STUDY NOTES

Daniel
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CONTENTS
Overview 3

Context 5

Annotated Outline 6
The Babylonian Exile 9
Apocalyptic Literature 10
Patterns and Prophecy 12
Chiasmus 14
Themes 15

Threads and Themes 16

The Ethic of the Exile 18
The Test 19
Prophecy 20

Nebuchadnezzar’s Statue 22
The Four Great Beasts 26
Hellfire and Chaos Waters 28
The Winged Lion 30
Commentary 34

Kings and Monsters 35

Out of the Fire, into the Jaws of Death 36
The Beast King and Babylon’s Folly 37
Authorship 38

Prophet or Pseudonym 39
The Reign of King Jehoiakim 40
Greek Loanwords 41
Persian Loanwords 42
The Son of Nebuchadnezzar 44
References 46

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 AUTHOR
Daniel/Unknown
OVERVIEW
The Book of Daniel is unique to the Jewish canon. It is
DATE WRITTEN not numbered among the Prophets, though Daniel was a
Approx. 530 BC, Edited by 65 BC
prophet. This is because the prophets were characterized
by their confrontations with the Jews about breaking their
GENRE covenant with God.
Apocalyptic Literature/
Historical Narrative The Jewish scribes instead lumped Daniel in the catego-
ry called the “Writings,” or in the Hebrew, the Ketuvim.
INTENDED AUDIENCE Furthermore, it was placed in the subgroup, simply called
Jews/Gentiles
“other.” Daniel was the oddball to the prophets. It is to
the Old Testament what Revelation is to the New Testa-
ment — it is an apocalypse. However, apocalyptic liter-
ature is not really about the end of the world. The word
means “revealing.”

God reveals to Daniel the truth of this world. Empires rise

and fall, but God’s kingdom will be eternal.

Until kingdom come, God’s people must live in a hostile

world. Daniel’s prophecies give us hope for God’s final
victory in the future, but Daniel’s life gives us an example
for overcoming evil in the present.

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 GLOSSARY OF NAMES
Name Meaning Origin

Daniel God is my judge, God my judge Hebrew

Hananiah Yahweh is gracious, Gift of the Lord Hebrew

Mishael Who is what God is?, Who is asked for or lent Hebrew

Azariah Yahweh has helped, He that hears the Lord Hebrew

Michael Who is like God? Hebrew

Gabriel God is my strength Hebrew

Belteshazzar May Bel protect his life Babylonian

Nebuchadnezzar Nebo, protect the crown Babylonian

Belshazzar Bel, protect the king Babylonian

Shadrach Command of Aku (Moon god) Babylonian

Meshach Who is what Aku is? Babylonian

Abednego Servant of Nebo Babylonian

Ashpenaz (Chief Eunuch) Babylonian

Nebo That speaks or prophecies (god of wisdom and writing) Babylonian

Bel (Another name for Marduk, chief Babylonian god) Babylonian

Darius Upholder, protector Persian

Cyrus Sun, throne Persian

[1] Hitchcock’s Bible Names Dictionary. Accessed February 22, 2024.

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01

CONTEXT

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ANNOTATED OUTLINE
Prologue
Daniel and his friends are taken captive to serve in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.
● Their faith is tested when they are served non-kosher food. This tension to capitulate to heathen culture
and forsake their Jewish identity is present throughout, which is called the Exile theme.

A King Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream

● Daniel is the only one who can interpret the dream of the statue due to God’s power.
● The dream symbolizes the theme of Babylon as an idea more than a historical empire.
○ Each section/material corresponds to a different empire.
● God is represented as a mountain, which alludes to the mount of God theme.

B The Fiery Furnace

● Hananiah’s, Mishael’s, and Azariah’s faith is tested. They are thrown into a fiery furnace for refusing to
bow to King Nebuchadnezzar golden image.
○ The statue resembles the one from King Nebuchadnezzar’s dream.
● A Christophany appears with the three in the furnace, described as the “son of the gods” or “son of god.”

C King Nebuchadnezzar’s 2nd Dream

● He loses his sanity due to pride but regains it after humbling himself before God.
● The tree in the dream alludes to Eden.
● His beastly state is meant to demonstrate a perverted human nature as an image of God.

C The Fall of Babylon

● King Nebuchadnezzar’s son Belshazzar boasts of his power like his father, while mocking God.
● A hand (like a vision) appears and writes a prophecy that only Daniel can interpret.
● The city of Babylon is subjugated due to the king’s pride.

B Daniel and the Lions’ Den

● Daniel’s faith is tested when the new king decrees people must only worship him.
● Daniel is thrown into a den of ravenous beasts for his devotion to God.

A Daniel’s Dream
● Daniel cannot interpret the dream of the four beasts, so the angel Gabriel provides the interpretation.
● The four beasts demonstrate, like Nebuchadnezzar’s beastly state, fallen human nature, which is a type of
controlled chaos or false order.
○ The water represents chaos, the pre-creation state.
○ The chimeric beasts reinforces the abominable nature of human empires. These kingdoms are aber-
rations of the natural order.
● A figure called the “Son of Man” is revealed.
○ He establishes an everlasting kingdom.

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D Daniel’s 2nd Dream
● The Ram and Goat
○ The Ram likely represents the Medes and the Persians
○ A ram is a male sheep and is one of the sacrificial animals in the OT
○ The Goat is said to represent Greece (Alexander the Great)
○ Horns represents kings and kingdoms (horns = crowns/diadems)

E Daniel’s Prayer
● The Seventy Weeks Prophecy
○ Weeks are general collections of seven not necessarily seven days.
○ References Jeremiah 25, which had a similar prophecy based on 70 years
○ This chapter confirms that Daniel is familiar with Jeremiah’s teachings and was likely informed by
Jeremiah’s exile ethic.
○ The prophecy contains a chiasm in verses 24-27, with chapter 9 sandwiched between chapters 8
and 10
● Daniel laments over Israel’s sin,
○ Daniel is one of the few biblical figures that did not commit any egregious sin.
○ He identifies himself with his people’s guilt.
● The Anointed One is another title for the Messiah
● The Abomination of Desolation
○ May refer to King Antiochus IV Epiphanes
○ Referenced by Jesus in Matthew 24:15–16 to describe the Antichrist
○ There is a debate if the Abomination of Desolation is exclusively a historical figure rather than a
prophetic one

D Daniel’s 3rd Dream

● Gabriel provides a glimpse of the spiritual war
○ He aided by Michael against the Prince of Persia
○ The Prince of Persia may refer to a demonic or celestial officer, hinting at a demonic hierarchy
○ This taste of the spiritual realm is a feature of apocalyptic literature

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NEO-BABYLONIAN EMPIRE
600 BC
LEGEND

BABYLONIAN TERRITORY
BLACK SEA
JEWISH EXILE

CITY

CASPIAN

MEDIA
SEA

BABYLONIA
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA

Babylon

Jerusalem

ARABIA
PERSIAN
GULF

[2] Mark Barry, “Babylonia Revisited,” Visual Unit, May 19, 2010
[3] Unpacked, “The Judean Exile to Babylonia | The Jewish Story | Unpacked”
[4] “Daniel,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024

