks, ranging
from local networks to the global internet.
Here’s an introduction to the key components of computer
communications and networking:
1. What is Computer Communication?
Computer communication refers to the exchange of data and
information between devices, such as computers, smartphones, and
servers, over various transmission media like wired or wireless
networks. The purpose is to facilitate the transfer of data in a way
that ensures accuracy, speed, and reliability.
2. What is Networking?
Networking is the practice of interconnecting multiple computing
devices, enabling them to communicate and share resources.
Networks can vary in scale from small local area networks (LANs) to
vast global networks like the Internet.
3. Key Components of Networking
Networking technologies rely on several key components:
 Devices: These include computers, servers, routers, switches, and
other network hardware.
  Media: Data can be transmitted through physical media (cables,
fiber optics) or wireless media (Wi-Fi, cellular networks).
 Protocols: These are standardized rules and conventions for data
exchange. Key protocols include the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP), Internet Protocol (IP), Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), and more.
 Topology: This refers to the physical or logical arrangement of
devices in a network, such as star, bus, ring, or mesh topologies.
4. Types of Networks
 Local Area Network (LAN): A network that covers a small
geographical area like a home, office, or campus. LANs often use
Ethernet or Wi-Fi for communication.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): A larger network that covers a
broader geographical area, often spanning cities, countries, or
even continents. The Internet is a prime example of a WAN.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that spans a
larger area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically
covering a city or large campus.
 Personal Area Network (PAN): A network for personal devices
within a very limited range, such as Bluetooth connections.
5. Network Devices
Key devices used in computer networking include:
 Router: Directs data packets between different networks,
especially across the internet.
 Switch: Connects devices within a single network and manages
data flow between them.
 Hub: A basic device that connects multiple computers in a
network, though it is largely replaced by switches due to
inefficiency.
 Modem: A device that modulates and demodulates signals for
data transmission over telephone lines or broadband connections.
6. Data Transmission and Communication Models
 Analog vs. Digital: Analog communication uses continuous
signals, while digital communication uses discrete signals
(binary).
 Transmission Modes: Communication can occur in different
modes:
o Simplex: Data flows in one direction (e.g., a keyboard

sending data to a computer).

o Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but not

simultaneously (e.g., walkie-talkies).

o Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously

(e.g., telephones).
7. Network Protocols
Protocols are crucial in defining how data is formatted, transmitted,
and received. Some important networking protocols include:
 TCP/IP: The foundational suite of protocols for the internet,
where TCP ensures reliable delivery, and IP handles addressing
and routing.
 HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols for transferring hypertext documents,
with HTTPS being a secure version.
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol for transferring files over a network.
 SMTP/POP3/IMAP: Protocols used for sending, receiving, and
storing email.
8. The OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual
framework used to understand network interactions in seven layers:
1. Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data.
2. Data Link Layer: Ensures error-free data transfer between
devices.
3. Network Layer: Handles routing and addressing (e.g., IP).
 4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data delivery (e.g., TCP).
5. Session Layer: Manages sessions or connections.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates data into a usable format (e.g.,
encryption, compression).
7. Application Layer: Provides services and interfaces for end-users
(e.g., email, web browsing).
9. Networking Technologies and Innovations
 Wi-Fi: Wireless local area networking technology that allows
devices to connect to the internet or each other without cables.
 5G and Cellular Networks: The fifth generation of cellular
technology, providing faster speeds, lower latency, and more
efficient communication for mobile devices.
 Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources (like
servers, storage, and software) over the internet, allowing users
to access data and services remotely.
 Internet of Things (IoT): The network of everyday devices (from
thermostats to vehicles) that are connected to the internet to
exchange data and enable smart services.
 Software-Defined Networking (SDN): A new approach to
networking that uses software to control and manage network
resources, offering more flexibility and scalability.
10. Security in Networking
As networks become more integrated into daily life, security is a
major concern. Key technologies and practices include:
 Firewalls: Network security systems that monitor and control
incoming and outgoing traffic.
 Encryption: Protecting data by converting it into unreadable
formats, ensuring privacy during transmission.
 VPN (Virtual Private Network): A method for creating a secure,
encrypted connection over a less secure network like the internet.
Uses of Computer Networks
Computer networks have a wide range of applications across various
industries and personal use cases. Here are some of the primary uses
of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing:
o File Sharing: Networks allow multiple users to access and

share files across devices and locations. This can include text
files, images, videos, and software.
o Printer and Peripheral Sharing: Multiple devices can share

access to a single printer, scanner, or other peripherals,

making it easier to manage resources.
o Centralized Data Storage: Networks can provide shared

access to centralized databases or file servers, allowing for

efficient data management and backup.
2. Communication:
o Email: Computer networks enable instant communication

through email, allowing messages and attachments to be sent

globally over the internet.
o Instant Messaging (IM): Real-time communication through

services like WhatsApp, Telegram, or Skype relies on

computer networks.
o Voice and Video Calling: Using Voice over IP (VoIP) and

video conferencing services like Zoom or Google Meet,

networks enable clear communication between users
anywhere in the world.
o Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and

Instagram are built on complex computer networks that

connect billions of users globally.
3. Remote Access:
o Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Users can securely

connect to private networks from remote locations, allowing

them to access internal resources like files, applications, and
 databases, as though they were physically present in the
office.
o Remote Desktop: Using remote desktop applications,

employees can access and control their office computers

from a different location over a network.
4. Internet Access:
o World Wide Web (WWW): The internet, which is a global

network of networks, allows users to browse websites, access

cloud services, and obtain information.
o Streaming Media: Platforms like YouTube, Netflix, and

Spotify rely on networks to deliver video, music, and other

media content to users.
5. E-Commerce and Online Transactions:
o Shopping: Networks enable e-commerce platforms like

Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba, where users can buy and sell
products and services.
o Banking and Online Payments: Secure networks enable

online banking and payment gateways like PayPal, Venmo,

or credit card transactions.
6. Collaboration:
o File Sharing and Collaboration Tools: Platforms like Google

Drive, Microsoft OneDrive, and Dropbox allow users to

store, share, and collaboratively edit documents in real-time
over a network.
o Project Management Tools: Tools like Slack, Asana, and

Trello allow teams to manage projects and communicate

effectively over the internet.
7. Distributed Computing and Cloud Services:
o Cloud Computing: Cloud service providers (e.g., AWS,

Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud) host applications,

databases, and services on remote servers, allowing users to
access resources over the network without maintaining
physical infrastructure.
 oDistributed Systems: In large-scale computing systems,
computer networks connect multiple servers to handle
computations that would be too complex for a single
machine.
8. Entertainment:
o Online Gaming: Multiplayer games rely on high-speed

networks to allow users to play in real-time with others

across the globe.
o Cloud Gaming: Services like Google Stadia and Xbox Cloud

Gaming allow users to play games hosted on remote servers,

reducing the need for powerful hardware on the user’s end.
9. Educational Applications:
o E-learning Platforms: Networks provide access to online

courses, educational content, and video lectures through

platforms like Coursera, Khan Academy, and edX.
o Virtual Classrooms: Educators and students can engage in

live video lessons or participate in discussions over the

network.
10. Security and Surveillance:
 Network Security: Security protocols and firewalls ensure that
computer networks are safe from external threats, including
hackers and malware.
 Surveillance Systems: Security cameras, IoT devices, and sensors
can be integrated into a network for real-time monitoring and
data collection.
Network Devices, Nodes, and Hosts
Understanding the basic components of a computer network is key to
understanding how it operates. These components are often classified
into network devices, nodes, and hosts.
1. Network Devices

Network devices are hardware components used to establish,

maintain, and optimize communication within a network. These
devices perform different roles based on their functionality. Key
network devices include:
 Router:
o A router is a device that forwards data packets between

different networks. It is responsible for determining the

optimal path for data to travel across networks, such as
from a local area network (LAN) to the internet (WAN).
o Routers can also handle network address translation (NAT),

which allows multiple devices in a local network to share a

single public IP address.
 Switch:
o A switch operates at the Data Link layer and connects

devices within the same network (usually a LAN). It receives

data packets and forwards them to the correct device based
on MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
o Unlike hubs, switches are more efficient because they send

data only to the device that needs it, not all devices on the
network.
 Hub:
o A hub is a simple network device that connects multiple

computers in a LAN. It broadcasts data to all connected

devices, which can cause network congestion and
inefficiency. Hubs are less commonly used today in favor of
switches.
 Modem:
o A modem (modulator-demodulator) converts digital data

from a computer into analog signals that can be transmitted

over telephone lines, cable systems, or fiber optics. It also
converts incoming analog signals back into digital data for
the computer.
 o Commonly used in broadband connections such as DSL or
cable internet.
 Access Point (AP):
o An access point provides wireless connectivity to devices in a

network. It allows Wi-Fi-enabled devices like smartphones,

laptops, and tablets to connect to a wired network wirelessly.
 Firewall:
o A firewall is a security device that monitors and controls

incoming and outgoing network traffic. It can be hardware

or software-based and is essential for preventing
unauthorized access to a network.
 Gateway:
o A gateway is a device that connects different types of

networks (e.g., connecting a LAN to the internet). It operates

at various layers of the OSI model, often combining the
functionality of a router, firewall, and other network
management services.
2. Network Nodes

A node is any active device in a network that can send, receive, or

forward data. Every network device (router, switch, computer,
printer, etc.) is considered a node. Nodes play an essential role in
forwarding data, and they can be devices that actively communicate
or simply serve as intermediaries.
 Types of Nodes:
o End Nodes: These are devices that are endpoints in a

network, such as a computer, printer, or smartphone. They

generate or receive the actual data.
o Intermediate Nodes: Devices that assist in the transmission

of data, such as routers, switches, or gateways.

