Fundamental of Electrical &
Electronic 2
Electronics
2019.02.27/TKK/GDVT
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TRANSISTORS
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• emitter base collector
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Electron Flow
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Operating Region Parameters
VBE <0.7 V
Cut Off
IB = IC = 0
VBE >0.7 V
Linear
IC = β*IB
IB > 0, IC > 0
Saturated VBE >0.7 V,
VCE 0.2 V
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OPTOELECTRONICS
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LEDs
Red LED White LED
LED for displays
Blue LED LED for traffic light
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
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Single-ended Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
– Amplifies difference
between inputs
• Output gain high
– A ~= 106
• Tiny difference in the input
voltages result in a very
large output voltage
– Output limited by supply
voltages
• Comparator
– If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
– If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
– If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
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Closed Loop Transfer Function
H(s) = A / (1 + AF)
When AF >> 1…
H(s) = 1 / F
Where: A = Op Amp Open Loop Gain
F = Feedback Loop Gain
1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the
voltage difference between the inputs zero.
2. The inputs draw no current.
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Ideal Op Amp
Ideal Op-Amp Typical Op-Amp
Input Resistance infinity 106 (bipolar)
109 - 1012 (FET)
Input Current 0 10-12 – 10-8 A
Output Resistance 0 100 – 1000
Operational Gain infinity 105 - 109
Common Mode Gain 0 10-5
Bandwidth infinity Attenuates and phases at high
frequencies (depends on slew
rate)
Temperature independent Bandwidth and gain
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www.wikipedia.org
Uses: Amplify…straight up
www.wikipedia.org
Uses: Analog inverter
V1
Vout
V2
www.allaboutcircuits.com
Uses: Low-voltage alarms,
night light controller
Summation
www.wikipedia.org
Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs until a
threshold is reached.
Difference
V 2 R3 R1 R4 V1R3
Vout
( R4 R2 ) R1 R1
If all resistors are equal:
Vout V2 V1
www.wikipedia.org
Uses: PID Controller
www.wikipedia.org
(where Vin and Vout are functions of time)
• Decouple the low-pass RC
filter from the load.
Uses: Simple audio.
Remove frequencies over
20kHz (audible)
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www.wikipedia.org
www.wikipedia.org
Band-pass filter cascades both high-pass and low-pass!
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Heating
resistor
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