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 THE BABYLONIAN EXILE
The Babylonian Exile or Jewish Diaspora, once hoiakim, who ascended the throne of Judah in 609
thought unthinkable became a horrible reality, when BC, refused to pay tribute and instead opted to rebel
the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II laid siege to against king Nebuchadnezzar. Rebellion against
Jerusalem, razing Solomon’s Temple to the ground, Babylon was foolish, but it was his rebellion against
and abducting Jews to be indoctrinated in Babylo- God that sealed Judah’s fate. His harsh rule marked
nian reeducation programs. This is where Daniel’s a departure from the religious reforms instituted by
story begins, one of the many Jews that were carted King Hezekiah and King Josiah before him. Even so,
off to Babylon.[4] One of the darkest chapters in God continued to send prophets to implore God’s
Israel’s history, the Babylonian Exile had a signifi- people to repent and turn back to God. One such
cant impact on the Jewish psyche which is critical to prophet, Jeremiah, foretold the Babylonian invasion,
understanding the prophecies in the Book of Daniel. the devastation of Jerusalem, and the exile of its
people.
Why did this happen to Israel, God’s chosen people?
It began with King Solomon’s apostasy. His idolatry The year was now 600 BC. The Babylonian Empire
would split Israel in two — the Northern Kingdom stretched all the way to Africa.[2] By 597 BC, Judah
(Israel) and the Southern Kingdom (Judah). The witnessed the first Babylonian incursion. Inevitably,
monarchs of the Northern Kingdom would follow in King Jehoiachin, son of Jehoiakim, surrendered
Solomon’s footsteps and worship idols. The South- to Nebuchadnezzar. The Babylonians deported a
ern Kingdom of Judah had a mixed bag of rulers, significant number of Judah’s elite to Babylon, in-
with some following God as King David once did. cluding the young Ezekiel and Daniel. With Judah a
God forewarned Israel and Judah through prophets hollowed-out shell of its former self, Nebuchadnezzar
that judgment was coming, if they continued to break installed Zedekiah to replace Jehoiachin. Believing
the Mosaic Covenant. Sure enough, the Northern that Babylon’s rival Egypt would help Judah, Zedeki-
Kingdom met its end at the hands of the Assyrian ah revolted against Babylon once more. The final
Empire in 722 BC. Judah was spared as King Heze- nail in Judah’s coffin and the fulfillment of Jeremiah’s
kiah faithfully served God. Unfortunately, Hezekiah prophecies materialized in 586 BC as Nebuchad-
let his ego get the better of him. A new power was nezzar’s forces descended upon Jerusalem. The
rising in the East, a name that can be traced back to siege was prolonged and brutal, leading to severe
ancient times — Babylon. Babylonian diplomats visit- famine and desperation within the city walls. Jerusa-
ed his court. Eager to form an alliance with Babylon lem had fallen, and the Temple, the symbol of God’s
against the Assyrian Empire, Hezekiah laid bare all presence, lay desolate.[3] The surviving Judeans,
of Judah’s treasury and armory, flaunting his wealth torn from their homeland and thrust into unfamiliar
to the diplomats. The Babylonian left as allies but territory, faced a perilous choice: revolt or succumb.
would return as conquers. King Hezekiah’s blunder The Babylonian Exile led to the emergence of a
set in motion a chain of prophecies culminating with distinct Jewish identity that would endure through
destruction of his kingdom. the centuries.[4] Yet, amidst the ruins and the despair,
the prophetic voices persisted. Jeremiah, Isaiah, and
With the decline of Assyria, Babylon was now the
Daniel promised that God would one day restore Is-
dominant force in the region. Babylon demanded
rael. They placed their hope in a Messiah who would
tribute from its allies, including Judah. King Je-
lead them to freedom as Moses did long ago.

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Below is list of apocalyptic and partial apocalyptic
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
texts, including nonbiblical books with the approx
dates the books were written. Next to the Revelation, the Book of Daniel is to perhaps
the foremost example of apocalyptic literature. A distinct
genre found within the biblical texts, Apocalyptic literature
Book Date Written is characterized by its visionary and highly symbolic na-
ture. The term “apocalyptic” is derived from the Greek word
Daniel 530  - 164 BC
“apokalypsis,” meaning “revelation” or “unveiling.”[5] [6][7]The
Book of Daniel emerged during times of crisis and perse-
Isaiah 740  - 700 BC
cution, primarily in the intertestamental period (between
Jeremiah 627  - 586 BC the Old and New Testaments) and the early Christian era.
For disparate and disenfranchised Jews who believed God
Ezekiel 593  - 571 BC had abandoned them, the Book of Daniel was a reminder of
God’s sovereignty in the epochs of history.
Zechariah 520  - 515 BC
The Book of Daniel is considered one of the primary exam-
Joel 835  - 420 BC ples of apocalyptic literature in the Bible. The Jews living in
the diaspora, their faith waning under foreign occupation,
Revelation 90  - 95 AD considered Daniel’s writings a source of hope, much like
Revelation, a light at the end of a tunnel. Indeed, the Book
Secrets of Enoch (2 1st Century BC  - of Daniel can be thought of as the revelation before the
Enoch) 1st Century AD
Revelation.
1 Baruch 1st Century BC  -
It’s important to understand that apocalyptic literature
2nd Century AD
should be interpreted with caution, as it contains highly
2 Esdras (4 Ezra) 1st Century AD symbolic and metaphorical language. Scholars and readers
must consider the historical, cultural, and religious context
Testaments of the Twelve 2nd Century BC to grasp its intended meaning and the message it conveys.
Patriarchs [6][7]
Such a task seems daunting, because it is. Daniel
Ascension of Isaiah 1st Century AD  - assumes the reader is well versed in scripture and tradition.
2nd Century AD The images employed often reflect certain themes with a
long and storied tradition within the Hebrew Bible. (For more
Ascension of Peter 1st Century AD - information on themes see page 15) For now, it’s suffice to
2nd Century AD
say that apocalyptic literature is rich in thematic symbolism,
so the careful reader should try to identify the traditional use
of any theme in a prophecy before theorizing.

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Here are some key characteris-
tics of apocalyptic literature as a
biblical genre:

Visions and Dreams

Visions or dreams are a common feature of apocalyptic literature. Through these
transcendental revelations, the author provides insights into the spiritual realm,
the future, or hidden cosmic truths.

Symbolism and Imagery

Symbolism plays a crucial role in apocalyptic texts. They employ vivid and often
elaborate imagery to convey their messages. These symbols may represent ab-
stract concepts, cosmic forces, historical events, or prophetic visions.

Dualistic Worldview
Good and evil, light and darkness, God and Satan — apocalyptic literature often
presents a dualistic worldview, contrasting spiritual forces in a cosmic battle.
Dualism, particularly in the Biblical tradition, is not about equating these oppos-
ing forces, as apocalypses culminate with the triumph of good over evil.

Eschatology
Apocalyptic writings place significant emphasis on the “end times” or eschatol-
ogy. They describe the ultimate judgment, the final destiny of individuals and na-
tions, the coming of a messianic figure, and the establishment of God’s kingdom
on earth.

Pseudonymous Authorship
Pseudonymous authorship in apocalyptic literature refers to the practice of an
author writing under a false or fictional name. Authors may adopt pseudonyms
for various reasons, including artistic expression, anonymity, or to distance
themselves from the content they are producing.

Themes
The Bible is filled with theological themes, and the apocalyptic parts lean heavily
into these themes. Understanding theme is key understanding the visions and
prophecies in these revelations.

[5] “Apocalyptic Literature,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024,

[6] BibleProject, “Apocalypse Please” BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio,
accessed February 22, 2024
[7] Tim Mackie, “How to Read the Bible: Apocalyptic Literature - Video Notes,”
BibleProject, 2018, accessed February 22, 2024,
[8] Richard A. Taylor, “Introduction to Old Testament Apocalyptic Literature,”
The Gospel Coalition, accessed February 22, 2024,

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PATTERNS AND PROPHECY
A fascinating pattern emerges when examining the structure of the Book of Daniel.[4] In Chapters 2 to 7, we see alternating
accounts of dreams or visions accompanied by an test or trial that thematically corresponds with the vision. For instance,
Nebuchadnezzar has a dream of a magnificent statue in Chapter 2, and subsequently constructs a massive golden statue
in Chapter 3. Through this parallel, the author contrasts the reality of events with the visions, serving as an example for how
God’s people should respond to situations that seemingly fulfill prophecy.

The pattern culminates in Chapter 4 and 5, with a combination of vision and test, ending with divine judgment. Unlike trials
which involved followers of God, judgments are against earthly rulers that persecuted and abused God’s people.[9] These
divine judgments are the focal point of the pattern, demonstrating God’s justice. A shift in the patterns occurs in Chapters
8 through the end of the book. This section primarily consists of various visions, painting a broad picture of future events. It
emphasizes God’s sovereignty and control, even when anti-God empires and worldly systems appear to be in power. These
visions provide assurance to the readers that, despite temporary setbacks and the rise and fall of empires, God’s ultimate
plan will prevail. [4]

At the center of all these visions, two significant figures take the spotlight. The first is an evil king who blasphemes God and
exercises dominion over the world for a limited time. Conversely, the other figure, referred to as the “Son of Man,” symboliz-
es a messianic figure who establishes an everlasting kingdom that will never be overcome. [4]

A CH2 A CH7 D CH8

VISION VISION VISION

P CH1 B CH3 B CH6 E CH9

TEST TEST TEST VISION

C CH4 C CH5 D CH10-12

JUDGMENT JUDGMENT VISION

HEBREW ARAMAIC HEBREW

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Here are some the different ways Full Fulfillment
that prophecy is fulfilled: Full fulfillment or ultimate fulfillment takes place when a prophecy is completely
and accurately realized in a specific event or series of events. All aspects of the
prophecy come to pass, and there is no further expectation of fulfillment regard-
ing that particular prophecy.