3. Network Hosts

A host is any device that is connected to a network and can either send
or receive data over the network. Hosts typically refer to end devices
that are used directly by users.
 Examples of Hosts:
o Personal Computers (PCs), laptops, and desktops.

o Servers: These are powerful hosts that provide services such

as hosting websites, databases, or email.

o Smartphones and tablets: Portable devices that act as hosts

in wireless networks (Wi-Fi or cellular).

o IoT Devices: Devices like smart thermostats, cameras, and

sensors are hosts that can send and receive data in an IoT
network.
In a typical network, hosts are assigned unique identifiers such as IP
addresses (in IP-based networks) or MAC addresses (in Ethernet
networks) to distinguish them from one another.
Types of Computer Networks and Their Topologies
Computer networks can be categorized based on their geographical
span, purpose, and the technology used. In addition to their
classification, networks are also designed with specific topologies that
define the structure or layout of the network.
1. Types of Computer Networks

 Definition: A PAN is a small network, typically within a range of

a few meters, that is used to connect personal devices like
smartphones, tablets, laptops, and peripherals.
 Use Cases: Bluetooth-enabled devices (e.g., wireless headsets,
smartphones connected to speakers), connecting a laptop to a
printer, or linking wearables to a smartphone.
 Range: Up to 10 meters (approx. 33 feet).

 Definition: A LAN is a network that covers a small geographical

area, such as a home, office, or campus. It connects computers
and other devices to share resources like files, printers, and
internet access.
 Use Cases: Home networks, small office networks, school campus
networks.
 Range: Typically up to 100 meters (around 328 feet).
 Technology: LANs typically use Ethernet (wired) or Wi-Fi
(wireless) for communication.

 Definition: A MAN is a network that spans a larger geographical

area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, often covering a city
or a large campus. It can interconnect several LANs within a
specific area.
 Use Cases: A network connecting various branches of an
organization within a city, cable TV networks, or city-wide Wi-Fi
networks.
 Range: Typically 10 to 50 kilometers (around 6 to 31 miles).

 Definition: A WAN is a network that covers a large geographical

area, often spanning cities, countries, or even continents. The
internet is the largest example of a WAN.
 Use Cases: Corporate networks connecting offices in different
cities or countries, the internet providing global communication.
 Range: Global or between large geographical locations.
 Technology: WANs use public or private transmission lines like
fiber optics, satellite, or leased lines.
  Definition: A GAN is an overarching network that connects
multiple WANs and MANs across large geographical areas,
providing global access to users.
 Use Cases: A network that enables communication on a global
scale, such as the global internet infrastructure.
 Range: Global.

 Definition: A SAN is a specialized network that provides high-

speed data transfer between storage devices and servers, enabling
centralized data storage and management.
 Use Cases: Data centers, cloud storage, enterprise-level systems
requiring high availability and quick access to data.
 Range: Typically used in data centers, with a focus on high-speed
data transfer.

 Definition: A VPN is not a physical network but a secure,

encrypted connection over a less secure network, typically the
internet. It allows users to connect remotely to a private network
and access resources as if they were physically connected to it.
 Use Cases: Secure access to corporate resources from remote
locations, protecting privacy when using public Wi-Fi.
 Range: Remote access to a local network through the internet.
2. Network Topologies
A network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements
(nodes, devices, connections) in a computer network. Topologies
describe how different devices and systems are connected and how
data flows within the network. There are several types of topologies,
each with its own advantages and use cases.
 Definition: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single
central cable, called the "bus," which carries data back and forth
between devices. Data sent by a device travels in both directions
along the bus.
 Advantages:
o Simple and easy to install.

o Requires less cable compared to other topologies.

 Disadvantages:
o Performance degrades as more devices are added.

o If the central bus cable fails, the entire network is down.

 Use Cases: Small networks or legacy systems.

 Definition: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a

central device, typically a switch or a hub. Data flows from a
device to the central device, which then forwards it to the
intended destination.
 Advantages:
o Easy to add or remove devices without affecting the rest of

the network.
o Centralized management makes it easier to isolate and

troubleshoot issues.
 Disadvantages:
o If the central device fails, the entire network is disrupted.

o More cable required than bus topology.

 Use Cases: Common in home and office networks.

 Definition: In a ring topology, each device is connected to two

other devices, forming a circular pathway for data. Data travels
 in one direction (unidirectional) or both directions (bidirectional)
around the ring until it reaches the intended device.
 Advantages:
o Data transfer is relatively fast as it travels in a continuous

loop.
o No collisions if data flows in one direction.

 Disadvantages:
o A failure in one device or connection can disrupt the entire

network.
o Troubleshooting and network expansion can be challenging.

 Use Cases: Used in legacy systems, such as Token Ring networks,

and specific high-performance networks.

 Definition: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every

other device in the network, either directly or through multiple
paths. There are two types: full mesh (all devices are
interconnected) and partial mesh (some devices are
interconnected).
 Advantages:
o Provides redundancy and reliability, as multiple paths exist

for data to travel.

o No single point of failure.

 Disadvantages:
o Complex to install and maintain, requiring a large amount

of cabling.
o High cost due to the number of connections.

 Use Cases: Used in critical systems, like military or financial

networks, and for backbone networks of large enterprises.
  Definition: A tree topology combines characteristics of bus and
star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured networks
connected to a central bus-like backbone.
 Advantages:
o Scalable and easy to expand.

o Centralized control over groups of devices.

 Disadvantages:
o If the backbone fails, communication between devices across

groups can be disrupted.

o Requires more cable than star or bus topologies.

 Use Cases: Suitable for large organizations or campuses where

networks need to be expanded in a structured way.

 Definition: A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more

different topologies in a single network. For example, combining
a star topology with a mesh topology.
 Advantages:
o Flexible and can be customized to meet specific needs.

o Combines the strengths of different topologies.

 Disadvantages:
o More complex to design and implement.

o Requires more management and maintenance.

 Use Cases: Large networks with varied requirements, such as

enterprise or university networks.

Network Software: Network Design Issues and Protocols

In computer networking, network software plays a crucial role in
enabling communication between devices and managing network
resources. This software includes both network operating systems and
network protocols, which together ensure the proper functioning,
management, and security of the network.
In addition to software, network design is a critical consideration in
ensuring that a network meets the needs of an organization or
individual. Effective network design requires addressing various
challenges, such as scalability, performance, and security. Below is an
overview of network software, design issues, and network protocols.
1. Network Software
Network software provides the essential tools to operate, manage, and
secure a network. It is broadly categorized into system software,
protocol software, and management software.

This includes the operating systems that run on individual devices

(e.g., computers, servers, routers) in the network. These operating
systems are responsible for managing hardware resources and
enabling communication between devices. Popular network operating
systems include:
 Windows Server
 Linux (Ubuntu, RedHat, CentOS)
 Cisco IOS (used in routers and switches)
These operating systems provide network connectivity features like
TCP/IP stack implementation, file sharing, remote access, and device
management.

Protocol software implements the rules (protocols) governing

communication within a network. These protocols ensure devices can
communicate effectively, irrespective of their underlying hardware or
operating systems. Some key protocols include:
  Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides reliable, ordered
data transmission between devices.
 Internet Protocol (IP): Defines addressing and routing rules for
data packets across networks.
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): Automatically
assigns IP addresses to devices on the network.
 Domain Name System (DNS): Resolves human-readable domain
names (e.g., www.example.com) into machine-readable IP
addresses.
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Used for
monitoring and managing network devices such as routers,
switches, and servers.

This software allows administrators to configure, monitor, and

manage network resources. It helps in maintaining network
performance, troubleshooting, and ensuring security. Popular
network management tools include:
 SolarWinds Network Performance Monitor
 Wireshark (for packet analysis)
 Nagios (for network monitoring)
 PRTG Network Monitor
2. Network Design Issues
Designing a network involves addressing several issues to ensure the
network is efficient, scalable, secure, and cost-effective. Key network
design issues include:

 Definition: Scalability refers to a network's ability to grow or

adapt to increased demand, such as adding more devices or
handling more traffic.
 Challenges:
o Ensuring that the network can handle an increasing number

of users and devices without significant performance

degradation.
o Designing the network topology and infrastructure to

accommodate future growth.

 Definition: Network performance refers to the speed and

reliability of data transfer across the network.
 Challenges:
o Bandwidth: Ensuring sufficient bandwidth to support data-

heavy applications like video streaming or cloud computing.

o Latency: Minimizing delays in data transmission, which is

especially important for real-time applications like VoIP

(Voice over IP) and online gaming.
o Throughput: Maximizing the amount of data successfully

transmitted over the network.

 Definition: Security involves protecting the network from

unauthorized access, data breaches, and other cyber threats.
 Challenges:
o Implementing encryption to protect data privacy.

o Configuring firewalls, intrusion detection/prevention

systems (IDS/IPS), and other security measures.

o Managing user access and authentication to prevent

unauthorized access.