Partial Fulfillment
This refers to complex prophecies or compound prophecies that have prerequi-
site stages that must be completed before full fulfillment is accomplished.

Proto-Fulfillment
Proto-fulfillment refers to prophecies that have archetypal symbolism. The ulti-
mate fulfillment is yet to come, and the proto-fulfillment serves as a precursor
that foreshadows an ultimate fulfillment.

Pseudo-Fulfillment
Pseudo-fulfillment is when an event, circumstance, or person appears to fulfill
prophecy, but this fulfillment belies some series interpretative errors or missing
pieces that would reveals the supposed fulfillment is superficial or false.

Prophetic Parallelism
One can recognize how prophecies may parallel or resonate with different
historical periods, events, or individuals without falsely attributing the status of
fulfillment as with pseudo-fulfillment.

[9] BibleProject, “Beastly King,” BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024

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CHIASMUS
A special type of Hebrew poetry, a chiasm or chiasmus follows an ABBA format in contrast to the traditional ABAB format in
Western poetry. The Psalms have many examples of chiasms. In Psalm 137:5 – 6 (see below)[10][12] , the psalmist opens with a
theme of recollection than expands on it with a specific body part (the right hand). The tongue is meant to reflect the hand.
It clings to the mouth, because the speaker has forgotten how to use it. Essentially, the body is shutting down. The final
stanza echoes the first, with the psalmist reiterating Jerusalem is forgotten. A classic example of a chiasmus can be found
in Shakespeare’s Macbeth. In Scene 1, Act 1, the three witches chant. “Fair is foul, and foul is fair.” The word fair sits on the
outside, but foul sits on the inside of the phrase.

Chiasms can be very complex; since thematic rhymes are more important than linguistic rhymes.[11] So ideas may be mir-
rored, developed, inverted, and deconstructed in corresponding parts. What’s more, a chiasm can be expanded at the mac-
ro level. [12] Whole movements in the narrative may be riffing off each other. [11] The central part or pair of the pattern would
be the climax of the story. Sometimes chiasms are hidden in other chiasms or overlap. Thus, readers should study the text
carefully.

PSALM 137:5 – 6a
EXAMPLE NASB

If I forget you, Jerusalem,

May my right hand forget its skill.

May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth

If I do not remember you,

In the case of Daniel, chapters 2 to 7 compose a chiastic structure. The chiasm culminates with King Nebuchadnezzar’s
insanity and the fall of Babylon. King Nebuchadnezzar boasts of his power, so God humbles him. His son blasphemes the
sacred vessels from the Jewish temple. Unlike his father, Belshazzar does not humble himself before God.

As a result, Babylon falls to the Persians, thus initiating the cycle of Nebuchadnezzar’s 1st dream which parallels Daniel’s
1st vision in chapter 7. For that reason, chapters 4 and 5 are expressions of God’s sovereignty over human powers.

[10] Tim Mackie, Poetry - Study Notes (BibleProject, 2018), 9

[11] BibleProject, “How to Read the Bible: God Speaks Poetry,”
BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024
[12] Tim Mackie, “Introduction to Hebrew Bible Session
Notes,” Session Notes, accessed February 22, 2024

14 God Runners
02

THEMES

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 THREADS AND THEMES
The mere mention of themes may draw exasperated theme. This theme plays a central role in the Book
sighs from many people who associate the term with of Daniel. In fact, it appears in the very first chapter,
English Literature classes that shoved symbolism when Daniel and his friends refuse to compromise
down people’s throats, obsessing over inconsequen- their convictions yet do not resort to violence. The
tial details, and cramming meaning where there is Exile theme itself originates from Exodus and Num-
none. bers, before the Israelites had a nation and a home.

It’s one thing to divine symbolism from the works of This self-referential feature of the Bible is what Tim
Shakespeare or Tolstoy, but the Bible is divinely in- Mackie, Hebrew Bible and Jewish Studies scholar,
spired. Prophecy, especially, operates on a symbolic likes to calls “hyperlinking.”[12] Much like the urls
logic. Hence, the study of themes can considered embed in a web article, the Bible contains these hy-
synonymous with the study of prophecy. perlinks to verses and themes. Such references can
either be direct or implicit. This can makes it difficult
But, first, what do we mean by themes? A theme or
to parse out some themes from the text. A signal that
motif can be defined as the overarching ideas or
a theme is present may be repeated words or similar
concepts explored in any artistic work. This defini-
language. [12] In Daniel’s prophecy of the Seventy
tion does not really do justice to the Bible’s use of
Weeks, the number seven carries special signifi-
themes. Indeed, biblical themes are so much more.
cance related to completeness. This symbol can be
They are the heartbeat of scripture, serving as
traced back to Genesis and the seven-day creation
both a roadmap and a kaleidoscope. The beauty of
week. Jeremiah had a similar prophecy related to 70
biblical themes lies in their versatility. Themes aren’t
years (Jeremiah 25:11) that Daniel was doubtlessly
stagnant fixtures. They can evolve, intertwine, and
aware of. [4] All of this is just a round-about way to
cascade like a river. The chart on the following page
show how the Bible, including the Book of Daniel, is
gives an idea how themes work in the Bible. Think of
an interconnected, artistic architecture, and themes
biblical themes as threads, that when woven togeth-
are the roadways to navigate this book.
er, form a beautiful tapestry. The biblical authors
develop and subvert, amalgamate and deconstruct Not merely literary devices, biblical themes invite
themes, creating manifold meaning that stretches the readers to engage with the Bible on a profound and
possibilities of language. [13] Daniel, is but one voice transformative level. Through thoughtful reflection
in this legacy of authors, one musician in a grand and interpretation, individuals can uncover layers
symphony. of meaning within scripture, discovering universal
truths that resonate across cultures and generations.
Daniel was likely influenced by the prophet Jeremi-
Indeed, the study of biblical themes is not merely an
ah, who predicted the Jewish Exile. [4] The Book of
academic exercise but a spiritual odyssey—an explo-
Daniel expounds on Jeremiah’s writings, with Daniel
ration of the mysteries of God and reality.
modeling what is called Ethic of the Exile or Exile

[13] Tim Mackie, Design Patterns Narrative - Study Notes, (BibleProject, 2018)

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 BOOK THEME

Forbidden Fruit
Genesis Eden

Test

Exodus
Image of God

Numbers

Judges Son of Man

Kings

Chaos Monster
Jeremiah

Ezekiel
Babylon

Isaiah

Day of the Lord

Daniel

Mount of God
Jonah
Zechariah

Exile
Matthew

False Image
Mark

Fall of Empire

Messiah
Revelation

Resurrection

Antichrist

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THE ETHIC OF THE EXILE
Unlike the Egyptians who used violence and forced labor to destroy the Hebrews’ morale, the Babylonians were far more
subtle, yet no less insidious and oppressive in their methods. The Babylonians systematically dismantled the Jews’ identity
through indoctrination and assimilation. Instead of labor camps, the Jews would serve in the royal palace. They would eat
the best food, drink the best wine, and receive the best education. Even so, the threat of death always hung in the air. In
three years, the Jewish captives would be reborn as loyal Babylonians.

Reflecting this new identity, the Jews were given new names. These Babylonian names deliberately invert or pervert the
God-centric meaning of their Hebrew names.[16]

Daniel Belteshazzar
God is my judge Bel, protect his life!

Hananiah Shadrach
God has been gracious The command of Aku

Mishael Meshach
Who is what God is? Who is what Aku do?