 Definition: Reliability refers to the network’s ability to function

continuously without interruptions, and redundancy ensures that
there are backup systems in place if part of the network fails.
  Challenges:
o Designing fault-tolerant systems that can handle device or

link failures.
o Ensuring there are backup paths and systems to minimize

downtime (e.g., using redundant power supplies or multi-

path routing).

 Definition: The overall cost of designing, building, and

maintaining the network.
 Challenges:
o Choosing cost-effective hardware and software solutions

while still meeting performance and security requirements.

o Balancing between high-end equipment and budget

constraints.

 Definition: Manageability refers to how easily network resources

can be monitored, configured, and maintained.
 Challenges:
o Ensuring that network management tools are in place for

proactive monitoring and troubleshooting.

o Configuring devices in a way that reduces complexity and

makes them easier to manage.

3. Network Protocols
Network protocols define the rules and standards for communication
between devices in a network. They enable data transmission, error
correction, encryption, and ensure compatibility between devices
running different operating systems and hardware.
 Function: Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication
between devices.
 Key Features:
o Error detection and correction: Ensures data is delivered

accurately.
o Flow control: Manages the rate of data transmission to avoid

congestion.
o Connection establishment and teardown: Ensures that

devices establish a reliable connection before transmitting

data and properly close the connection afterward.

 Function: Handles addressing and routing of data packets across

different networks.
 Key Features:
o IP Addressing: Every device on the network is assigned a

unique IP address.
o Routing: Determines the best path for data to travel across

networks.

 Function: A connectionless protocol used for applications

requiring low-latency communication (such as video streaming or
online gaming).
 Key Features:
o Faster but less reliable than TCP: It doesn’t guarantee

delivery or order of packets.

o Used for time-sensitive applications: Ideal when speed is

more important than reliability.

 Function: Used for sending and relaying email messages between
email servers.
 Key Features:
o Email transmission: Defines how email messages are sent

and forwarded between clients and servers.

 Function: The protocol used for transferring web pages on the

internet.
 Key Features:
o HTTP: Used for non-secure communication.

o HTTPS: A secure version of HTTP that uses encryption to

protect data.

 Function: Used for transferring files between a client and server

on a network.
 Key Features:
o Support for both binary and text files.

o Two modes: Active and passive.

 Function: Resolves domain names (like www.example.com) into

IP addresses that computers can understand.
 Key Features:
o Decentralized system: DNS servers are distributed globally

to ensure availability.
  Function: Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices when
they join the network.
 Key Features:
o IP address management: Reduces the need for manual

configuration.
o Lease-based allocation: IP addresses are temporarily

assigned to devices.

 Function: Provides encrypted communication between clients

and servers (commonly used in HTTPS).
 Key Features:
o Data encryption: Ensures privacy by encrypting

communication.
o Authentication: Verifies the identity of the server (and

sometimes the client).

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
In computer networking, connection-oriented and connectionless
services are two primary types of communication services used to
transfer data between devices. The key difference lies in how the
communication process is managed and the reliability of the data
delivery.
1. Connection-Oriented Service
:

A connection-oriented service establishes a dedicated connection

between the sender and the receiver before any data transmission
takes place. This means that a logical or virtual connection is created
between the two devices (or network nodes), ensuring that the entire
communication process follows a predefined path. Communication
only happens after the connection is established and ends once the
data transfer is complete.

 Connection Setup: Before data is exchanged, a connection must

be established between the sender and receiver. This involves a
handshake process to ensure both devices are ready to
communicate.
 Reliability: Connection-oriented services ensure reliable data
transmission. They use mechanisms to check for errors,
retransmit lost data, and guarantee that the data arrives in the
correct order.
 Flow Control: Mechanisms to control the rate of data flow to
prevent congestion and ensure that devices do not become
overwhelmed by incoming data.
 Error Control: Detects errors in data transmission, and lost or
corrupted data packets are retransmitted.
 Ordered Data Delivery: Data is delivered in the same order in
which it was sent, preventing out-of-sequence delivery.
 Connection Teardown: After the communication is complete, the
connection is terminated.

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A prime example of a

connection-oriented protocol, TCP ensures reliable and ordered
delivery of data by establishing a connection between the sender
and receiver.
 Signaling System 7 (SS7): Used in telecommunications for call
setup and management.
  Reliable Communication: Guarantees that data will reach the
recipient in the correct order and without loss (except in cases of
network failure).
 Flow and Error Control: Built-in mechanisms to ensure data is
delivered correctly and without congestion.

 Overhead: The connection setup and teardown add extra time

and resources.
 Latency: Connection establishment and error correction
mechanisms introduce delays.

 Web Browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)

 File Transfer (FTP)
 Email Transmission (SMTP)
 Voice Calls (e.g., PSTN calls, VoIP)
 Remote Access (VPN)

2. Connectionless Service

A connectionless service does not establish a dedicated end-to-end

connection before sending data. Instead, each data packet is sent
independently, and there is no guarantee of delivery or order. Each
packet is routed individually, and the network does not maintain any
state information about the communication.
 No Connection Setup: Communication occurs without first
establishing a connection. Data packets are sent directly to the
destination without any prior handshake.
 Unreliable Communication: There is no guarantee that the data
will reach its destination, or that it will be delivered in the correct
order.
 No Error Recovery: Errors are not automatically detected or
corrected by the protocol, meaning that if a packet is lost or
corrupted, no retransmission occurs unless the application layer
handles it.
 No Flow Control: Since there is no ongoing connection, flow
control mechanisms are not in place. The sender might
overwhelm the receiver if data is sent too quickly.
 Independent Packets: Each data packet is treated independently,
and it may follow different paths to reach the destination.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): The most common

connectionless protocol, UDP sends data packets (datagrams)
without establishing a connection. It does not provide reliability
or flow control.
 Internet Protocol (IP): IP, used for routing packets across
networks, operates in a connectionless manner. It is responsible
for addressing and forwarding data packets but does not
guarantee their delivery or ordering.
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Used for
network monitoring, SNMP sends queries to devices without
ensuring reliability.
  Low Overhead: No connection setup or teardown, which means
faster data transmission and less resource consumption.
 Reduced Latency: As there is no waiting for connection
establishment, data can be transmitted almost immediately.

 Unreliable: No guarantees of delivery, and data may be lost,

corrupted, or arrive out of order.
 No Flow Control or Error Detection: There is no automatic
handling of congestion or errors, which could lead to data loss or
the need for additional application-level protocols for error
handling.

 Streaming Media: Video or audio streaming where a slight loss in

data (like a frame drop or packet loss) might not significantly
impact the overall experience.
 VoIP: Voice-over-IP applications where real-time
communication is prioritized over perfect data delivery.
 Online Gaming: Where real-time interaction is more important
than ensuring every single packet arrives intact.
 DNS Requests: Since DNS queries are relatively small, losing
some packets or having some requests time out can be tolerated.
 Broadcasting: Broadcasting a message to multiple recipients
without establishing a connection with each one.

3. Comparison Between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless

Services
 Feature Connection-Oriented Connectionless

Required before data

Connection No connection setup; data is
transfer (e.g., TCP
Setup sent independently.
handshake).

Reliable; guarantees
Unreliable; no guarantee of
Reliability delivery, error checking,
delivery or order.
and reordering.

Flow Built-in flow control to No flow control; may result

Control prevent congestion. in network congestion.

No automatic error
Error Provides error detection
correction; requires higher
Control and correction.
layers for retries.

Higher latency due to

Lower latency, as no
Latency connection establishment
connection setup is needed.
and teardown.

Data No guarantee of order; data

Ordered delivery of data.
Delivery may arrive out of sequence.

Higher due to connection

Lower due to lack of
Overhead setup, maintenance, and
connection establishment.
teardown.

Examples TCP, ATM, SS7 UDP, IP, SNMP

 Network Applications and Application Protocols
Network applications are software programs that use the internet or
other networks to provide services, facilitate communication, or allow
access to shared resources. These applications rely on various
application protocols to enable communication between different
systems. Below, we discuss network applications and their associated
protocols:
1. Web Browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)
 Network Application: Web browsers (e.g., Google Chrome,
Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge) allow users to access web pages
over the internet.
 Application Protocols:
o HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): The protocol used for

transferring web pages. It is based on a client-server model,

where the browser (client) sends requests to a web server,
which responds with the requested content.
o HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): A more

secure version of HTTP, it uses encryption (TLS/SSL) to

ensure privacy and data integrity during communication.
2. Email (SMTP, POP3, IMAP)
 Network Application: Email clients (e.g., Microsoft Outlook,
Gmail) are used to send and receive messages.
 Application Protocols:
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send emails

from the client to the email server or between servers.

o POP3 (Post Office Protocol, version 3): Used to retrieve

emails from a server. It downloads the messages to the client

and removes them from the server.
 o IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Similar to POP3
but allows users to access and manage their emails directly
on the server without downloading them.