Azariah Abednego
The Lord has helped Servant of Nebo

Daniel and his friends resolved not to forget their Jewish roots. However, they did not want to revolt or use violence. [15] [17]
They may have remembered the words of the Prophet Jeremiah, who provided guidelines for living under foreign oppres-
sors, while still remaining faithful to God. This is the ethic of the exile, or as he told them,

5
‘Build houses and live in them; and plant gardens and eat their fruit. 6 Take wives and become the fathers of
sons and daughters, and take wives for your sons and give your daughters to husbands, that they may bear
sons and daughters; and multiply there and do not decrease. 7 Seek the peace of the city where I have sent
you into exile, and pray to Yahweh on its behalf; for in its peace you will have peace.’
Jeremiah 29:5-7 LSB

This ethic rejects the violence of the rebel and the apostasy of the sellout, paving a third way to confront evil.[17] This theme
would have profound influence on the early Christians, who similarly were treated like outsiders in society and faced grave
persecution. [14]

[14] “The Way of the Exile,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024
[15] “Exile,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024
[16] He Reads Truth, “Daniel” (Nashville: He Reads Truth, 2020)
[17] “Ethic of Exile,” BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024,

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THE TEST
The theme of the test is prevalent throughout scripture, from the Fall to Tribulation.[18][19] The Fall, while not a test in of itself,
becomes the template for all other tests in the biblical story. The testing theme goes hand-in-hand with the exile theme in the
Book of Daniel and is expressed in several interesting forms. Daniel and his friends face three tests (see chart below): The
test of the king’s food, the test of fiery furnace, and the test of the lions’ den.

P CH1 B CH3 B CH6

TEST TEST TEST

While seemingly inconsequential, the test of the king’s food is rooted in the Genesis account. [18] Daniel and his friends do
not partake of the accursed meat, which contrasts Adam and original sin. [20] Instead they opt for a plant-based diet similar
to humanity’s diet before the Fall.

It’s easy to see the first test’s connection to the Fall as it revolves around eating food that is forbidden, but other two tests
are food-related as well. The test of the fiery furnace echoes a burnt sacrifice that would be offered to a deity, in this case,
the golden idol of Nebuchadnezzar. Interestingly, when we are first introduced to Daniel, he and his friends are described in
the language of sacrificial animals like lambs.

3
Then the king said for Ashpenaz, the chief of his officials, to bring in some of the
sons of Israel, including some of the royal seed and of the nobles, 4 youths in whom
was no defect, who were good in appearance, showing insight in every branch of
wisdom, being thoroughly knowledgeable and discerning knowledge, and who had
ability to stand in the king’s palace; and he said for him to teach them the literature
and tongue of the Chaldeans.
Daniel 1:3-4 LSB

Daniel, again like a lamb to the slaughter, is sentenced to be fed to ravenous lions, in the third and final test. Danial himself
has become the king’s food, considering lions are a symbol or royalty and divinity in both Persia and Babylon. In this way,
Daniel and his friends present their bodies as living sacrifices.

[18] “The Test,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024,

[19] Tim Mackie, The Test - Study Notes, (BibleProject, 2020)
[20] “Daniel 1: A Test of Allegiance,” Spoken Gospel Podcast,
Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024

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03

PROPHECY

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 The visions and prophecies contained in the Book of Daniel have captured
the imagination of people for thousands of years. Armed with the necessary
context for understanding Daniel, we can now delve into these prophecies.

Pay attention to the biblical themes rather than specific details that shape
Daniel’s prophecies. Most people tend to get caught up with chasing head-
lines and the minutia of the strange imagery that permeates the text, so
much so that they forget the bigger picture. In the grand scheme of things,
the prophecies themselves matter less than the promises the prophecies
entailed. Biblical apocalypses like the Book of Daniel are not intended as
a oracle for predicting the future. They are intended to give hope to those
who are faithful to God and warn those who rebel against Him. Though you
may be given knowledge to understand all mysteries, if your heart does
not respond to the truth, the interpretation, no matter how elegant, means
nothing.

For these reasons, we don’t advocate for any particular interpretation of

these prophecies. Instead, these study notes provide an overview of various
theories with an emphasis on the thematic tissue binds the text.

God Runners 21
 Head

Arms/Chest

Belly/Thighs

Legs

Feet

22 God Runners
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR’S STATUE
Like a dark colossus rising from the nightmarish depths of
time, a resplendent statue is the focus of King Nebuchadnez-
zar’s vision in Daniel 2:31-45. Nebuchadnezzar’s statue is
composed of different materials — a head of gold, arms and
chest of silver, belly and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet
of iron and clay. Daniel associates each part/material of the
statue with a specific empire that will rise to power throughout
history, but the identity of each empire is left to interpretation.
Only the golden head’s real name is revealed as Babylon.

The interpretation of the feet of iron and clay invites the

most debate. Some propose that the feet represent specif-
ic historical empires or kingdoms that arose after the Roman
Empire’s demise, while others argue that they symbolize a
broader state of political fragmentation and instability in the
world. The dominant theory is that the feet represent a one-
world government that will plunge the world into tribulation.

While Nebuchadnezzer’s statue dominates discussions on

eschatology, it can be a diversion from the vision’s true mes-
sage. The latter half of the vision describes a stone “cut out by
no human hand” striking the feet of the statue, destroying it.
This stone then grows into a great mountain that fills the whole
earth. The correct interpretation of the statue matters less than
the interpretation of the stone. Fortunately, Daniel explicitly tells
Nebuchadnezzer and the reader that the stone represents the
establishment of God’s eternal kingdom, which will overthrow all
earthly empires and bring about the ultimate triumph of God’s
rule. Ultimately, the vision is a powerful confirmation of God’s
sovereignty for a people living under ungodly regimes. The
sequence of empires in the vision offers insights into the cycli-
cal nature of power and the transience of human dominion.

God Runners 23
 EMPIRES ALTERNATIVE 1 ALTERNATIVE 2

Neo-Babylonian Neo-Babylonian
Assyrian Empire
Empire Empire

Medo-Persian Medo-Persian
Median Empire
Empire Empire

Greek Empire
Egyptian Empire/
(Macedonian Persian Empire
Seleucid Empire
Empire)

Greek Empire
Roman Empire (Macedonian Islamic Caliphates
Empire)

Antichrist’s
Greek Empire
Kingdom/New Neo-Islamic
(Macedonian
Roman Empire/New Caliphates
Empire)
Babylonian Empire

24 God Runners
 BODY PART

Gold
Head

Silver

Arms/Chest
Bronze

Belly/Thighs
Iron

Legs
Iron/Clay

Feet

God Runners 25
THE FOUR GREAT BEASTS
OVERVIEW

The Winged Lion The Bear

The traditional interpretation of the winged The great bear is the least bizarre beast in
lion in Daniel’s vision is the 2nd Chaldean/ Daniel’s vision. Its only defining feature are
Babylonian Empire, which was the dynasty the three ribs in its jaws.
that ransacked the temple in Jerusalem.
While it follows that the bear would rep-
Lions are a motif in Babylonian and Mes-
resent the Medo-Persian Empire, as it is
opotamian art. For example, a 3,600 year
historically and sequentially the next civiliza-
old stone sculpture, aptly called the Lion of
tion in the succession of Babylon’s throne,
Babylon, was excavated from the ancient
the exact meaning of the bear is difficult to
city of Babylon.
ascertain. It may be the three ribs symbolize
The Babylonian Lion is associated with the three territories or kingdoms that the emer-
goddess Ishtar, evoking power and con- gent power must conquer, or it may indicate
quest. Naturally, Babylon as the winged lion the bear’s barbaric nature, tearing apart and
fits neatly in the context of that era. feasting on its enemies.

An alternative interpretation suggests that The other, often overlooked detail is that the
the winged lion represents the Assyrian Em- bear is described as raised on one side.
pire, which also emerged in the same region Some have proposed that this demonstrates
and features sphinx-like, winged lions called the uneven power dynamic between the
lamassu of their own. Medes and Persians.