3. File Transfer (FTP, SFTP, FTPS)

 Network Application: File transfer programs (e.g., FileZilla,
WinSCP) enable the transfer of files between computers over a
network.
 Application Protocols:
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A standard network protocol

used for transferring files from one host to another. It

operates on the client-server model and typically uses port
21.
o SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol): A more secure

version of FTP that uses SSH (Secure Shell) for encrypted

file transfers.
o FTPS (FTP Secure): A variant of FTP that uses SSL/TLS to

encrypt the connection, providing security during file

transfers.
4. Remote Access and Management (SSH, Telnet)
 Network Application: Remote access tools (e.g., PuTTY,
OpenSSH) allow users to connect to and manage remote servers
or devices.
 Application Protocols:
o SSH (Secure Shell): A secure protocol used for remote login

and command execution on remote systems. It encrypts the

session to prevent unauthorized access.
o Telnet: An older, insecure protocol for remote access, which

sends data in plain text and is therefore vulnerable to

eavesdropping. It has been largely replaced by SSH for
security reasons.
5. Voice over IP (VoIP)
 Network Application: VoIP applications (e.g., Skype, Zoom,
WhatsApp) allow users to make voice or video calls over the
internet.
 Application Protocols:
o SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Used for establishing,

maintaining, and terminating communication sessions in

VoIP applications.
o RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol): Transports the actual

voice or video data during the communication session.

o RTCP (RTP Control Protocol): Works alongside RTP to

monitor the quality of service and provide feedback on

packet delivery.
6. Instant Messaging (XMPP, IRC, WhatsApp)
 Network Application: Messaging apps (e.g., WhatsApp,
Telegram, Slack) allow users to send real-time text messages.
 Application Protocols:
o XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol): A

protocol for instant messaging, presence information, and

multi-party chat. It is used by apps like Google Chat.
o IRC (Internet Relay Chat): A long-standing protocol for

text-based communication, especially for group chats or

forums.
7. File Sharing (BitTorrent, HTTP)
 Network Application: Peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing
applications (e.g., BitTorrent) allow users to download and
upload files across a decentralized network.
 Application Protocols:
o BitTorrent: A protocol that enables efficient distribution of

files across a P2P network. Files are split into small chunks
and shared among peers.
 o HTTP (in case of centralized servers): Some file-sharing
applications use HTTP to download content from central
servers (e.g., downloading software via web browsers).
8. DNS (Domain Name System)
 Network Application: DNS is a fundamental service that converts
human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses.
 Application Protocols:
o DNS (Domain Name System) Protocol: DNS requests are

made over UDP (User Datagram Protocol) typically on port

53, but can also use TCP for larger query responses. DNS
resolves domain names into IP addresses to enable routing
on the internet.
9. Streaming Services (RTSP, HLS, MPEG-DASH)
 Network Application: Streaming platforms (e.g., Netflix, Spotify)
deliver media content like video or audio to users.
 Application Protocols:
o RTSP (Real-Time Streaming Protocol): Used for controlling

media servers in a streaming session, typically used for video

surveillance or media streaming.
o HLS (HTTP Live Streaming): A streaming protocol

developed by Apple, which breaks the media into small

segments for adaptive streaming.
o MPEG-DASH (Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP):

A similar protocol to HLS but an open standard used for

adaptive streaming.
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
The OSI Reference Model is a conceptual framework used to
understand and describe how different networking protocols interact
in a network system. Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), it divides the complex process of
communication into seven distinct layers, with each layer responsible
for a specific aspect of the network communication.
The purpose of the OSI model is to provide a universal standard for
networking and to ensure interoperability between different systems
and devices. While it is a theoretical model, it serves as the foundation
for understanding networking processes.
Here’s a detailed look at the seven layers of the OSI model:
1. Application Layer (Layer 7)
 Function: The topmost layer of the OSI model, the Application
layer, directly interacts with end-users. It provides the interface
and services that allow applications to communicate over the
network.
 Role: It facilitates communication between software applications
and lower layers of the OSI model. It also enables features like
email, file transfer, web browsing, and remote access.
 Protocols:
o HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

o FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

o DNS (Domain Name System)

o POP3 (Post Office Protocol)

o IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

 Function: The Presentation layer is responsible for translating,
encrypting, and compressing data. It ensures that data is in a
readable and usable format for the application layer.
 Role: It handles the syntax and semantics of the data exchanged
between the Application and Transport layers. This layer deals
 with data representation (e.g., ASCII, JPEG, GIF), compression,
and encryption.
 Protocols:
o SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security)

o JPEG, GIF (Image formats)

o ASCII, EBCDIC (Character encoding standards)

3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

 Function: The Session layer manages the sessions or connections
between applications. It controls the dialog between two devices,
such as managing who can send data and when.
 Role: It establishes, maintains, and terminates communication
sessions between two devices. It is also responsible for
synchronizing data transfer and handling session checkpoints
and recovery.
 Protocols:
o NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)

o RPC (Remote Procedure Call)

o PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

 Function: The Transport layer ensures reliable data transfer
between two systems and provides error correction and flow
control. It is responsible for breaking data into segments and
ensuring the integrity of the transmitted data.
 Role: It provides end-to-end communication, error recovery, and
flow control. It is responsible for ensuring that data is delivered
in the correct order and without errors.
 Protocols:
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

o UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

5. Network Layer (Layer 3)

  Function: The Network layer is responsible for routing data from
the source to the destination across multiple networks. It handles
logical addressing, packet forwarding, and routing.
 Role: It determines the best path for data to travel and ensures
that packets are properly addressed and routed between devices
on different networks. It is also responsible for fragmentation
and reassembly of data packets.
 Protocols:
o IP (Internet Protocol)

o ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

o ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

o Routing protocols (e.g., OSPF, RIP)

6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

 Function: The Data Link layer ensures reliable data transfer
across a physical link by organizing data into frames. It also
handles error detection and correction within the data frames.
 Role: It provides physical addressing (MAC addresses) and
manages the transmission of frames between devices on the same
local network. It handles flow control and error correction.
 Protocols:
o Ethernet

o Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

o PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

o ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

7. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

 Function: The Physical layer defines the hardware elements
required for transmission, such as cables, switches, and the
electrical signals used to transmit data over a medium.
 Role: It deals with the physical aspects of sending and receiving
data. This includes defining the characteristics of the
transmission medium (e.g., electrical signals, light pulses) and the
 physical devices that send and receive data (e.g., cables, network
interface cards).
 Protocols:
o Ethernet (cabling standards)

o USB (Universal Serial Bus)

o Fiber optics

o Bluetooth (wireless standard)

OSI Model in Action

To better understand the OSI model in practice, consider a simple
scenario where a user sends an email:
1. Application Layer: The email client (e.g., Outlook) creates the
message and initiates communication using a protocol like
SMTP.
2. Presentation Layer: The message may be encoded or compressed
to ensure compatibility and security during transmission (e.g.,
encrypted using SSL/TLS).
3. Session Layer: The session between the sender’s email client and
the mail server is established, ensuring reliable and orderly data
transmission.
4. Transport Layer: The email is divided into smaller chunks
(segments) and delivered reliably using TCP to ensure no data is
lost or corrupted during transmission.
5. Network Layer: The email is sent as packets over the network,
and the best path is determined using IP addressing to reach the
recipient’s mail server.
6. Data Link Layer: The packets are converted into frames for
transmission over the local network, with MAC addresses used
for delivery to the next hop (e.g., router or switch).
7. Physical Layer: The email data is transmitted as electrical or
light signals over physical media, such as cables or wireless
signals.
Key Takeaways:
  The OSI model is a conceptual framework designed to help
understand how different networking protocols interact with
each other.
 The seven layers of the OSI model, from the Physical Layer
(Layer 1) to the Application Layer (Layer 7), each handle specific
tasks involved in network communication.
 While the OSI model is often used as a reference for educational
and troubleshooting purposes, it is not directly used in actual
network implementations. The TCP/IP model is more commonly
used in real-world networking.
Computer Communications
Computer communications refers to the exchange of data and
information between different computer systems or devices over a
communication medium (like cables, wireless networks, etc.). It
enables computers to connect and communicate with each other,
share resources, and perform tasks collectively. These
communications occur using a combination of hardware, software,
and communication protocols, which allow different devices to
exchange information in a standardized way.
Key Concepts in Computer Communications
1. Communication Channels:
o The physical medium used to transmit data between devices.

This could be wired (cables, fiber optics) or wireless (radio

waves, microwaves, infrared).
o Examples:

 Twisted Pair Cable (used for telephone lines and some

local area networks).

 Fiber Optic Cable (provides high-speed data

transmission over long distances).

 Wi-Fi (wireless communication using radio waves).

 Bluetooth (short-range wireless communication).

2. Data Transmission:
 o The process of transferring data over a communication
channel. Data can be transmitted in different forms:
 Analog Transmission: Continuous signals to represent

data (e.g., traditional telephone lines).

 Digital Transmission: Discrete signals (e.g., computer

networks, where data is transmitted in binary format).

o Transmission Modes:

 Simplex: Data flows in only one direction (e.g.,

keyboard to computer).
 Half-Duplex: Data can flow in both directions but not at

the same time (e.g., walkie-talkies).

 Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions

simultaneously (e.g., telephones).

3. Data Encoding:
o Before transmission, data is encoded into signals suitable for

transmission through a channel.

o Encoding Techniques:

 NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero): Data is represented by a

specific voltage level for a fixed period.

 Manchester Encoding: A method where a transition in

the signal represents a binary 1 or 0.

4. Protocols:
o Communication protocols are rules and conventions for data

exchange that ensure proper transmission and reception of

data.
o Examples:

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol) for internet communication.

 HTTP/HTTPS for web communication.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for transferring files.

 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) for email

communication.
5. Error Detection and Correction:
 o Data can become corrupted during transmission due to
noise, interference, or other issues. Error detection
techniques ensure data integrity.
o Methods:

 Parity Bits: A single bit added to a byte for error

detection.
 Checksums: A value calculated from a data set and sent

along with the data to check for errors.

 CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): A more complex

error detection method.

6. Data Compression:
o The process of reducing the size of data to save bandwidth

and storage space. Compression is especially important in

data transmission over limited bandwidth networks.
o Techniques:

 Lossless Compression: No data is lost (e.g., ZIP files,

PNG images).
 Lossy Compression: Some data is lost to reduce size

further (e.g., JPEG images, MP3 audio).

Types of Computer Communication
1. Point-to-Point Communication:
o Involves direct communication between two devices. This

could be a direct connection through a cable or via a wireless

connection.
o Example: A USB connection between a computer and a

printer.
2. Broadcast Communication:
o A single sender transmits data to multiple receivers

simultaneously.
o Common in networks like television broadcasting and

wireless communication.
o Example: Broadcasting a TV signal or sending a message to

all users in a local network.

 3. Multicast Communication:
o Involves sending data from one sender to multiple, but not

all, receivers.
o Often used for group communication where the sender

doesn't need to broadcast to every device.

o Example: Online video streaming where only certain users

(subscribers) receive the stream.

Components of a Computer Communication System
1. Message:
o The actual data or information that is being transmitted

between systems.
2. Sender:
o The device or computer that sends the message.

3. Receiver:
o The device or computer that receives the message.

4. Medium:
o The physical or logical pathway used to transmit the

message (e.g., cables, wireless network).

5. Protocol:
o The set of rules that define how data is exchanged between

devices. It specifies how the message is formatted,

transmitted, and error-handled.
Network Topologies in Computer Communications
Network topologies define how devices are connected in a network
and how data flows between them. The topology can affect
performance, scalability, and reliability.
1. Bus Topology:
o A single central cable (the bus) carries data to all devices on

the network. It is inexpensive but prone to network collisions

and disruptions if the main cable fails.
2. Ring Topology:
 o Devices are connected in a closed loop, and data travels in
one direction around the ring. It ensures orderly data
transmission but can be disrupted if any device fails.
3. Star Topology:
o Devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The central

node controls communication, making it easy to manage but

creating a potential point of failure.
4. Mesh Topology:
o Every device is connected to every other device. This ensures

redundancy and reliability but is costly and complex to

implement.
5. Hybrid Topology:
o A combination of two or more different topologies. For

example, a large network might use star topology at the

lower level and a bus topology at the higher level.
Computer Networks
Computer communications often occur within the context of
computer networks, which are systems that link multiple devices and
enable them to share resources, such as files, printers, and internet
access. Networks can be classified by their size and coverage:
1. LAN (Local Area Network):
o A network that covers a small geographic area, such as an

office, home, or school. LANs typically use Ethernet or Wi-

Fi for communication.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network):
o A large network that spans across cities, countries, or even

continents. The internet is the largest example of a WAN.

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
o A network that covers a larger area than a LAN but smaller

than a WAN, often used in cities or large campuses.

4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
 o A small-scale network used for personal devices, such as
connecting a smartphone to a computer via Bluetooth.
Challenges in Computer Communications
1. Bandwidth Limitations:
o The amount of data that can be transmitted in a given time

is constrained by the bandwidth of the communication

medium.
2. Latency:
o The delay between sending and receiving data. High latency

can affect real-time applications like video calls or online

gaming.
3. Security:
o Ensuring that data is transmitted securely and is protected

from unauthorized access, alteration, or theft. Security

protocols like encryption (e.g., SSL/TLS) and firewalls are
essential.
4. Congestion:
o When too much data is transmitted over a network at once,

causing delays and packet loss. Traffic management

techniques like Quality of Service (QoS) can help.
5. Interference and Noise:
o External factors that can disrupt the transmission of data.

This includes electromagnetic interference or signal

degradation over long distances.
 UNIT-2

Analog and Digital Communications

are two fundamental methods used for transmitting data or
information over various communication channels. Here's a
breakdown of both:
1. Analog Communications
Analog communication refers to the transmission of information in a
continuous wave form. In this system, the information (like sound,
video, etc.) is represented by continuous signals that vary in
amplitude, frequency, or phase.
Key Features:

 Signal Type: Continuous (varying over time).

 Examples: Traditional AM/FM radio, television broadcasting
(analog), landline telephone systems.
 Modulation: Analog signals are transmitted by varying parameters
such as:
o Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varying the amplitude of the

carrier wave.
o Frequency Modulation (FM): Varying the frequency of the

carrier wave.
o Phase Modulation (PM): Varying the phase of the carrier

wave.

Advantages of Analog Communication:

 Simple to implement.
 Less complex and can be efficient for small-scale, low-frequency
applications.
  Often requires less bandwidth in certain types of systems (e.g., AM
radio).

Disadvantages:

 Noise Sensitivity: Analog signals are susceptible to degradation

from noise and interference.
 Limited Data: It is difficult to encode large amounts of data or
information efficiently.
 Signal Degradation: Analog signals tend to degrade over long
distances, requiring repeaters or amplifiers.
2. Digital Communications
Digital communication involves transmitting information in the form
of discrete signals, typically represented by binary digits (0s and 1s).
This method encodes data as sequences of binary code, which are
transmitted over communication channels.
Key Features:

 Signal Type: Discrete (representing data as a series of bits).

 Examples: Internet, digital television, mobile communications, and
digital telephony.
 Modulation: Digital signals are transmitted using modulation
schemes like:
o Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): Modulating the amplitude of

the carrier wave.

o Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Modulating the frequency of the

carrier wave.
o Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Modulating the phase of the carrier

wave.
o Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): A combination of

amplitude and phase modulation to transmit more bits per

symbol.
Advantages of Digital Communication:

 Noise Immunity: Digital signals are more resistant to noise and

degradation than analog signals.
 Compression: Digital data can be compressed, allowing more
information to be transmitted in the same bandwidth.
 Error Detection and Correction: Digital systems can include error
detection and correction techniques (like checksums or parity bits),
improving reliability.
 Security: Digital signals are easier to encrypt, providing greater
security for communications.

Disadvantages:

 Complexity: Digital communication systems are more complex to

implement and may require sophisticated processing (such as
encoding and decoding).
 Bandwidth: Digital signals may require more bandwidth than
analog signals for the same quality, especially in high-resolution or
high-data-rate applications.
Comparison Between Analog and Digital Communications:

Feature Analog Communications Digital Communications

Continuous (analog
Signal Type Discrete (binary signals)
signals)

Noise Poor (susceptible to Better (can be error-

Resistance noise) corrected)

More complex (encoding,

Complexity Simple to implement
decoding, etc.)
 Feature Analog Communications Digital Communications

Bandwidth Typically lower (requires Typically higher (can be

Efficiency more space) compressed)

Maintains high quality over

Quality Prone to degradation
long distances

Easier to secure through

Security Less secure
encryption

AM/FM radio, analog TV, Mobile phones, internet,

Examples
landlines digital TV

Hybrid Systems
In modern communications, hybrid systems often combine both
analog and digital technologies. For example, audio in
telecommunication might be encoded digitally, but transmitted over
analog radio waves. Similarly, traditional television broadcasts have
transitioned to digital formats, combining the advantages of both.
1. Concept of Data
 Data refers to the raw facts or information that needs to be
transmitted from a source to a destination. This could include text,
audio, video, sensor data, etc.
 In digital communication, data is typically represented in binary
form (0s and 1s), which is then encoded into signals for
transmission.
 In analog communication, data is represented as continuous
waveforms that vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase.
2. Concept of Signal
A signal is a time-varying representation of data that carries
information from a transmitter to a receiver.
 Analog Signal: In analog communication, the signal is continuous
and can take on any value within a given range. It represents the
data as variations in amplitude, frequency, or phase over time.
Examples include voice signals or analog video signals.
 Digital Signal: In digital communication, the signal represents
data in discrete form, often as binary values (1s and 0s). The
signal switches between discrete levels (such as voltage levels) to
represent different bits. A common example is a signal sent over
the internet or from a computer.
Key Terms:

 Amplitude: The strength or intensity of a signal.

 Frequency: The number of oscillations or cycles per second.
 Phase: The timing of the wave's oscillations.
3. Concept of Channel
A channel is the medium through which the signal travels from the
transmitter to the receiver. It can be:
 Physical: such as wires (coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables), air (radio
waves), or satellite links.
 Wireless: such as through the atmosphere, typically used in mobile
phone communication, radio, and Wi-Fi.
 Guided: such as through a cable or optical fiber.
The channel introduces factors that can degrade the signal, including
noise, attenuation, and distortion, which impact the overall quality of
communication.
4. Concept of Bit-rate (or Data Rate)
Bit-rate, also known as data rate, refers to the amount of data
transmitted per unit of time, usually measured in bits per second
(bps). It indicates how fast data is being transmitted through the
communication system.
 Bit-rate is determined by factors such as:
o The modulation technique: how the data is encoded onto the

signal.
o The bandwidth: the range of frequencies available for

transmission.
o The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): the ratio of the signal strength

to the noise level.