26 God Runners
 The Four-Winged,
Four-Headed Leopard The Fourth Beast
The four-winged, four-headed leopard re- The fourth and final beast is beyond human
sembles the lion, and its hybrid features are comprehension. Unlike the previous beasts,
an escalation over its predecessor. One of it does not resemble anything in the animal
the most widely accepted interpretations of kingdom. Its crown of ten horns and the
the third beast is the Greek Empire, particu- talking horn are subject to wild speculation.
larly the conquests of Alexander the Great.
A similar beast is mentioned in Revelation
The swiftness of the leopard is emphasized
13:1. It also has ten horns, with a diadem or
by its four wings, which may indicate the
crown on each horn. Horns are consistent
rapid and expansive nature of Alexan-
motif in Scripture for kings and kingdoms.
der’s campaigns. The four heads are often
This means that the ten horns, a parallel to
interpreted as the four generals, Ptolemy,
the ten toes in Nebuchadnezzar’s statue,
Cassander, Seleucus, and Antigones, who
may represent ten kingdoms, possibly an
carved out the empire after Alexander’s
alliance of ten states. Everything from the
death.
Roman Empire, the Islamic Caliphate, or the
Seleucus is of particular note, as an alter- United Nations has been proposed as the
native theory asserts it is his dynasty rather true name of the fourth beast. It may even
than Alexander that the leopard symbolizes. be a empire yet to be seen.

God Runners 27
HELLFIRE AND CHAOS WATERS
The four beasts are thrown into a raging inferno. This is the ultimate judgment awaiting the powers that war against God.
Experienced readers may associate this burning pit with the lake of fire mentioned in Revelation 20:7-15. However, Daniel
would have associated the fire with the burning furnace that Nebuchadnezzar threw his friends into. In a sense, the hellish
fire of Daniel’s vision is a form of poetic justice for the tyrants who persecute God’s people.

The fire also parallels the watery origins of the four beasts. As the dark waters are associated with chaos, the fire is not
some demonic force. It’s the holy flame that purges sin and evil. This image is at odds with the popular imagination of Hell
as that of a cruel and unusual punishment inflicted on the innocent. With this in mind, we can see the fire as God’s righteous
response to the evil in the world. The sun burns away the darkness, so God’s holiness burns away iniquity.

The juxtaposition of water and fire, beast and divinity, chaos and judgment serve a profound, theological purpose. Evil is
great, but God is greater.

The Quick and the Dead

Hellfire and brimstone paint a picture of an angry God. Hell is thought to be a disproportionate, punitive action against peo-
ple who are only guilty of finite crimes. However, Daniel’s vision supplies critical context to this heated conversation. Hell is
terrible; because, human evil is terrible. Hence, God likens human kingdoms to viscous beasts. From God’s vantage point,
hell is a perfectly appropriate response to the problem of evil. For those unfamiliar, the problem of evil is a classic philo-
sophical debate traditionally based on the premise that God must not exist or be truly powerful and good for evil to exist.
Daniel writes that powers like these empires or borne of the evil in human hearts.

This reframing challenges our human perspective, which tends to see ourselves in the most sympathetic light. If we consider
human history, it is filled with bloodshed and atrocities. Even secularists would admit that humanity is a blight on the earth.
That is why films often depict humans like a cancerous tumor that destroys nature, causes suffering, and wreaks wanton
violence. If humans did not exist, than evil would not exist. Thus, the problem of evil is actually the problem of humanity.

However, God does not want to wipe all of humanity to destroy evil. He has a plan of redemption that will satisfy His desire
for justice and grace.

28 God Runners
 Symbolic Soup
The strange images in biblical apocalyptic literature are a grab bag of different themes. It’s sym-
bolic soup. If you can breakdown the different images to their fundamental, thematic parts, you
can understand the intended message.

SYMBOL MEANING

Water 01

Water brings life and death. In this case, it represents the chaotic
pre-creation state of reality. It is Sheol, the grave. Thus, the beasts
of Daniel’s vision are essentially hellspawn.

Horns 02

The horns represent kingdoms and crowns. Thus, a kingdom with

many horns indicate a complex regime, one that may represent
multiple powers or parties.

Wings 03

Wings are evocative of heavenly beings, so a sea monster with

wings is paradoxical, even demonic. It could also represent swift-
ness, demonstrating the agile, military might of these future em-
pires.

Beast 04

The various beasts represent the animalistic nature of these em-

pires. Animals in scripture give a clue to the tendencies of human
powers.

God Runners 29
TOP Winged lion of Darius’ palace, Louvre museum

THE WINGED LION

The lion is a symbol steeped in deep theological and cultural traditions. The
lion is both protector and predator, so readers need to treat the symbol with
caution, as they would a live lion. For both the devil and Jesus Christ were
represented as lions in scripture. Context is paramount. Daniel writes of his
dream out of chronological order. He originally experienced his vision during
the reign of King Belshazzar of Babylon. Initially, he may have thought the
winged lion was Babylon. However, he wrote of the vision while under Persian
rule. Lions were a prominent fixture of both empires. Indeed, a winged lion
could be seen in King Darius palace (see photo above).

30 God Runners
The Lion King
The lion-Babylon connection originates in Jeremiah, but it is only a piece of the puzzle. Recall that King
Nebuchadnezzar was punished by God with insanity. The prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s madness
shares the same language with the vision of the winged lion. Nebuchadnezzar’s appearance also shares
similarities with a bird, which ties in with lion’s wings. Taking a closer look at these verses, we see that
Jeremiah paints Nebuchadnezzar as the lion’s that ravages Israel rather than the country itself. This is
because the king and the kingdom are often used synonymously by the biblical authors. The variety of
evidence presented here informs us of the lion’s identity.

Israel is a scattered flock; the lions have banished them away. The first
one who devoured him was the king of Assyria, and this last one who has
broken his bones is Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon.

Jeremiah 29:5-7 LSB

The first was like a lion and had the wings of an eagle. I kept looking until
its wings were plucked, and it was lifted up from the ground and made to
stand on two feet like a man; and a heart of a man was given to it.

Daniel 7:4 LSB

Immediately the word concerning Nebuchadnezzar was accomplished; and

he was driven away from mankind and began eating grass like cattle, and
his body was drenched with the dew of heaven until his hair had grown like
eagles’ feathers and his nails like birds’ claws.

Daniel 4:33 LSB

Let his heart be changed from that of a man,

And let the heart of a beast be given to him,
And let seven periods of time pass over him.

Daniel 4:16 LSB

God Runners 31
 TOP LEFT The basalt Lion of Babylon statue at Babylon, Iraq
TOP RIGHT The Lion of Babylon from a portion of the Proces-
sional Way leading to the Ishtar Gate
LEFT Lamassu (Winged Bull) of Throne Room of Palace
of Sargon II, Khorsabad, Assyria
RIGHT Guardian lion in front of the Forbidden City,
Peking
RIGHT, FACING PAGE Gilgamesh subduing a lion, Louvre museum

32 God Runners
The Lion of Babylon
As king of the jungle, the lion is, appropriately, a symbol of royalty in many cultures. The Hittites, Assyrians, Persians, and, of
course, Babylonians feature lions in their art and architecture. As for the Bible, lions can be both a positive or negative sym-
bol. This duality is characteristic of other biblical motifs as well, such as water or fire. In the positive sense, lions represent
courage and nobility. On the other hand, lions can also represent rage and barbarism. Babylon is described as a lion by the
prophet Jeremiah. Wrathful, violent, destructive — Babylon embodies the worst traits of the symbol. The history of Babylon
Thus, Daniel would have likely identified the winged lion in his dream as Babylon.

The Epic of Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh, the legendary king of Uruk, is the protagonist of one of the oldest known works
of Babylonian literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh. This epic dates back to ancient Mesopota-
mia, providing a glimpse into the cultural and mythological background of Babylon.

Gilgamesh is said to be two-thirds god and the oldest king in antiquity. He is depicted
as a an arrogant and abusive ruler, who oppresses his own subjects. However, he soon
meets his match in form of Enkidu, a being created by the gods with the singular purpose
of subduing Gilgamesh. Instead, the two become friends.[21] When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh
embarks on a quest for immortality. As the epic unfolds, his journey leads him to confront
existential questions about life, death, and the meaning of his existence. His search brings
him face-to-face with Utnapishtim, the king who survived a great flood with aid from the
gods. While Utnapishtim knows about the secret to eternal life, he does not tell Gilgamesh.
When he returns to Uruk, Gilgamesh has grown to be wiser and kinder king. No longer the
same tyrant despot, he has come accept his mortality and endeavors to leave a positive
impact on the world. [21]

[21] Soraya Field Fiorio, “The Epic of Gilgamesh, the King Who Tried to
Conquer Death,” TED-Ed video, 5:30, posted June 2, 2021

God Runners 33
04

COMMENTARY

34 God Runners
KINGS AND MONSTERS
Nebuchadnezzar’s and Daniel’s twin visions are two sides of the same coin. Both essentially contain the same meaning
— the world of men will eventually capitulate to the Kingdom of Heaven. These earthly kings will bow to the King of Kings.
However, the visions highlight different aspects of human kingdoms.

In Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of the statue, empires are depicted as artifices of control. They promise utopia, yet all em-
pires are actually dystopia. While empires are gilded in wealth and opulence, such beauty is overshadowed by the natural,
untouched majesty of the mountain, representing God. The statue is an image of a man, as man is an image of God. Despite
the appearance of humanity, the statue is really a cold, uncaring idol, a monument to human hubris.

Daniel’s vision of future empires is bestial, casting off the facade of civility to reveal the true, barbaric nature of these tyran-
nical governments. Empires think that they are bringers of order and stability, but they are actually agents of chaos. An em-
pire is an aberration, a mockery to the natural order God intended. That is why each beast in Daniel’s dream is a chimeric
nightmare, breaking categories in the animal kingdom. An empire is lusus natura, a freak of nature. Control is an impostor, a
pretended to true order, and an emperor is a beast pretending to be a man. Only God can bring about true order, so these
systems of control are really men playing God.

However, God does not strive with men forever. Daniel sees the Ancient of Days slay the beast and cast it into an inferno,
like Nebuchadnezzar who threw his friends into the fiery furnace. The day of reckoning approaches, but first must come
tribulation. Then the messiah will rise to usher in the Kingdom of Heaven.

A CH2 A CH7

● The statue represents the Rise of Empire ● The beasts represent the Rise of Empire
theme theme.

● The statue is artificial. ● The beasts are mutant, chaos monsters.

● The statue is associated with metal. ● The beasts are associated with the sea.

● The mountain is associated with the natural ● The Ancient of Days and Son of Man is as-
/supernatural order. sociated with the celestial realm in the sky.

● The statue has ten toes representing ten ● The fourth beast has ten horns represent-
kings. ing ten kings.

● The quality of the metal diminishes with ● The beasts become increasingly more de-
each subsequent empire. formed with each subsequent empire.

● The statue’s ten toes are describes as ● The fourth beast is described with iron
made of iron/clay. teeth.

● The metal statue is crushed by the great ● The chaotic sea monsters are thrown into
rock. a fire.

● God establishes an eternal kingdom. ● God establishes an eternal kingdom.

God Runners 35
OUT OF THE FIRE, INTO THE JAWS OF DEATH
The fiery furnace and lions’ den serve as practical and powerful examples of faithfulness through persecution. The theme of
ethical exile is not only theology. It’s a reality for Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, Azariah, and all other Jews living under foreign
occupation. We see that each test Daniel and hist friends face carries deep, theological meaning.

The inferno that nearly consumed Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah is later referenced in Daniel’s dream of the four beasts.
The beasts are similarly thrown into a great fire.

Daniel’s test of the lions’ den is connected to his dream of the four beasts as well. The first monster he witnesses is a lion,
in fact. Carnivorous predators like lions and bears are associated with animalistic nature of sin and rebellion. The devil him-
self is described as a lion, and sin is given zoomorphic traits when God warned Cain, the first murderer, of the danger of sin.

Death by fire or wild beast would be common forms of execution for early Christians under oppressive, imperial rule. The
Roman Emperor Nero was known to burn Christians at the stake and place them around the city like street torches. Other
Christians were fed to lions in the Colosseum as entertainment for the bloodthirsty crowds.

While the tests in Daniel aren’t prophetic, the parallels with Christian persecution highlight the brutality that all empires are
built on. The modern man would denounces these ancients as primitive, cruel animals. They would say we have evolved
beyond such violence, but such rhetoric belies the horrible atrocities governments continue to perpetuate, such as China’s
attempted genocide of the Uyghurs.

B CH3 B CH6

● Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah face a ● Daniel faces a perilous test without Hanani-
perilous test without Daniel. ah, Mishael, and Azariah.

● Other officials implicate the three of dis- ● Other officials implicate Daniel of disobey-
obeying a royal decree. ing a royal decree.

● King Nebuchadnezzar demands people ● King Darius demands people worship him-
worship the golden image (likely of himself) self as a god.
as a god.
● Daniel is thrown into the lions’ den.
● The three are thrown into a fiery furnace.
● God does not prevent the trial.
● God does not prevent the trial.
● God tames the lions.
● God renders the fire of no effect.
● King Darius issues a decree that recog-
● King Nebuchadnezzar issues a decree that nized the one, true God.
recognized the one, true God.

36 God Runners
THE BEAST KING AND BABYLON’S FOLLY
Chapters 4 and 5 are the climax of the chiasm spanning chapters 2 to 7. Here trials and visions converge, as prophetic
judgment manifests in reality. Here the hunter becomes the hunted, and the judge becomes the accused. King Nebuchad-
nezzar who held the power of life and death over Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah is brought to his knees before God
and made as low as an animal. He is given a vision of a great tree cut to a stump with an iron-bronze band clasped around
it. Daniel warns him that the tree represents Nebuchadnezzar. God has saw fit to punish him with mania for his ruthless
reign. The king does not heed the warning, and the prophecy comes to pass. Not only was Nebuchadnezzar stripped of his
throne, he was stripped of his humanity. There is a line from Shakespeare’s Titus Adronicus that describes Nebuchadnez-
zar’s character, “Her life was beastly and devoid of pity, And being dead, let birds on her take pity.” Hence, King Nebuchad-
nezzar, the beast-like tyrant, would degenerate into a man-like beast.

While Nebuchadnezzar would eventually humble himself and recognize God’s sovereignty over him, no so his successor
Belshazzar. He holds a feast, marked by the desecration of sacred vessels taken from Solomon’s temple, showing no regard
for the divine. Like with Nebuchadnezzar, God gives a vision to Belshazzar, only it’s not a dream but a public display of
God’s power. Unlike Nebuchadnezzar, God does not give Balshazzar multiple chances to repent. The Lord’s judgment is
swift. The Persians and Medes descend on Babylon, and no quarter is given to King Belshazzar. These mirrored narratives
tell us that God’s justice is inevitable, and the kings of this earth will have to answer for their sins. The prophecies of Daniel
are already materializing, and God has not forgotten the suffering and evil brought upon His people .

Thus, Babylon falls, and the cycle begins anew.

C CH4 C CH5

● Nebuchadnezzar receives a vision of a tree ● Belshazzar receives a vision of a hand writ-

that foretells his fall from grace. ing on a wall foretelling the fall of Babylon.

● King Nebuchadnezzar loses his sanity due ● King Nebuchadnezzar’s son Belshazzar
to pride. boasts of his power like his father, while
mocking God.
● A voice from heaven pronounces judgment.
● A hand appears to pronounce judgment
● The kingdom and throne is ripped from
Nebuchadnezzar. ● The kingdom and throne is ripped from
Belshazzar.
● Nebuchadnezzar humbles himself before
God. ● Belshazzar does not humble himself before
God.
● God restores Nebuchadnezzar’s sanity and
throne. ● The Medes and the Persians subjugate
Babylon.
● Nebuchadnezzar issues a decree that rec-
● Belshazzar honors Daniel but does not
ognized the one, true God.
make an effort to honor the one, true God
or repent.

God Runners 37
05

AUTHORSHIP

38 God Runners
PROPHET OR PSEUDONYM
Thus far we’ve avoided taking hard stances on any theological position. This was to facilitate a more nuanced and multifac-
eted approach to scripture. However, there is one position that we cannot afford to remain neutral on — the authority and
authenticity of the text. Traditionally, the Daniel is thought to have authored the book bearing his name sometime during the
6th century BC, the time of the Babylonian Exile. This is called the early date authorship position. The scholarly consensus
contests this view, asserting that the Book of Daniel was likely written in the 2nd century BC amidst the Maccabean Revolt
by an unnamed scribe who adopted Daniel’s identity. This is called the late date authorship position

As this controversy is highly technical and academic, we provided timelines that illustrate the disagreement. If you compare
the timelines below, you can see the implications of the liberal position.