Units of Bit-rate:

 bps (bits per second): The basic unit.

 kbps (kilobits per second): 1,000 bps.
 Mbps (megabits per second): 1,000,000 bps.
 Gbps (gigabits per second): 1,000,000,000 bps.
5. Maximum Data Rate of a Channel (Shannon-Hartley Theorem)
The maximum data rate (also called the channel capacity) is the
highest rate at which data can be transmitted through a given channel
without error, considering the channel's bandwidth and noise.
The Shannon-Hartley theorem provides a mathematical formula to
calculate the maximum data rate:
C = B log2(1+N/S)
Where:
 CCC = Maximum data rate (channel capacity) in bits per second
(bps).
 BBB = Bandwidth of the channel in Hertz (Hz).
  SSS = Signal power.
 NNN = Noise power (often represented as noise power spectral
density).

Key Insights from the Shannon-Hartley Theorem:

 The data rate increases with bandwidth (B): The wider the
bandwidth, the more data can be transmitted.
 The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) affects the maximum data rate.
Higher SNR allows for higher data rates since less noise interferes
with the signal.
 The theorem shows that infinite data rates are impossible with
finite bandwidth or when noise levels are significant.
6. Example
Suppose a communication channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz
(1,000,000 Hz) and a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 30 dB (which
corresponds to a ratio of 1000).
Using the Shannon-Hartley theorem:

This means the maximum theoretical data rate for this channel is
about 9.97 Mbps.
Summary of Key Concepts:

Concept Analog Communication Digital Communication

Continuous (e.g., sound,

Data Discrete (0s and 1s)
video)
 Concept Analog Communication Digital Communication

Continuous, varying in
Discrete, representing bits via
Signal amplitude, frequency,
voltage levels
phase

Physical medium (radio, Can be physical or wireless

Channel
cable) (fiber, satellite, etc.)

Bit-rate Lower data rates for Higher data rates, more efficient
(Data Rate) analog systems for high-bandwidth applications

Calculated using the Shannon-

Maximum Limited by bandwidth
Hartley theorem; depends on
Data Rate and noise in the channel
SNR and bandwidth

Representing Data as Analog Signals

In analog communication, data is represented as continuous signals.
These signals can vary in certain ways (such as in amplitude,
frequency, or phase) to represent the information being transmitted.
1. Representation of Data Using Analog Signals

 Analog Signals are continuous in time and can take any value
within a given range. These signals are usually represented as
sine waves or a combination of sine waves.
 Data is represented by modulating an analog carrier wave (a
continuous signal) in one of the following ways:
o Amplitude Modulation (AM): The amplitude of the carrier

wave is varied in proportion to the data signal. For example,

 in AM radio broadcasting, the audio signal modulates the
amplitude of the radio wave.
 Example: If a speech signal is being transmitted, its

amplitude will vary the carrier wave according to the

loudness or softness of the sound.
o Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier
wave is varied according to the data signal. FM radio
broadcasting is an example, where audio signals modulate
the frequency of the radio carrier.
 Example: As a voice signal changes in pitch, the frequency

of the carrier wave is adjusted accordingly.

o Phase Modulation (PM): The phase of the carrier wave is
shifted according to the data signal.
 Example: Digital data can be encoded in phase shifts in a

carrier wave, a technique used in Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

in digital systems.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Analog Representation:

 Advantages:
o Simple to implement and requires less processing power.

o Continuous representation allows for smooth, natural signal

transmission.
 Disadvantages:
o Noise Sensitivity: Analog signals degrade over distance due to

noise, making it harder to preserve signal quality.

o Bandwidth Inefficiency: Analog signals can require large

bandwidths, especially for high-quality transmissions.

Representing Data as Digital Signals
In digital communication, data is represented as discrete values,
typically as sequences of binary digits (0s and 1s). These binary values
are encoded into signals that are transmitted over the communication
medium.
1. Representation of Data Using Digital Signals

 Digital Signals are non-continuous and are made up of discrete

values. The transmission medium typically carries binary data,
where each bit (0 or 1) is represented as a distinct signal level.
 Data can be represented using different modulation techniques:
o Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): The amplitude of the carrier

signal is varied to represent binary data. A high amplitude

might represent a "1," and a low amplitude might represent
a "0."
o Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): The frequency of the carrier

signal is varied to represent binary data. For example, one

frequency may represent a "1," and a different frequency
may represent a "0."
o Phase Shift Keying (PSK): The phase of the carrier signal is

changed to represent binary data. For example, a 0 might be

represented by one phase, and a 1 by another.
o Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): This combines

both amplitude and phase modulation, allowing more bits to

be represented in a single signal. It is used in higher data
rate digital communication systems, such as cable modems
or DSL.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Representation:

 Advantages:
o Noise Immunity: Digital signals are less affected by noise

compared to analog signals. Errors can be detected and

corrected using error-correcting codes (e.g., parity checks).
o Error Detection & Correction: Digital systems can use various

algorithms to detect and correct errors during transmission.

 o Bandwidth Efficiency: Digital signals can be compressed and
modulated to fit more data into the available bandwidth,
allowing for higher data rates.
 Disadvantages:
o Complexity: Digital communication systems are more complex

to implement and require sophisticated encoding and

decoding techniques.
o Bandwidth Requirements: Digital signals can require more

bandwidth in certain applications due to higher modulation

schemes or higher bit rates.
Data Rate and Bandwidth
1. Data Rate

 Data rate (also known as bit rate) refers to the amount of data that
can be transmitted over a communication channel in a given
period of time. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps), but
it can also be in kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second
(Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).

2. Bandwidth

 Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that a

communication channel can carry. It is measured in Hertz (Hz)
and determines the capacity of the channel to transmit data.
o The higher the bandwidth, the more data the channel can

transmit at once, which allows for higher data rates.

o The lower the bandwidth, the slower the data transmission,

as fewer frequencies are available for transmitting data.

Relationship Between Data Rate and Bandwidth:
The data rate of a channel is closely related to its bandwidth. A higher
bandwidth allows for a higher data rate, as more data can be
transmitted simultaneously across a wider range of frequencies.
Shannon-Hartley Theorem

The Shannon-Hartley theorem provides the theoretical upper limit for

the data rate (channel capacity) based on the available bandwidth and
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the channel:

Where:
 CCC = Maximum data rate (in bps)
 BBB = Bandwidth (in Hz)
 SSS = Signal power
 NNN = Noise power
 SN\frac{S}{N}NS = Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Example:

 If a channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz (1,000,000 Hz) and a signal-

to-noise ratio of 30 dB (which is roughly equivalent to an SNR of
1000), the maximum data rate is calculated as:

This means the theoretical maximum data rate is about 9.97 Mbps for
the given channel.
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
1. Asynchronous Transmission

Asynchronous transmission is a method of transmitting data in which

each character or byte is sent independently, with start and stop
signals marking the beginning and end of each data unit. The receiver
knows when to start and stop reading based on these special markers.
Key Characteristics:
 Start and Stop Bits: Each data unit (usually a character or byte) is
sent with a start bit (indicating the start of the transmission) and
one or more stop bits (indicating the end).
 Variable Timing: Data bits are sent at irregular intervals, with each
unit being transmitted separately. The timing between characters
may vary.
 Simple Protocol: Does not require the sender and receiver to be
synchronized continuously, making it simpler to implement.
Example:
 RS-232 serial communication (used in computer ports).
 Used for short, low-speed communication, such as keyboard inputs
or low-volume data transmission.
Advantages:
 Simplicity: It is easy to implement and does not require a clock
signal.
 Flexibility: Data can be sent at irregular intervals, making it ideal
for low-speed or sporadic data transfer.
Disadvantages:
 Lower Efficiency: The need for start and stop bits reduces
efficiency, as more bits are used for framing each character.
  Slower Speeds: Asynchronous communication is less efficient for
high-speed data transfer compared to synchronous methods.

2. Synchronous Transmission

Synchronous transmission involves transmitting data in a continuous

stream, with the sender and receiver operating in sync (i.e., both use a
shared clock signal). Data is transmitted in large blocks (e.g., frames)
instead of individual characters, and the timing is maintained
throughout the communication.
Key Characteristics:
 No Start/Stop Bits: Unlike asynchronous transmission, no extra bits
are needed for framing. The receiver knows exactly when to read
the data bits because the timing is synchronized.
 Continuous Data Flow: Data is sent in continuous blocks or frames,
often accompanied by a clock signal to maintain synchronization.
 Higher Speed: This method is more efficient and faster than
asynchronous transmission because it minimizes the overhead
caused by start and stop bits.
Example:
 Ethernet and USB use synchronous transmission.
 Used for higher-speed data transfers, such as in networking, file
transfers, and video streaming.
Advantages:
 Higher Efficiency: No start/stop bits and continuous transmission
result in faster and more efficient data transfer.
 High Data Rates: Synchronous transmission supports high-speed
communications, such as in real-time video or large file transfers.
Disadvantages:
  More Complex: Synchronous systems require the sender and
receiver to be synchronized, often using an external clock signal.
 More Overhead: Requires more complex hardware and protocols
to handle the synchronization.
Data Encoding Techniques
Data encoding refers to the method of converting data into signals for
transmission over a medium. Different encoding schemes are used to
represent binary data (0s and 1s) as signals.
1. Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) Encoding

In NRZ encoding, a 1 is represented by one level (usually a positive

voltage), and a 0 is represented by a different level (usually 0 or
negative voltage). The voltage level is maintained throughout the bit
interval.
 NRZ-L: Logic level encoding, where a "1" is represented by a high
voltage and a "0" by a low voltage.
 NRZ-I: Inverted logic, where the signal is inverted when a "1" is
transmitted, and it stays the same when a "0" is transmitted.
Advantages:
 Simple and easy to implement.
 Requires less bandwidth than some other encoding schemes.
Disadvantages:
 Synchronization Problems: Long sequences of 0s or 1s can cause
timing issues since the signal doesn't change over time.
 DC Components: Signals may have a DC component, making it
difficult to transmit over long distances.
2. Manchester Encoding

Manchester encoding combines clock and data information into a

single signal. Each bit is represented by two voltage levels: one for the
first half of the bit period and one for the second half.
 "0" is represented by a transition from high to low in the middle of
the bit interval.
 "1" is represented by a transition from low to high in the middle of
the bit interval.
Advantages:
 No DC Component: This encoding ensures that the signal has no DC
component, making it better suited for transmission over long
distances.
 Clock Recovery: The transitions in the signal provide clocking
information, aiding in synchronization.
Disadvantages:
 Lower Efficiency: The signal requires more bandwidth since each
bit is transmitted in two signal changes.

3. Differential Manchester Encoding

Differential Manchester encoding is similar to Manchester encoding

but with the following modification:
 A "1" is represented by the absence of a transition at the start of
the bit period.
 A "0" is represented by the presence of a transition at the start of
the bit period.
This encoding is often used in systems where differential encoding
(changes in signal rather than absolute values) is beneficial.
Advantages:
 Robustness: It is more resistant to signal polarity errors because
the data is represented by the transition, not the signal level.
Disadvantages:
 Lower Efficiency: Like Manchester encoding, differential
Manchester requires more bandwidth.
Modulation Techniques
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal to encode data.
There are several modulation techniques for both analog and digital
communication systems.
1. Analog Modulation Techniques

 Amplitude Modulation (AM): In AM, the amplitude of a carrier

signal is varied in accordance with the data signal. AM is
commonly used for radio broadcasting.
 Frequency Modulation (FM): In FM, the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied according to the data signal. FM is used for high-
fidelity radio broadcasts, such as music and speech.
 Phase Modulation (PM): In PM, the phase of the carrier signal is
altered in accordance with the data signal. PM is used in some
communication systems and often combined with FM for better
performance.
2. Digital Modulation Techniques

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): In ASK, the amplitude of the

carrier wave is varied to represent binary data. A "1" might be
represented by a high amplitude, and a "0" by no amplitude.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): In FSK, the frequency of the
carrier signal is shifted between two or more values to represent
 binary data. It is often used in data communication over noisy
channels (e.g., radio communication).
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK): In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal
is shifted to represent binary data. For example:
o Binary PSK (BPSK): Two phase shifts represent "0" and "1."

o Quadrature PSK (QPSK): Four different phase shifts can

represent two bits of data per symbol.

 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): QAM is a
combination of both amplitude and phase modulation, used to
transmit multiple bits per symbol. It is widely used in broadband
systems like cable modems, digital TV, and Wi-Fi.
Advantages of Digital Modulation:
 Efficiency: Digital modulation techniques often allow higher data
rates and more robust error correction.
 Noise Resistance: Digital modulation is more resistant to noise and
interference than analog modulation.
Summary Table:

Asynchronous
Category Synchronous Transmission
Transmission

Transmission Character by character, Continuous stream with

Method with start/stop bits synchronized clocks

Lower, due to start/stop Higher, no extra bits

Efficiency
bits overhead needed

RS-232 serial ports, Ethernet, USB, video

Examples
keyboard inputs streaming
Category Data Encoding Technique Modulation Techniques

Example Manchester, NRZ,

ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM
Encoding Differential Manchester

Simple, Clock recovery

Advantages Efficient, Noise-resistant
(Manchester)

Lower bandwidth Complex, Requires more

Disadvantages
efficiency (Manchester) bandwidth (QAM)

Digital Carrier Systems

Digital carrier systems are communication systems designed to
transmit digital signals (i.e., discrete data represented by 0s and 1s)
over various transmission media. These systems are essential for
efficient communication over long distances and are characterized by
their ability to carry digital data, often with the help of modulated
carrier signals.
Digital carrier systems have several advantages, including high-speed
transmission, noise immunity, and the ability to use sophisticated
encoding and error correction techniques. They are used in
technologies such as telephone systems, data networks (e.g., the
internet), cable TV, and wireless communication.
Key Types of Digital Carrier Systems:

1. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL):

o DSL technology is used to provide high-speed internet over

traditional copper telephone lines. It uses a digital carrier

 signal to transmit data at much higher speeds than regular
analog telephone systems.
o Example: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) provides

different download and upload speeds, optimizing for home

internet use.
2. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):
o ISDN is a set of communication standards for transmitting

voice, data, and video over digital telephone lines. It allows

multiple channels to be transmitted over a single connection.
o ISDN is commonly used for voice and video conferencing or

transmitting data across a dedicated circuit-switched network.

3. Fiber Optic Systems:
o Fiber optics use light signals to transmit data over long

distances at very high speeds. These are digital

communication systems that allow for extremely high
bandwidth, offering very high data rates.
o Example: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

technology in fiber optics allows multiple digital signals to be

transmitted simultaneously on different light wavelengths.
4. Satellite Systems:
o Satellites are used for long-range digital communication by

transmitting signals to and from satellites in space. Digital

signals are modulated onto radio waves to be sent to the
satellite, which then relays the signal to the ground station.

Advantages of Digital Carrier Systems:

 Higher Efficiency: Digital signals can be compressed and

multiplexed to increase data transmission rates.
 Error Detection and Correction: Digital systems can use error
correction techniques, making the communication more reliable.
 Security: Digital data can be encrypted, making digital systems
more secure compared to analog systems.
 Guided and Wireless Transmission Media
Transmission media refer to the physical or logical pathways used for
transmitting signals from the sender to the receiver. The transmission
medium can be broadly classified into guided and wireless categories.
1. Guided Transmission Media

Guided transmission media refers to communication channels that use

physical mediums to guide and contain the signals as they travel.
These are often called wired media, as they rely on cables or fibers to
carry the signals.
Key Types of Guided Transmission Media:
 Twisted Pair Cables:
o Description: Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted

together. It is the most common transmission medium for

telephone and data networks.
o Types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): No shielding, commonly

used in Ethernet.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has a metal shield around

the wires to reduce electromagnetic interference.

o Advantages: Low cost, flexible, easy to install.

o Disadvantages: Susceptible to noise and signal degradation

over long distances.

 Coaxial Cable:
o Description: A type of electrical cable that has a central

conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer

insulating layer. It is widely used for cable TV and broadband
internet.
o Advantages: Higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables, less

prone to interference.
 o Disadvantages: Bulkier, more expensive, and harder to install
compared to twisted pair cables.
 Fiber Optic Cable:
o Description: Uses light to transmit data in the form of optical

signals. Fiber optics use a central core made of glass or plastic

fibers that transmit data as pulses of light.
o Advantages: Extremely high bandwidth, long-distance

capability, immunity to electromagnetic interference, security

(difficult to tap).
o Disadvantages: Expensive, difficult to install, and more fragile

compared to copper cables.

Fiber Optic Cables are the most advanced form of guided
transmission media, especially for high-speed internet and long-
distance communication, as they can support data rates that are far
superior to copper cables.
2. Wireless Transmission Media

Wireless transmission media refer to communication channels that do

not rely on physical conductors to guide the signal but instead use
electromagnetic waves to carry data through the air. Wireless
transmission is used in mobile communication, radio, television, and
satellite communication.
Key Types of Wireless Transmission Media:
 Radio Waves:
o Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies between

30 Hz and 300 GHz. They are used for broadcasting, cellular

communications, and Wi-Fi.
o Applications: AM/FM radio, TV broadcasts, Bluetooth, and

cellular communication.
o Advantages: Wide coverage, can penetrate through various

obstacles.
 o Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth, susceptible to interference
and noise.
 Microwaves:
o Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies between

1 GHz and 300 GHz. They require line-of-sight between the

transmitter and receiver for efficient communication.
o Applications: Long-distance communication, satellite

communication, point-to-point communication links.

o Advantages: Higher frequency, higher data rates than radio

waves, used in high-capacity systems.

o Disadvantages: Requires line-of-sight, affected by weather

conditions, especially rain.

 Infrared (IR):
o Description: Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths just

longer than visible light, often used for short-range

communication.
o Applications: Remote controls, wireless data transmission

over short distances (e.g., infrared sensors).

o Advantages: Low cost, secure transmission due to limited

range.
o Disadvantages: Limited range and affected by physical

obstacles (e.g., walls).