Traditional View (Early Date Authorship)

Book of Daniel written

Neo-Babylonian Empire Medo-Persian Empire Greek Empire Roman Empire

626 BC 539 BC 331 BC 168 BC 476 AD

530 BC

Liberal View (Late Date Authorship)

Book of Daniel written

Maccabean Revolt

Neo-Babylonian Empire Medo-Persian Empire Greek Empire Roman Empire

626 BC 539 BC 331 BC 168 BC 476 AD

167 BC

Why does this matter? The Book of Daniel contains some of the most detailed prophecies of any apocalyptic text. Many of
these prophecies were largely fulfilled, giving much credibility to the claim that the Bible is divinely inspired. If the liberal
view is correct, than Daniel is not prophetic but historical. It would be a forgery, written by a fraud.

The arguments against traditional authorships are numerous. We likely will only crack the tip of the iceberg of the controver-
sy. Nevertheless, this treatment will provide a good starting point for anyone who wants to study these matters further.

God Runners 39
THE REIGN OF KING JEHOIAKIM
Skeptics may be quick to point out the perceived discrepancy between Daniel and Jeremiah regarding the timing of Nebu-
chadnezzar’s invasion of Judah in relation to the reign of Jehoiakim. According to Daniel, Nebuchadnezzar invasion took
place during the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim. Jeremiah writes that Nebuchadnezzar did not ascend the throne until
Jehoiakim’s fourth year as king.

These skeptics overstate the problem, making a mountain out of a mole hill. This apparent contradiction is easily resolved
with some cursory understanding of ancient dating systems.[22] Before Pope Gregory implemented the Gregorian Calendar in
1582, different countries and cultures used their own dating systems. Naturally, Jeremiah’s account follows the non-acces-
sion-year system used in Palestine; while, Daniel adopts the accession-year system, prevalent in Babylon and Persia.

To illustrate the disparity and its resolution, a table is provided:[22]

Babylonian YR 0 YR 1 YR 2 YR 3

Palestinian YR 1 YR 2 YR 3 YR 4

609/608 BC 609/608 BC 609/608 BC 609/608 BC

The crux of the alleged contradiction is that Daniel does not count the year that Jehoiakim ascended the throne as part
of his schema. Jeremiah includes the ascension year, even if King Jehoiakim did not begin his reign until sometime in the
middle of the year. This ascension year is marked as year zero in the table above.[22] Rather than signaling an error or incon-
sistency, the use of different dating systems by Daniel and Jeremiah was common practice for the time period. This align-
ment actually strengthens the authenticity of the book, as a second-century Hebrew author would likely have adhered to the
non-accession-year system if drawing from contemporary sources like Jeremiah.[23]

[22] Author, “Ascertaining the Date of Daniel: First Look,”

Biblical Faith Online, posted October 14, 2015
[23] Jonathan McLatchie, “The Authenticity of The
Book of Daniel: A Survey of the Evidence,” 2021

40 God Runners
GREEK LOANWORDS
The presence of Greek words in the Book of Daniel had long been cited by skeptics as certifiable evidence for late-date
authorship in the Maccabean era. However, any proclamations of victory is premature, as the Greek loanwords in the text
number only three, as shown in the table below. [24][25] The conversation around these words is evolving, but information has
surfaced that suggests the Greek loanwords can be traced to an early-date authorship.

Scholars have noted the Greek words are all musical instruments, which tend to undergo little evolution from their original
language. Indeed, the words in Daniel are actually transliterations from the original Greek. What’s more, these words may be
far older than previously thought. [26] References to the kithara can be found as early as 8th century BC in Homer’s works,
[25]
and the philosopher Pythagoras, who lived around 530 BC, was known to use the sumponeyah. [24]

It is likely that the Aegean and Near East had contact before the conquests of Alexander the Great, which preceded the
Hellenistic period. This would explain the presence of Greek words in the text.[22]

Word Transliteration Meaning Reference

κίθαρις qithros kithara (guitar or lyre) Daniel 3:5,7,10,15

ψαλτήριον pesanterin psalterion (psaltery or harp) Daniel 3:5,7,10,15

συμφωνία sumponeyah sumponyah (bagpip) Daniel 3:5,7,10,15

Even with these facts, it’s not as if the late-date authorship position is without merit. The Dead Sea Scrolls do not incor-
porate any significant Greek words, despite dating between 3rd century BC and the 1st century AD. Jan Joosten, biblical
scholar of Hebrew, postulates that the Dead Sea Scroll writers may have actively resisted this Greek influence. [23] The same
could be true for the Book of Daniel, if written in the same era. All things being equal, the early-date position does seem to
fit the data more naturally.

[24] Mike Winger, “Defending Daniel - Evidence for the Bible pt4,” YouTube
video, 1:23:45, posted May 17, 2016.
[25] J. Luis Dizon, “Greek Loan Words in Daniel,” Academia.edu, posted April
4, 2016, accessed February 22, 2024

God Runners 41
 PERSIAN LOANWORDS
Scholars have identified some twenty or so Persian loanwords in Daniel. These loan-
words has been a source of contention in academia. Skeptics argue that Persian
loanwords indicate a late dating period, as the variations of spelling for some words
would suggest. Ancient Near Eastern historian, Prof. Kenneth Kitchen points out that
the Persian words in Daniel are specifically Old Persian, indicating a pre-Hellenistic
linguistic influence, as they do not include Middle Persian words from Arsacid times
(c. 250 B.C. and onwards).[23] This observation tends to support an older date for
Daniel’s composition, possibly before 300 B.C.

It should also be noted that all identified Persian loanwords in Daniel relate to
government as demonstrated in the table provided (see facing page). This is to be
expected within the traditional view, given Daniel’s career in the Persian government.
Kitchen argues against the assumption that incorporating Persian loanwords into
Aramaic would have taken a significant amount of time, suggesting that a person in
Daniel’s position could have acquired and used these terms in his writings.[23] [26]

While far from conclusive evidence for either an early or late dating, the presence of
Persian words in Daniel’s writings leans to a early date authorship. [23]

[26] Gerhard F. Hasel, “The Book of Daniel and Matters of Language:

Evidences Relating to Names, Words, and the Aramaic Language

42 God Runners
 Transliteration Meaning Reference

satrap A provincial governor or administrator Daniel 3:2, 3:3, 3:27

tartan Military title in the Persian Empire Daniel 2:14

pechnad Official title or position Daniel 3:2

drachma Silver coin Daniel 5:25-28

pahav Prince Daniel 6:1

Mithredath A Persian name Daniel 1:7

zmn Not specified Not specified

srbl Not specified Not specified

ptys A garment Not specified

’bygdn Not specified Not specified

hšdrpn Not specified Daniel 3:2, 3, 12, 3:27, 3:30; 6:2, 6:3, 6:4, 6:5

hngyt Not specified Not specified

’šrn’ Not specified Not specified

krš Not specified Daniel 1:7, 8, 11; 2:2, 4, 14, 15, 16, 24, 27

hnpn’ Not specified Not specified

dtbr Judge Not specified

t(y)pt Magistrate, Police Chief Daniel 3:2, 3, 3:3, 3:27, 3:29, 3:29, 3:3

’zd’ Certified, etc. Not specified

gzbr Treasurer Daniel 3:2, 3, 8, 27; 6:2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10

kr(w)z Herald Not specified

srk Chief Minister Not specified

’drgzr Counselor Daniel 2:14, 2:25, 4:6, 4:19, 4:20, 4:36; 5:11

hdbr Companion Daniel 2:14, 2:15, 2:18, 2:19, 2:23, 2:24, 2:25

God Runners 43
THE SON OF
NEBUCHADNEZZAR
Belshazzar’s very existence had been cast into doubt until recently, as skeptics
believed him to be an fabrication of Daniel. Since archaeological records did not
mention Belshazzar, the late date camp concluded the author of Daniel had invent-
ed a king to serve as a prop for his political agenda.[27][28] However, new archaeolog-
ical evidence has vindicated Daniel, and the scholarly consensus is that Belshazzar
was a real, historical figure.[28] Thus, the discussion has moved on to the specific
claims surrounding Belshazzar. Daniel presents Belshazzar as Nebuchadnezzar’s
son. This would seem to go against the historical record, as Belshazzar was not
Nebuchadnezzar’s biological son but Nabonidus’s. King Nabonidus ascended the
throne six years after Nebuchadnezzar, with three intervening kings. The objec-
tion that Belshazzar was not a king is countered by evidence suggesting that he
effectively ruled as regent during Nabonidus’ campaigns in Arabia, with cuneiform
chronicles indicating Nabonidus entrusted the kingship to Belshazzar.[23][28] One
theory suggests Belshazzar could be Nebuchadnezzar’s grandson via his mother’s
side. Nabonidus was said to have married Nitocris, Nebuchadnezzar’s daughter.[23]