 Satellite Communication:
o Description: Involves communication signals transmitted to

and from satellites in Earth's orbit. These systems use

microwaves and radio waves for data transmission.
o Applications: Long-distance communications, weather

forecasting, GPS, television broadcasting, internet services in

remote areas.
o Advantages: Global coverage, especially in remote or rural

areas.
 o Disadvantages: High cost, latency (delay), affected by weather
conditions like heavy rain.
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity):
o Description: A technology that allows devices to communicate

over short distances using radio waves (typically in the 2.4

GHz or 5 GHz band).
o Applications: Local area networks (LANs), internet access in

homes, offices, and public hotspots.

o Advantages: Convenient, high-speed internet access, flexible

installation.
o Disadvantages: Limited range, susceptible to interference

from other electronic devices.

 Bluetooth:
o Description: A short-range wireless communication

technology used for connecting devices like smartphones,

laptops, and headphones.
o Applications: Personal area networks (PANs), device

connectivity.
o Advantages: Low power consumption, easy pairing.

o Disadvantages: Limited range (typically up to 100 meters), low

data transfer rates.

Comparison: Guided vs. Wireless Transmission Media

Guided Transmission Wireless Transmission

Characteristic
Media Media

Uses air, atmosphere, or

Physical Uses cables (twisted pair,
space (radio waves,
Medium coaxial, fiber optics)
microwaves)

Examples Twisted pair, coaxial cable, Radio waves, microwaves,

 Guided Transmission Wireless Transmission
Characteristic
Media Media

fiber optic infrared, satellite

High (especially with fiber Varies (generally lower than

Data Rate
optics) guided media)

Can cover long distances

Limited by distance and
Range (satellites) or short ranges
cable quality
(Wi-Fi, Bluetooth)

Prone to electromagnetic Prone to environmental

Interference interference (especially interference (e.g., weather,
copper cables) physical obstacles)

Installation Higher for fiber optics and Higher for satellite, requires
Cost coaxial line-of-sight for microwaves

Fixed, not suitable for Mobile, allows

Mobility
mobile devices communication on the go

Communication Satellites
Communication satellites are spacecraft designed to relay and amplify
radio, television, internet, and telephone signals across vast distances.
They play a crucial role in global communication systems, especially
for remote areas where terrestrial infrastructure is limited or
unavailable.
Basic Components of a Communication Satellite

1. Transponder: This is the core component of a communication

satellite, consisting of a receiver, amplifier, and transmitter. The
transponder receives signals from the earth, amplifies them, and
then retransmits them back to the ground. It operates in specific
frequency bands, such as C-band, Ku-band, or Ka-band.
2. Antennas: Satellites are equipped with large antennas that can
send and receive signals to and from ground stations. These
antennas may have different shapes and sizes, depending on the
satellite's function and the type of signal it transmits.
3. Solar Panels: These panels provide the satellite with power, as
they convert solar energy into electricity to keep the satellite's
systems functioning.
4. Power Supply: Satellites are equipped with onboard power
systems, primarily solar panels, but also with rechargeable
batteries that store energy for use during periods of darkness
when the satellite is in the Earth's shadow.
Types of Communication Satellites

1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites:

o These satellites are positioned approximately 35,786 km

above the Earth’s equator.

o Advantages: They remain fixed in one position relative to the

Earth, providing stable, continuous coverage over a large area.

o Examples: Used for television broadcasting, internet services,

weather monitoring.
o Disadvantages: High latency due to the long distance,

especially for real-time communications like voice calls.

2. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites:
o Positioned between 160 km and 2,000 km above the Earth.

o Advantages: Low latency (signal travel time), smaller size, and

less expensive.
 Examples: Used for communication, Earth observation, and
o

GPS services (e.g., Starlink, Globalstar).

o Disadvantages: Limited coverage area, requiring a

constellation of satellites to ensure continuous global

coverage.
3. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites:
o Positioned between 2,000 km and 35,786 km above Earth.

o Advantages: MEO satellites offer lower latency than GEO

satellites but have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites.

o Examples: Used primarily for GPS systems (e.g., Galileo,

GLONASS).
o Disadvantages: Compromised balance between coverage area

and latency.

Functions of Communication Satellites

 Telecommunications: Satellites provide backbone infrastructure

for telephone, internet, and broadcasting services, especially in
remote or rural areas where traditional communication
infrastructure is not feasible.
 Broadcasting: Satellite TV and radio services depend on GEO
satellites to deliver broadcast signals to millions of users
worldwide.
 Data Relay: Satellites relay data for global positioning systems
(GPS), weather monitoring, and military applications.

Advantages of Communication Satellites

 Global Coverage: They can cover large geographical areas,

including remote and inaccessible regions.
 High Bandwidth: Satellites can carry large volumes of data over
long distances.
  Reliability: With advancements in satellite technology,
communication satellites are increasingly reliable, providing
uninterrupted services in many parts of the world.

Disadvantages of Communication Satellites

 Cost: Launching, maintaining, and replacing satellites is expensive.

 Latency: GEO satellites, in particular, experience higher signal
travel time (latency) due to their distance from Earth.
 Weather Interference: Weather conditions, such as rain or snow,
can sometimes disrupt satellite communication signals, especially
in high-frequency bands.
Switching in Communication Systems
Switching is the process of directing data (voice, video, or digital
information) from one point to another in a network. It is essential in
telecommunications to enable multiple users to share the same
transmission medium without interference.
There are three primary types of switching used in communication
networks:
1. Circuit Switching

 Definition: In circuit-switched networks, a dedicated

communication path or circuit is established between the sender
and receiver for the duration of the communication session.
 Example: Traditional telephone networks (e.g., landline calls) use
circuit-switching.
 Process:
1. The sender and receiver establish a dedicated communication
path.
2. The entire communication session is carried on this dedicated
path.
 3. After the session ends, the path is released for use by other
users.
Advantages:
 Reliable and consistent performance, with guaranteed bandwidth
during the session.
 Suitable for voice calls, where continuous, uninterrupted
communication is essential.
Disadvantages:
 Inefficient for data transmission, especially with idle periods (e.g.,
long pauses in conversation or long data transfers).
 The dedicated path is unavailable for others, leading to
underutilization of resources.

2. Packet Switching

 Definition: In packet-switched networks, data is broken down into

smaller units called packets. These packets are sent independently
across the network, potentially through different paths, and
reassembled at the destination.
 Example: The internet uses packet-switching.
 Process:
1. The data is divided into small packets.
2. Each packet contains addressing information and can take any
route to the destination.
3. At the destination, the packets are reassembled in the correct
order.
Advantages:
 Efficient use of network resources: Multiple communications can
share the same network paths.
  Flexible and scalable, making it ideal for data-heavy applications
like the internet.
Disadvantages:
 Packets may arrive out of order, leading to delays.
 Higher complexity in routing and reassembly.

3. Message Switching

 Definition: In message-switched networks, the entire message is

sent as a single unit. The message is stored at intermediate nodes
until the next node is ready to receive it.
 Example: Early email systems used message switching.
 Process:
1. The sender sends a complete message.
2. The message is temporarily stored at intermediate nodes and
forwarded when the next node is available.
Advantages:
 Efficient for sending large messages, as the entire message can be
sent in one go.
 Does not require the sender and receiver to be connected at the
same time.
Disadvantages:
 Higher delay due to storage and forwarding processes.
 Less efficient for real-time communication.
Multiplexing in Communication Systems
Multiplexing is the technique of combining multiple signals into one
transmission medium. It allows multiple data streams to share a
common channel, optimizing the use of resources and increasing
system efficiency.
Types of Multiplexing

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

o Definition: FDM divides the available bandwidth of the

communication channel into several narrower frequency

bands, each carrying a separate signal.
o Example: FM radio broadcasting, where each station is

assigned a specific frequency.

o How it Works:

1. Multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously on

different frequencies.
2. Each signal is modulated onto its designated frequency
band.
3. The receiver demodulates the signal based on the
frequency assigned.
Advantages:
o Suitable for analog signals like voice and video.
o Continuous transmission without delay.
Disadvantages:
o Requires careful management of frequency bands.
o Limited by the available bandwidth.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

o Definition: TDM divides the time available on a channel into

time slots, assigning each signal to a different time slot. Each

signal is transmitted sequentially, with each having access to
the channel for a fixed time period.
o Example: Digital telephony systems (e.g., in mobile networks).

o How it Works:
 1. Signals are divided into discrete time intervals.
2. Each signal transmits in its assigned time slot.
3. The receiver collects and reassembles the data.
Advantages:
o More efficient than FDM for digital signals.
o No need for separate frequency bands for each signal.
Disadvantages:
o Requires synchronization between sender and receiver.
o If one signal is not ready, the time slot is wasted.

3. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

o Definition: CDM allows multiple signals to occupy the same

frequency band simultaneously by encoding them with unique

codes. Each signal is transmitted using a different code, and
the receiver can decode the signal by using the corresponding
code.
o Example: Used in cellular networks like CDMA (Code Division

Multiple Access).
o How it Works:

1. Each signal is assigned a unique code.

2. Multiple signals share the same frequency band but are
distinguishable by their unique codes.
3. The receiver uses the codes to separate the signals.
Advantages:
o Efficient use of available bandwidth.
o Increased capacity for users on the same frequency.
Disadvantages:
o Complex encoding and decoding processes.