Even so, the argument still stands that Belshazzar was not the son of Nebuchadnez-
zar, right? Even if the Nictocris theory is proven untrue, Belshazzer can be consid-
ered a son to Nebuchadnezzar, by virtue of his role as heir to the throne. Skeptics
fails to account for the broader semantical range of terms like “father” and “son”
in Semitic languages. These terms can signify not only biological relationships but
also predecessor-successor relationships.[23] There are many instances in scripture
where persons are called “sons” in a successive sense. Consider that Jesus Christ
called himself the Son of David; despite living thousand years apart. Jesus is Da-
vid’s “son,” as He was a descendant of David. In the same way, Nebuchadnezzar is
Belshazzar’s “father,” as whoever is king of Babylon becomes the avatar of Babylon
and all it’s evil. Nebuchadnezzar called himself “Babylon the Great,” so Belshazzar
becomes Babylon the Slain.

[27] Associates for Biblical Research, “Daniel - The Top Ten Archaeological Discoveries:
Digging for Truth Episode 194,” YouTube video, posted February 27, 2023
[28] “Ancient Kings Named in the Bible and Proven Through Archaeology,” Armstrong
Institute, accessed February 22, 2024

44 God Runners
CHALDEAN DYNASTY Marriage
Offspring
FAMILY TREE

Nabonassar

Nebuchadnezzar

Nabopolassar

Nebuchadnezzar II Amytis

Adad-guppi

Nitocris Amel-Marduk Kashshaya

Nabu-balatsu-iqbi

Neriglissar

Nabonidus

Belshazzar

God Runners 45
REFERENCES

[1] Hitchcock’s Bible Names Dictionary. Accessed February 22, 2024.

https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/hitchcocks-bible-names/.

[2] Mark Barry, “Babylonia Revisited,” Visual Unit, May 19, 2010,
https://visualunit.me/2010/05/19/babylonia/.

[3] Unpacked, “The Judean Exile to Babylonia | The Jewish Story | Unpacked,” YouTube video, October 6, 2020, https://youtu.
be/XqDUEZ3q6oY.

[4] “Daniel,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024, https://bibleproject.com/explore/video/daniel/?utm_source=web_social_

share&medium=shared_video.

[5] “Apocalyptic Literature,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024, https://bibleproject.com/explore/video/apocalyptic-litera-

ture/.

[6] BibleProject, “Apocalypse Please,” BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024, https://bibleproject.
com/podcast/apocalypse-please/.

[7] Tim Mackie, “How to Read the Bible: Apocalyptic Literature - Video Notes,” BibleProject, 2018, accessed February 22, 2024,
https://d1bsmz3sdihplr.cloudfront.net/media/Study%20Notes/H2R19%20Apocalyptic%20_Video%20Notes_final.pdf.

[8] Richard A. Taylor, “Introduction to Old Testament Apocalyptic Literature,” The Gospel Coalition, accessed February 22, 2024,
https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/introduction-to-old-testament-apocalyptic-literature/.

[9] BibleProject, “Beastly King,” BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024, https://bibleproject.com/
podcast/beastly-king/.

[10] Tim Mackie, Poetry - Study Notes (BibleProject, 2018), 9

https://d1bsmz3sdihplr.cloudfront.net/media/Study%20Notes/Poetry_Study-Notes.pdf

[11] BibleProject, “How to Read the Bible: God Speaks Poetry,” BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024,
https://bibleproject.com/podcast/series-h2r-p18-poetry-e2-god-speaks-poetry/.

[12] Tim Mackie, “Introduction to Hebrew Bible Session Notes,” Session Notes, accessed February 22, 2024, https://s3-us-west-2.
amazonaws.com/tbp-web/media/Intro%20to%20HB%20Images/CR_HB_Session-Notes_Final_2022.pdf.

[13] Tim Mackie, Design Patterns Narrative - Study Notes, (BibleProject, 2018), https://d1bsmz3sdihplr.cloudfront.net/media/
Study%20Notes/Design-Patterns-Narrative_Study-Notes.pdf.

[14] “The Way of the Exile,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024, https://bibleproject.com/explore/video/the-way-of-the-
exile/?utm_source=web_social_share&medium=shared_video.

[15] “Exile,” BibleProject, accessed February 22, 2024, https://bibleproject.com/explore/video/exile/?utm_source=web_social_

share&medium=shared_video.

46 God Runners
 [16] He Reads Truth, “Daniel” (Nashville: He Reads Truth, 2020), https://www.shopshereadstruth.com/products/daniel-mens-read-
ing-guide?_pos=3&_sid=46ad4f5ff&_ss=r

[17] “Ethic of Exile,” BibleProject Podcast, Podcast audio, accessed February 22, 2024, https://bibleproject.com/podcast/ethic-ex-
ile/.

[18] Author, “Ascertaining the Date of Daniel: First Look,” Biblical Faith Online, posted October 14, 2015, https://biblicalfaith.
online/2015/10/14/ascertaining-the-date-of-daniel-first-look/.

[19] Soraya Field Fiorio, “The Epic of Gilgamesh, the King Who Tried to Conquer Death,” TED-Ed video, 5:30, posted June 2, 2021,
https://youtu.be/BV9t3Cp18Rc.

[20] Jonathan McLatchie, “The Authenticity of The Book of Daniel: A Survey of the Evidence,” 2021, https://jonathanmclatchie.
com/the-authenticity-of-the-book-of-daniel-a-survey-of-the-evidence/.

[21] Jovan Payes, “Ascertaining the Date of Daniel: First Look,” Biblical Faith Online, posted October 14, 2015, https://biblicalfaith.
online/2015/10/14/ascertaining-the-date-of-daniel-first-look/

[22] Mike Winger, “Defending Daniel - Evidence for the Bible pt4,” YouTube video, 1:23:45, posted May 17, 2016, https://youtu.
be/5z4c4DxTHhE.

[23] J. Luis Dizon, “Greek Loan Words in Daniel,” Academia.edu, posted April 4, 2016, accessed February 22, 2024, https://www.
academia.edu/30900541/Greek_Loan_Words_in_Daniel.

[24] Gerhard F. Hasel, “The Book of Daniel and Matters of Language: Evidences Relating to Names, Words, and the Aramaic Lan-
guage,” Andrews University Seminary Studies 19, no. 3 (Autumn 1981): 211-225, accessed February 22, 2024, https://www.
andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1981-3/1981-3-03.pdf.

[25] K.A. Kitchen, “The Aramaic of Daniel,” in D. J. Wiseman, ed., Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel (London: The
Tyndale Press, 1965), 31-79.

[26] Associates for Biblical Research, “Daniel - The Top Ten Archaeological Discoveries: Digging for Truth Episode 194,” YouTube
video, posted February 27, 2023, https://youtu.be/BV9t3Cp18Rc.

[27] “Ancient Kings Named in the Bible and Proven Through Archaeology,” Armstrong Institute, accessed February 22, 2024,
https://armstronginstitute.org/visuals/611-ancient-kings-named-in-the-bible-and-proven-through-archaeology.

[28] “Can We Trust the Book of Daniel?” Armstrong Institute, accessed February 22, 2024, https://armstronginstitute.org/955-can-
we-trust-the-book-of-daniel#:~:text=Even%20the%20famous%20fifth%2Dcentury,(Daniel%205%3A5).

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complete reference list.

God Runners 47